COMPUTER SKILLS AND USAGE OF STUDENTS IN GRADES 10-12 WHO ARE

LEGALLY BLIND:A DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS

Kitra Hill Gray, B.S., M.S.

Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS

August 2003

APPROVED: Carrie Ausbrooks, Major Professor Ron Wilhelm, Minor Professor Jane B. Huffman, Committee Member and

Program Coordinator John Stansell, Chair of the Department of

Teacher Education and Administration C. Neal Tate, Dean of the Robert B. Toulouse

School of Graduate Studies

Gray, Kitra Hill, Computer Skills And Usage Of Students In Grades 10-12 Who

Are Legally Blind: A Descriptive Analysis. Doctor of Education (Educational

Administration), August 2003, 163 pp., 23 tables, 5 figures, reference, 44 titles.

This research project was a descriptive analysis of the computer usage and skills

of academic students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and attending public school

in the Region 10 Education Service Center service area of Texas. In addition, this study

provided a process that other regions in the state or educational agencies may duplicate

to document the computer skills and usage of students with visual impairments in their

area.

Twenty-seven students who are legally blind were surveyed by their teachers of

the visually impaired regarding their computer usage and skill abilities, and eleven of the

twenty-seven students were interviewed by the researcher to gain further information

pertaining to computer usage and future plans upon graduation.

Using prior research as a basis for understanding how sighted students used the

computer, it was found that students who are legally blind used the computer similarly to

their sighted peers except that students with significant visual impairments seemed to

use to the computer to listen to music more than their sighted counterparts. In addition,

students who are legally blind indicated that they learned most of their computer skills at

school rather than at home like their sighted teenagers.

Furthermore, it was determined that students who are legally blind were not

learning the computer skills necessary for success in post-secondary education and

vocational endeavors. Although the students were being exposed to many different

computer applications, most did not use the applications weekly, nor report that they

were experienced with the majority of basic skills related to applications such as word

processing, Internet searching, emailing, spreadsheets and databases.

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Copyright 2003

by

Kitra Hill Gray

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my family, friends and colleagues who have persevered with

me during this research project and with their encouragement and support, especially

my loving husband, Ben. I would like to give special acknowledgement to Dr. Steve

Hale for proofreading every word of this document, to Dae-Yeop Hwang for providing

assistance with data analysis, and to my committee who was supportive in this research

project by giving me sound advice and guidance: Dr. Carrie Ausbrooks, Dr. Ron

Wilhelm and Jane B. Huffman. Finally, I would like to give acknowledgement to the

memory of Dr. Virginia Sowell of Texas Tech University who convinced me many years

ago to pursue a doctorate degree.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………… ……... vi

LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………….……… viii

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….………….………..1

Purpose of the Study Significance of the Study Statement of the Problem Research Questions and Null Hypotheses Definition of Terms Limitations of the Study Description of the Design Organization of the Study 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE…………………………………….………..12

Introduction Requirements and Challenges

Computer Skills Needed for Employment Sighted Peers’ Computer Usage Visually Impaired Students’ Computer Usage Conclusion 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………... 25

Introduction Population and Sample Development of Survey Instruments and Interview Protocol

Procedures for Data Collection Conclusion 4. PRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS………………………………….. …….. 42

Introduction Research Questions and Null Hypotheses Data Collection and Coding of Data Descriptive Data Research Question 1 Research Question 2

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Research Question 3 Research Question 4 Research Question 5 Research Question 6 Other Statistical Information Conclusion 5. SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ………………………86

Introduction Methodology Summary of the Findings Implications of the Findings Recommendations for Future Research Conclusion

APPENDIXES……………………………………………………………….…………….105

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………157

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1. Regional Profiles of Students with Visual Impairments 2000-2001……………..28 2. Student Sample Demographics……………………………………………………..30

3. Primary Reading/Learning Media…………………………………………………...30

4. Frequency Distribution of Student Scores on Individual Items…………………..51

5. Experience Rating of Each Item on the Basic Skills Survey……………………..59

6. Computer Courses and Basic Skills Scores………………………………………..63

7. Number of Students Who Independently Used the Computer for Tasks………..67

8. Question 3 Liker Scale from 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage………..68

9. Comparison of Frequency of Computer Usage……………………………………70

10. Student Abilities with Computer Applications Needed for Employment…………82

11. Experience Ratings within Skill Categories of the Basic Skills Survey………….92

12. Initial Coding of Interview Questions……………………………………………….126

13. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 1: Do you use the

computer more at home or at school?……………………………………………..140

14. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 2: Why do you use

the computer more at home or school?……………………………………………141

15. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 3: What type of

programs do you use mostly when you use the computer at home?…………..143

16. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 4: What type of

programs do you use mostly when you use the computer at school?………….145

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17. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 5: What would be

necessary for you to use the computer more frequently?……………………….146

18. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 6: Do you wish you

had additional computer equipment?………………………………………………148

19. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 7: What do you plan

to do when you graduate from high school?………………………………………149

20. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 8: Will you use a

computer in this endeavor?………………………………………………………….151

21. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 9: Do you believe

you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate

from high school?…………………………………………………………………….152

22. Content Analysis of Student Interview Conversational Question: Where did

you learn most of your computer skills?……………………………………………155

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Types of Computer Courses Completed……………………………………………47

2. Histogram of Student Scores on Region 10 Basic Skills Survey…………………50

3. Mean Scores of Each Item on the Basic Skills Survey…………………………….61

4. Frequency of Computer Activities by Legally Blind Students in Grades 10-12…72

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Within the eight counties served by Region 10 Education Service Center in the

north central part of Texas, there were 890 students on the 2002 Registration for

Students with Visual Impairments. Even though administrators consider students with

visual impairments to be a low incidence population, serving these students can be an

expensive endeavor for a school district. Besides needing services from general

education teachers and other special education personnel, these students need special

services from certified teachers of the visually impaired (CTVI) and certified orientation

and mobility specialists (COMS). Furthermore, many of the students require specific

assistive technology to access the general curriculum. Administrators often believe that

the cost of this technology is excessive because frequently it is unique and cannot be

utilized by other students in the school or district. Although Region 10 Education Service

Center allocates approximately $50,000 per year to purchase specialized

equipment/software for students with visual impairments, this allocation does not

entirely fund the cost of required assistive technologies. Local districts are mandated by

law to provide student technology with or without assistance from Region 10’s funding

established by the Regional Plan for Serving Students with Visual Impairments.

According to Edwards and Lewis (1998) specialized equipment used by students

with visual impairments included notetaking devices, Braille embossers, and enlarging

devices. In addition, a significant amount of adaptive equipment/software was used to

modify desktop or laptop computers and the Internet so that they were accessible to

students with visual impairments. This access technology included screen enlargement

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software, screen reader programs, and refreshable Braille displays. Although this

specialized equipment/software was annually purchased in quantities through Region

10’s district loan program and by the local school districts, there were no Texas or

regional data to convey how effectively and efficiently students were using this

technology.

A few other states have surveyed certified teachers of the visually impaired to

explore the computer usage of students with visual impairments. The results of those

research projects have indicated that students with visual impairments were not using

the computer for a wide variety of potential tasks. Florida and Kentucky studies

(Edwards & Lewis, 1998; Abner & Lahm, 2002, respectively) found that students with

visual impairments were principally utilizing the computer for word processing and only

16.6% of the Kentucky students were even using this computer application. Abner and

Lahm (2000) stated that only small numbers of students with visual impairments were

using computer applications other than word processing. The Kentucky surveys

indicated that 7.9% of the students used the Internet, 5% used databases, and .9%

used spreadsheets. Furthermore, Edwards and Lewis (1998) determined that Florida

students infrequently used the computer for personal management functions such as

time-calendar organization, checkbook management, telecommunicating or electronic

shopping. Another study conducted in Illinois (Kapperman, Sticken & Heinze, 2002)

discovered that a significant number of students with visual impairments “who could

benefit from assistive technology [were] not receiving instruction in that area” (pp. 107-

108). Each of these studies from other states indicated that even if students had

accessible computers, they were using the computer in very limited ways. “Thus

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students with visual impairments are being deprived of valuable experiences that could

broaden their ability to know about, gain access to, and become involved in the world

around them” (Edwards & Lewis, 1998, p. 309).

In Region 10 or anywhere else in Texas, there has been no research in the area

of computer usage by students with visual impairment and no data to suggest whether

students were graduating with the computer skills necessary for post-secondary

education and/or vocational success. Kirchner (2001) examined employment statistics

for people who were blind and visually impaired within the United States and noted that

55-60% of visually impaired people of working age (18-69 years) were unemployed, as

were 70% of people who are legally blind. In addition, the results of a National

Longitudinal Transition Study found that only 29% of youths with visual impairments

between the ages of 16-21 were competitively employed 3 to 5 years after high school

compared to 69% of their sighted counterparts (Lighthouse International, 2002). Since

“most jobs have computers as primary work tools, and expect that new workers will

have basic computer literacy skills” (Wolffe, 1998, p. 111-112), one could assume that

for visually impaired adults to be successful in the workplace, they need to graduate

from high school with at least basic computer skills. A nationwide survey conducted by

The Olsten Corporation cited that “computer literacy requirements for all job levels in

today’s organizations—from data entry to top management—have skyrocketed”

(National Research Bureau, 1993, p. 6). However, even though “computer literacy is

critical to functioning in today’s society, there has been little effort to develop and test

adequate measures of this construct” (Jones & Pearson, 1996, p. 17).

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Thus, “as success as a nation will depend on our students’ ability to acquire the

skills and knowledge necessary for high-technology work” (Roberts, 1996, p. 2),

administrators and districts must assure that all students who graduate from high

school, even those with visual impairments, are competent computer users. Although

computer courses are offered throughout high school, access to those classes for the

visually impaired is sometimes suspect at best. The teacher of the visually impaired

frequently spends weeks, sometimes longer, attempting to modify classroom equipment

and software so that they are accessible. In addition, the district must apportion

significant resources to provide necessary assistive technology, as well as specialized

teachers and technical support for each of individual student. Yet, there was no

accountability regarding whether students with visual impairments merely obtained

enough computer skills to “get by” in their computer courses, or whether they were

graduating with skills comparable to their sighted peers. Furthermore, data were needed

to determine whether graduates who are legally blind have sufficient computer skills to

assure success in the fast-paced technology world of today.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive analysis of the computer

usage and skills of academic students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and

attending public schools in the Region 10 Education Service Center area. In addition,

this research project provided a process that other regions in the state may duplicate to

document the computer skills and usage of students with visual impairments in their

region.

5

Significance of the Study

Numerous studies have been conducted that have examined the computer skills

required by employers. Other studies have described sighted students’ computer usage.

However, there have been only a limited number of research projects concerning how

students with visual impairments use computers. In addition, these prior studies

pertaining to students with visual impairments have relied solely on information from

educators. To date, no study had examined computer skills and usage from the

students’ perspectives, as past researchers had not surveyed or interviewed the

students themselves. Relying on second-hand information may have provided

inaccurate assumptions. Professionals, who only see the students in the academic

environment, do not necessarily know how the students use the computer in other

environments such as in the home. It was anticipated that more reliable and complete

data could be derived through surveying students about their technological abilities and

interviewing them regarding their views on the need for computer skills in future

endeavors once they have graduated. This research provided a more total

representation of how students with visual impairments used the computer by acquiring

information from the students, themselves.

Statement of the Problem

This study was a descriptive analysis of academic students in grades 10-12, who

are legally blind, and their perceptions of their basic computer skills and usage. Through

a descriptive analysis, this research evaluated whether these students with visual

impairments had the basic computer skills necessary to compete in today’s job market

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and whether they used the computer similarly to their sighted counterparts, as defined

in the literature.

Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

This study described the basic computer skills and usage of academic students

in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and served within the Region 10 Education

Service Center service area. The research was guided by the following questions and

hypotheses:

1. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind report that they have mastered

basic computer skills necessary for successful transition from school to post-

secondary vocational opportunities?

2. Are students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind exceptionally experienced or

inexperienced with specific computer skills addressed on the Region 10 Basic

Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments?

3. Is the score on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual

Impairments related to the number of completed computer courses by students in

grades 10-12 who are legally blind?

Null Hypothesis: The number of computer courses completed by the students will

have no association with the student scores on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey

for Students with Visual Impairments.

4. Does the environment (home, school or both) in which students in grades 10-12

who are legally blind utilize the computer affect their abilities to independently

use the computer for a variety of activities and the frequency with which they use

the computer for these activities?

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Null Hypothesis 4.1: There will be no significant difference between the

environment in which the students use the computer and their abilities to

independently use the computer for a variety of activities.

Null Hypothesis 4.2: There will be no significant difference between the

environment in which the students use the computer and the frequency with

which the students utilize the computer for a variety of activities.

5. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind use the computer similarly to

their sighted peers?

6. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind perceive that they will graduate

with the computer skills needed to be successful when they graduate from high

school?

Definition of Terms

Academic Students: A term used by professionals serving students with visual

impairments to denote students who are functioning close to grade level from other

students who are severely mentally challenged. For the purpose of this study, academic

students were identified as those on the 2002 Registration of Students with Visual

Impairments whose reading level is no more than 2 years below their grade level.

ARD Committee: An Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) committee meets

initially to determine whether a student is eligible for special education services and to

develop an individualized education program (IEP) for the eligible student. Then the

ARD committee meets at least annually to review the IEP, unless the committee

determines that the student is no longer eligible for special education services, at which

time, the committee dismisses the student from special education.

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Accessible Computer: A computer which the student can access independently

using speech, large print, Braille display, and/or with no assistive devices.

Legally Blind Students: Students who have a corrected visual acuity of 20/200 or

less in the better eye or a visual field of 20 degrees or less in the better eye.

Operating System Skills: Skills necessary to complete basic computer functions

such as start-up, shut-down, copy, delete and move files/folders.

Reading Medium: How a student accesses the printed word (i.e., regular print, large

print, Braille, or auditory).

Region 10 Education Service Center service area: An eight county region

designated by the state as Region 10 (Collin, Dallas, Ellis, Fannin, Grayson, Hunt,

Kaufman and Rockwall counties).

Tools Applications Skills: Skills needed to use basic word-processing, database and

spreadsheet applications.

Troubleshooting and Maintenance Skills: Skills necessary to solve common

computer problems such as locked-up computer, printing problems and finding files.

Visual Impairment: “An impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely

affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and

blindness.” (Texas Education Agency: Division of Special Education, 2001, p. 10.)

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited to examining computer skills and usage of academic

students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind attending public school in the Region 10

Education Service Center service area of Texas. It did not examine the computer skills

and usage of students outside this service area or students who are visually impaired

9

but not considered legally blind. The sample was limited by the ability of the researcher

to gain consent from the students’ school district, parents and the students themselves

to conduct the study and by the willingness of the certified teachers of the visually

impaired to conduct the surveys.

In addition, the students were not asked to complete a comprehensive computer

skill activity. The surveys only provided the students’ perception of their computer skill

abilities and usage. The research was based upon the assumption that each student

responded to the survey items and to the interview questions honestly. Since the

teachers of the visually impaired assisted the students in completing the surveys, the

teachers’ perceptions of the students’ abilities were not surveyed.

Although biases from the teachers of the visually impaired who conducted the

survey portion of the study could not be totally excluded, several steps were taken to

guard against teachers influencing student responses. First, the surveys provided

closed-ended responses to each item in order to avoid or require teacher interpretation

of the student responses. Second, the teachers were trained either individually or in

small groups of 2-4 by the researcher, and specific instructions were written for each

survey as a reference during the survey process. These instructions were specifically

reviewed during the training sessions. Finally, a Teacher Comment section was placed

at the end of the demographic survey where the teachers could give input about the

process or the student responses if they felt this was necessary. Only six teachers

chose to make comments which mainly clarified accessibility tools that the student used

or clarified activities for which the student used the computer.

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This research project did not address cause and effect. The structure of this

study was considered applied research as it provided a descriptive analysis of a current

phenomenon. “The purpose of applied research is to contribute knowledge that will help

people understand the nature of a problem in order to intervene” (Patton, 2002, p. 217).

Qualitative data were collected in addition to quantitative data to further develop the

analysis process and to provide richer detail (Miles & Huberman, 1994) regarding the

students’ beliefs, but the data did not address causality.

Description of the Design

Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to provide a detailed

depiction of computer skills and usage by academic students in grades 10-12 who are

legally blind and attending public school within the eight counties that comprise Region

10 Education Service Center service area. Quantitative data were obtained through

three survey instruments:

1. 2002 Survey of Student Demographics

2. 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

3. Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments.

Each student’s teacher of the visually impaired conducted these three surveys.

Qualitative data were acquired through an interview questionnaire: 2002 Interview

Questions. Interviews were conducted with approximately one third of the students by

the researcher in order to triangulate the data and gain further clarification regarding the

students’ computer skills and usage.

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Organization of the Study

This chapter presented an introduction of the relevance of this research project in

regard to computer skills and usage of students with visual impairments. The researcher

provided an overview of issues related to providing appropriate computer instruction to

students with visual impairments and the necessity of computer competence to success

in the workforce. In addition, this chapter provided the purpose of the study, a statement

of the problem, the research questions and hypotheses, and the definition of the terms

used in this study. Furthermore, the limitations, description, and the organization of the

study were addressed. Chapter 2 comprises the review of related literature. Chapter 3

addresses the research design, development of the research instruments and methods

of the study. Chapter 4 presents the data analysis including answering each of the

research questions and testing the hypotheses to determine statistical significance of

the difference in the findings. Chapter 5 summarizes the presented data in Chapter 4

and the conclusion.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

In this chapter, the literature review begins with the requirements and challenges

of meeting the numerous needs, including computer skills, of students with visual

impairments in the public school environment. Then, the importance of computer skills

in the employment arena is addressed. Next the variety of activities in which sighted

students use the computer is explored, and finally the computer usage of students with

visual impairment is reviewed. This chapter provides background information necessary

to understand the need for and the ramifications of this study.

Requirements and Challenges

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997, Part

B states that public school districts must “ensure that all children with disabilities have

available to them a free appropriate public education that emphasizes special education

and related services designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for

employment and independent living” (Section 300.1(a)). Yet, Roy, Dimigen & Taylor

(1998), found that “70% of Americans…who are visually impaired are unemployed or

underemployed” (p. 413). One of the barriers to employment among persons who are

blind or visually impaired was access to print and computers. A survey conducted by the

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision at

Mississippi State University discovered that more than half the respondents

experienced employment barriers because they were not able to read printed materials

(53%). One fourth (25%) faced barriers caused by graphical user interfaces (GUI), while

13

18% did not know how to use a computer (Crudden, McBroom, Skinner, & Moore, 1998,

p. 45). Thus, it was obvious that the public schools needed to do a better job to ensure

that students with visual impairments were provided with an education that leads to

successful employment and independent living, and one of the skill areas schools

needed to address was computer skills.

However, meeting the needs of students with visual impairments can be

challenging as well as expensive for districts. Students with visual impairments,

especially those who are legally blind, have unique needs even beyond those of their

sighted peers, disabled or not. The National Association of State Directors of Special

Education (NASDSE) indicated:

students who are blind or have low vision need an ‘expanded core curriculum’ in

order to be successful adults….disability-specific components of an expanded

core curriculum for visually impaired students include, but may not be limited to,

the following:

• Alternate Communication Modes, e.g. Braille, enlarged or enhanced print

and/or recorded materials

• Use of Low Vision Devices

• Orientation and Mobility

• Social Interaction Skills

• Independent Living Skills

• Recreation and Leisure Skills

• Career Education and Exploration

• Use of Assistive Technology

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• Visual Efficiency Skills. (Pugh & Erin, 1999, p. 70).

Hatlin (1996), Superintendent for the Texas School for the Blind and Visually

Impaired, noted that, although many of these skill areas were addressed in the regular

core curriculum, they were addressed inadequately. In his article “The Core Curriculum

for Blind and Visually Impaired Students, Including Those with Additional Disabilities,”

he described technology as being one of the basic components to the expanded core

curriculum. “Technology enables blind people to store and retrieve information and

brings a library under the fingertips of the visually impaired person. It enhances

communication and learning and expands the world of blind and visually impaired

persons in many significant ways” (Hatlin, 1996, p. 180).

Yet, for these students to access the variety of technology and software within a

school was a costly venture both in terms of dollars and time. To provide appropriate

equipment and software, NASDSE suggested that Local Education Agencies (LEAs)

should follow these principles:

1. LEAs…must ensure appropriate evaluation of student technology

needs by persons knowledgeable about assistive technology and

visual impairment.

2. LEAs…must ensure that the IEP states the student’s need for assistive

technology and provides for resources to place the technology at the

start of the school year.

3. LEAs…must ensure that assistive technology includes both a student’s

own individual assistive technology needs (e.g. electronic notetakers,

cassette recorder, talking calculators, Braille writers, communication

15

boards and switches) as well [as] the complete range of assistive

technology services and devices used by sighted peers (e.g.

multimedia products, Internet, computer networks, laboratory facilities,

or World Wide Web).

4. LEAs…must invest in training of staff and students on the operation

and maintenance of the technology.

5. On the basis of need LEAs…must allow students to take home

equipment that will enable them to complete schoolwork assignments.

(Pugh & Erin, 1999, p. 76).

Students with visual impairments often need to be provided with individual

portable computers that have been modified with speech, large print or Braille

adaptations in order to access word processing software, databases, spreadsheets, and

the Internet. Yet, teachers of the visually impaired often have limited knowledge in

teaching students to use these adaptive devices/software. In Kentucky, 51% of the

teachers believed that they were “at the apprentice level for teaching students to use

these assistive technologies” (Abner & Lahm, 2002, p. 102). So even though LEAs

provided needed technology, the students frequently have not received adequate

instruction in its use. Since students with visual impairments may have received

inadequate instruction in the use of technology, one cannot assume that the students

have learned all the basic computer skills required by employers today.

In a study of the Census Bureau’s 1999 Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP), Gerber and Kirchner (2001) found that although 57% of people

aged 15 and older without disabilities have access to the Internet, only 21% of people

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with “limitations in seeing” have access to the Internet. Of those with “severe functional

limitation” in seeing (unable to read ordinary print, even with their glasses on), 13% had

access to the Internet. In addition, “individuals of working age with limitations in seeing

were 20% less likely to use a computer on a regular basis from work than were people

with no disabilities presumably because they are less likely to be employed” (Gerber &

Kirchner, 2001, p. 178). As “most labor market analysts consider information and

information management as the fastest growing segment of the labor market” (Wolffe,

1998, p. 111), it was no wonder that visually impaired people who were not using the

computer on a regular basis and demonstrating basic computer skills were either

unemployed or underemployed.

Computer Skills Needed for Employment

After surveying human resource professionals, Thompson and Smith (1992)

determined that many college graduates without disabilities were lacking in the area of

computer literacy. The survey indicated that 41% of the surveyed companies believed

that their current employees, as well as prospective employees, needed skill

enhancement in the area of basic computer skills (Institute of Management and

Administration, 1992). Thus, companies have found it difficult to hire people who do not

require additional computer training. Employers have advised that “computer

competency skills are either ‘important’ or ‘very important’ in the hiring decision” (Davis,

1997, p. 74). The Olsten Corporation survey indicated “three out of four executives

agree that employees’ computer literacy skills have a major impact on their companies’

overall operations” (National Research Bureau, 1993, p. 6).

17

Lifer (1992) and Davis (1997) both found that employers perceived that the three

most important computer skills were word processing, electronic spreadsheets and

databases. Davis (1997) also discovered that 93.3% of employers expected potential

employees to have email experience and 63.3% expected competency with online and

Internet searching.

Lazarony (1999) surveyed Fortune 500 companies and small business

companies to determine which computer skills were most important. The Fortune 500

companies rated proficiency in basic word processing and basic electronic mail as being

extremely necessary. In addition, expertise in spreadsheets, keyboarding and system

software was necessary for entry-level employees. Small business companies ranked

proficiency in system software, keyboarding, basic components of the computer system,

and basic word processing as being necessary skills for prospective employees. Both

the Fortune 500 and the small business respondents specified that basic computer

programming concepts, integration of multimedia sound or video files, or authoring an

Internet Web page using HTML were unnecessary skills for entry-level employees.

Snyder (1997) surveyed workers 18 years of age and over and found that 44% of

the workers were using four or more different computer applications. Some of the most

frequently used computer applications included bookkeeping (66.4%), word processing

(57%), communications (47%), analysis/spreadsheets (40.9%), calendar/schedules

(37%), and databases (30%). The least used computer applications were desktop

publishing/graphics and programming.

Thus, employers of today are looking for their potential employees to possess

proficiency in basic computer skills, and this criterion is being used as part of the hiring

18

process. Therefore, if potential employees do not have these computer skills, they will

“have a distinct disadvantage in the workforce” (Davis, 1997, p. 76).

Sighted Peers’ Computer Usage

The National Educational Technology Standards for Students, developed by the

International Society of Technology in Education (ISTE), indicated that prior to the

completion of Grade 12, students should be able to:

• Use technology tools and resources for managing and communicating

personal/professional information (e.g., finances, schedules, addresses,

purchases, correspondence).

• Routinely and efficiently use online information resources to meet needs for

collaboration, research, publications, communications, and productivity (p.

24).

In addition, the Project Pegasus suggested that there were four ways technology

contributes to improving student learning:

1. Technology provides additional ways for teachers to meet a range of student

learning needs.

2. Higher-level thinking skills can be developed through the use of technology.

3. Using technology fosters cooperation and collaboration among students.

4. Students are motivated to learn when technology is used (Lauman, 2000, p.

197).

Furthermore, Hawkridge (as cited in Collis et al., 1996) contended that there

were at least six major motivations for nations to commit resources and policy to

information technologies in schools. The first two motivations he listed were:

19

1. The social rationale: Computers are important in society, thus students should

be prepared to deal with them.

2. The vocational rationale: Students should use computers to prepare for future

jobs. (p. 5)

However, even though each of the above sources espoused that computer skills

were important, “learning how to handle and work with computers is left more to chance

in the United States…[as] the USA has taken a ‘hit or miss’ approach to teaching

students how to use important computing tools” (IEA, 1992, pp. 2-3). Johnson (1997)

concurred as he has found that, “too often computers are used only as electronic flash

cards or worksheets while the productivity side of computer use is neglected or grossly

under-developed” (p. 48). He believed that all students needed to be proficient in

productivity tools such as word processors, databases, spreadsheets, graphics and

chart makers, not just the minority of students who take special technology classes.

Becker (1994) determined that less than 30% of 11th grade students had actually taken

a specific computer education course, and high school students only used the computer

for three hours a week at school. The International Association for the Evaluation of

Achievement (IEA) (1992) study also indicated that the “United States does not give its

students nearly as much formal or structured opportunity to learn practical computer

knowledge, as do Austria, Germany and the Netherlands” (p. 2). In a private school in

Mexico, Keizer (2001) “found that most teachers give daily assignments to be done on

the computer and require Internet searches for their assignments” (p. 57). As a result,

the ninth grade students at the school were proficient users of the Internet.

20

Within the school setting, studies have shown that computers in the upper

secondary schools were used primarily for word processing and playing games (Becker,

1994; Pelgrum, Janssen, & Plomp, 1993; U.S. Department of Education, 1998).

Students used the computers in a limited capacity for doing drill and practice, learning

new material, programming and spreadsheet assignments. They rarely used the

computer for database assignments, taking tests or laboratory experiments.

Nevertheless, students today use the computer for a variety of other tasks such as for

emailing, drawing, chatting, making web pages and listening to music (Houtz & Gupta,

2001).

“There is a link between student home computer use and how (as well as how

well) a student uses technology at school” (Lauman, 2000, p. 199). Snyder (1997) found

that students were using computers more both at school and home. In 1997, 70.5% of

students in grades 9-12 used a computer at school in comparison to 58.2% who used

school computers in 1993. Snyder’s study also indicated that of the 55.7% of students

who had access to computers at home, 48.8% used the computer in their home and

39% of these students used the home computer for schoolwork. He also determined

that 46.7% of these students used the computer at least 4-7 days a week. These

students used printers (88%), CD-ROMs (74.6%), modems (70.2%) and the Internet

(51.5%).

Research has shown that sighted students primarily used their home computer

for playing games, word-processing and Internet searches rather than for schoolwork

(Houtz & Gupta, 2001; Pelgrum, Janssen & Plomp, 1993; Snyder, 1997). Only a limited

number of students in any of these studies used the home computer for spreadsheet or

21

database applications. Nevertheless, a 1986 survey by Carey and Gall revealed that

students who used computers at home involved themselves in a wider variety of

computer-based activities than students who used the computer at school. In addition

Doherty and Orlofsky concluded that more than 50% of sighted students gained most of

their knowledge of computers in the home setting.

Visually Impaired Students’ Computer Usage

Edwards and Lewis (1998) found that students with visual impairments were

principally using technology for word processing, and only infrequently were these

students using technology for telecommunicating and personal management activities

such as time-calendar organization and checkbook management. A Kentucky survey

conducted by Abner and Lahm (2002), revealed that although 93% of certified teachers

of the visually impaired accessed the Internet, only 8% of their students used the

Internet. A similar research project in Illinois found that only “40% of the academically

oriented students who required alternative reading media…were reported to be users of

some type of assistive technology” (Kapperman, Sticken, & Heinze, 2002, p. 106). A

recent study conducted by the AFB Textbooks and Instructional Materials Solutions

Forum (Corn & Wall, 2000) indicated that of the teachers surveyed, over half their

students used a computer either in Windows format or PC format, and more than half

were using word processing on a daily basis. Yet, it was reasonable to question how

well these students were using the computer when many do not seem to have had

access to the assistive technology which would provide efficient and effective use of the

technologies.

22

One of the main reasons cited in several studies (Abner & Lahm, 2002; Corn &

Wall, 2000; Kapperman, Sticken, & Heinze, 2002) for the limited usage and access to

technology by students with visual impairments was insufficient training for certified

teachers of the visually impaired to feel confident and competent in teaching these

skills. “Teachers saw their own lack of knowledge and training as one of the largest

barriers to students using technology more effectively” (Corn & Wall, 2000, p. 6).

Nevertheless, Nagle (2001) indicated that for students to be successful they “need to

gain transferable skills that will allow them to be competitive in the rapidly changing

technological marketplace” (p. 731).

Another set of skills students with visual impairments need for success in post-

secondary education and employment is appropriate social skills. “Students with visual

impairments who feel socially accepted are more likely to complete college” (Nagle,

2001, p. 275). In addition, Roy et al., (1998) found that employed people with visual

impairments had more friendship networks than those who were unemployed. They

concluded that “visually impaired graduates can have a successful transition to

employment only if they can make their social and professional networks work” (Roy et

al., 1998, p. 431).

Computer usage is one way that students can connect socially to their peers and

enhance their social skills. Orleans and Laney (1998) denoted that “interpersonal lives

and computer activities of early adolescents reflexively amplified each other” (p. 1).

Their research indicated that computer gaming, as well as online communication,

increased peer relations especially in males. As Carey and Gall (1986) found that of the

sighted secondary students in their study “39% of the school users were also home

23

users,” computer usage by students with visual impairments would allow them to have

the same experiences as many of their sighted peers as they could play games, email,

and surf the web using a variety of adaptive devices. Rosenblum (2000) concluded from

her research regarding the impact of visual impairment on adolescents that students

who have a common interest or hobby with their sighted peers were more likely to have

successful friendships. Being able to interact with their sighted and non-sighted peers

via the computer also assisted students with visual impairments in maintaining

communication with their peers, as often, transportation barriers limit their ability to

participate in face-to-face social gatherings. Thus, computer competence and usage not

only has a direct connection to a successful transition into employment, but an indirect

connection by affording the student with a visual impairment a method of increasing

peer interaction and social skills.

Today “60 percent of all jobs in the nation will require skills in computer and

network use. This means that any student who does not know the essentials of using

computers—word processors, spreadsheets, databases, networks, and operating

systems—will be at a distinct disadvantage” (Roberts, 1996, p. 3). Students with severe

visual impairments now have greater opportunities to access technology through

assistive devices and software than ever before. Yet, the statistic remains that 70% of

legally blind people between the ages of 21 and 64 are unemployed compared to the

employment rate of “84% of persons without any disability, or 50% with any type of

disability” (McNeil, 2001, p. 5, as cited in Lighthouse International Statistics on Visual

Impairment, 2002). Therefore, to change this trend in unemployment, Region 10

Education Service Center and the LEAs within the region needed to determine whether

24

the students with visual impairments were obtaining the computer skills they need to be

successful in post-secondary education and vocational endeavors upon high school

graduation.

Conclusion

In this chapter, the literature pertaining to the requirements and challenges of

meeting the various needs, including the computer needs, of students with visual

impairments in the public school environment were reviewed. The importance of

computer skills in the employment arena was then addressed. Next the variety of

activities in which sighted students used the computer was explored. Finally, the

computer usage of students with visual impairment was examined. This chapter

provided background information necessary to understand the need for this study and

its implications. Although other studies have addressed computer usage of students

with visual impairments, this research investigates computer skills as well as usage. In

addition this research gathers data directly from the students, themselves, rather than

relying on the perceptions of the students’ teachers. Chapter 3 addresses the research

design, development of the research instruments and methods of the study.

25

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to present a comprehensive

description of computer skills and usage by academic students in grades 10-12 who are

legally blind and attending public school within the eight counties that comprise Region

10 Education Service Center service area. Although quantitative data gave important

statistical information regarding student computer skills and usage, a holistic description

of the topic would have been incomplete without information obtained through the

qualitative research method of interviewing the students themselves. It would have been

presumptuous of this researcher to assume that the quantitative surveys would have

been comprehensive enough to provide a complete picture of the feelings and thoughts

of teenagers with visual impairments.

Therefore, in conjunction with conducting quantitative surveys, which provided

descriptive information regarding the students’ computer skills and usage, 11 of the 27

students were interviewed by the researcher to gain a greater perspective and depiction

of the students’ perceived computer abilities and usage. Since the main purpose of the

interview process was to present a more holistic perspective of the data collected on the

quantitative surveys, interviewing eleven of the students afforded the variety of

responses needed for triangulation of the data. The students for this subset were

randomly chosen using a table of random numbers (Office of Environmental Health

Hazard Assessment, 1999). Thus, no one district or area of the region was over-

represented in this interview subset. The majority of the districts had three or fewer

26

students who matched the sampling criterion. Therefore using a sample of 11 students

ensured that students from a variety of districts including rural, urban and suburban

districts were all represented within this subset and provided adequate qualitative data

for this research project.

A standardized open-ended interview method combined with a conversational

strategy was used. Using the standardized interview process and the same interviewer

allowed for reliability of the interview process as the interviewees were asked the same

questions in the same order with the same probes (when necessary) by the same

person. Henry (1999) used this process effectively in a similar dissertation with high

school students. Using both quantitative and qualitative research methods added to the

methodological rigor, as combining methods through triangulation strengthens a study

(Patton, 2002). Combining the standardized open-ended interview method with the

conversational strategy allowed the researcher to probe the interviewee further, when

necessary, for clarification of the student’s response.

Population and Sample

The population of this study consisted of legally blind academic students in

grades 10-12 who attend public schools in the state of Texas. A purposeful criterion

sample of students with visual impairments served within the Region 10 service area

was used rather than a random sample. Criterion sampling was used to “review and

study all cases that meet some predetermined criterion of importance” (Patton, 2002, p.

238). In this case, the criterion was legally blind students within the Region 10 service

area. Limiting the sample to this geographical region provided important data to the

27

regional planning process for offering comprehensive services to students with visual

impairments within the Region 10 service area.

However, students in Region 10 were a representative sample of the visually

impaired population of the state of Texas. Region 10 students with visual impairments

attended public school within rural, urban, and suburban areas. In addition, Region 10

has the second largest population of students with visual impairments in the state,

second only to Region 4, which includes the Houston metropolitan area. Because of its

large number of students, the Region 10 service area mirrored the state in numerous

ways as reflected in data obtained from the Texas Education Agency: Regional Profiles

of Students with Visual Impairments (VI) 2000-2001. Table 1 illustrates the comparison

of the Region 10 VI population with the state of Texas VI population. In the state of

Texas, 17% of the total student population was visually impaired, whereas in Region 10,

16% of the student population was visually impaired. The percentage of students

identified as legally blind in Texas was 66.4% and 53.6% in Region 10. In addition, the

percentage of Texas students who have visual impairments in grades 9-12 was 10%,

while in Region 10, 13% of high school students were visually impaired. Finally

academic students who were mainstreamed in regular classes for most of the day and

those who were receiving academics in special education resource classes also have

similar percentages at the state level and the regional level with 39% and 33%

respectively.

28

Table 1. Regional Profiles of Students with Visual Impairments 2000-2001

State Percentages

Region 10

Percentages

% of VI students in the student

population

17%

16%

% of VI students who are

legally blind

66% 54%

% of VI students in grades 9-12 10% 13%

% of academic VI students

(mainstreamed or in resource)

39% 33%

The sample for this study was 38 academic students who met the sampling

criterion of being listed on the 2002 Registration of Students with Visual Impairments as

legally blind (20/200 or worse in better eye or visual field of 20 degrees or less in better

eye), in grades 9-11, and whose reading level was no more than two years below the

listed grade level. As the registration was conducted the academic year prior to this

study, each student’s demographic survey was checked to assure that the student had

progressed to grades 10-12. Because of the limited number of students on the

Registration who fit the population description, the sample consisted of all the students

described above whose parents and school district granted consent for participation in

this research process, who gave consent themselves to participate, and who continued

to attend public school in Region 10 during the 2002-2003 academic school year. Two

29

districts with five applicable students chose not to participate, one by a letter denying

consent and one by offering no response to several requests for participation. Two

students, whose parents gave consent, chose not to participate and another student

was eliminated because permission from the student’s parents could not be obtained. In

addition, two more students moved prior to the study initiation and one student was

deleted after it was determined that the eye condition on the Registration was

inaccurate and the student was not legally blind. Thus a total of eleven students in the

Region 10 area who met the sample criterion did not participate in the process. Twenty-

seven students participated in the research project.

In addition, as each student was listed on the 2002 Registration of Students with

Visual Impairments, they were considered by the student’s Admission, Review and

Dismissal (ARD) committee as eligible to receive services from a certified teacher of the

visually impaired according to the guidelines established by the Texas

Commissioner/State Board of Education Rules. Thus, this study included 27 legally

blind students in grades 10-12 served within public schools in the Region 10 Education

Service Center service area. These students consisted of 19% 10th graders, 56% 11th

graders and 26% 12th graders. Forty-eight percent of the students were female and fifty-

two percent were males. Twenty-six percent of the students lived in an urban area while

forty-one and thirty-three percent of the students lived in suburban and rural areas

respectively. Their primary reading mediums were: 11% Braille, 44% large print, 41%

regular print, and 4% auditory learners. Table 2 and Table 3 describe the sample of

students who participated in this research project.

30

Table 2. Student Sample Demographics

Grades

School District

Gender 10th 11th 12th Urban Rural Suburban

13 Females 15% 61% 23% 38% 23% 38%

14 Males 21% 50% 29% 14% 36% 50%

27 Total 19% 56% 26% 26% 33% 41%

Table 3. Primary Reading/Learning Media

Gender

Braille

Large Print

Regular Print

Auditory

13 Females 8% 54% 31% 8%

14 Males 14% 36% 50% 0%

27 Total 11% 44% 41% 4%

Development of Survey Instruments and Interview Protocol

2002 Survey of Student Demographics (Appendix A)

The short demographic survey was used to gather information regarding the

student’s school district, grade, reading medium, number and type of computer classes

completed, the type of computer equipment that the student used, and frequency with

which the computer was used. Each student was given a student number. No

identifiable names were included on any of the surveys; only ID numbers were used

31

when analyzing and reporting the data. The question regarding the number of computer

courses completed was used to answer research question 3.

2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage (Appendix B)

This survey was designed by the researcher to examine how students in grades

10-12 who are legally blind used the computer. This survey was devised specifically to

assist in answering research questions 4, 5, and 6. Many of the topics included in this

survey were selected from a survey regarding assistive device usage by students with

visual impairments developed by Edwards and Lewis (1998) at Florida State University.

In addition, information from the literature indicating computer applications necessary

for employment, as well as applications used by sighted peers, was used in developing

this survey. Research question 4 and 5 were calculated using the pilot 2002 Survey of

Student Computer Usage data, and the results indicated that the survey provides the

data required to address these research questions.

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments (Appendix C)

The Region 10 Basic Skills Survey was devised from HPR*TEC’s K-12 Profiler

Online Collaboration Tool, which provided a bank of basic computer skill items and a

survey framework. “Profiler is made possible through a grant federally funded by the

Department of Education and the Office of Educational Research and Improvement”

(High Plains R*TEC, 2000, p. 2). The Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with

Visual Impairments used the same format as the Profiler’s ISTE Basic Skills Checklist.

A few items were added to the original Profiler Basic Skills Checklist to include

statements concerning classroom notetaking, calendar/planning software, using multiple

search engines, and printing from a website. These additional computer skills were

32

selected from a survey regarding assistive device usage by students with visual

impairments developed by Edwards and Lewis (1998) and/or from the literature as

necessary skills for employment. Other items on the Profiler Basic Skills Checklist were

simplified or divided into two items so that a more accurate description of the student’s

skills could be obtained. In addition, items concerning multi-media were reduced as

statements regarding graphics, and iMovies were deleted after a discussion with the

Texas Commission for the Blind Employment Assistance Specialist and the Region 10

Education Service Center Technology Consultant for the Visually Impaired. These items

were deemed inappropriate, as even with assistive devices, people who are severely

blind or visually impaired could not perform the skills independently.

The response prompts on the Region 10 Basic Skills Checklist for Students with

Visual Impairments were derived from the Profiler Microsoft PowerPoint Checklist, as

this researcher believed these responses were more descriptive than the one word

responses on the Profiler Basic Skills Checklist. Students were requested to rate their

abilities from “I am an expert at this” to “I have no experience with this” on a list of basic

computer skills.

All changes to the survey instrument had to meet standards set by High Plains

R*TEC (2000):

Surveys must be kept to no more than 40 questions, and those questions

need to fall into logical groups or categories. For example, the Basic Skills

Checklist groups questions by operating system-specific, Internet,

Multimedia, etc. (p.7).

33

The Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments and the

changes were reviewed and critiqued by a committee at HPR*TEC before they were

posted to the Profiler website. Permission to revise and use the Basic Skills Checklist

was granted by Pete Haack and Lisa Stewart, Profiler Technical Support, High Plains

Regional Technology in Education Consortium (High Plains R*TEC;

profiler@htprtec.org).

The 25-item survey was rated by each student using the following scale and

point scoring system:

I have no experience with this 1 point

I am somewhat familiar with this 2 points

I am comfortable with this 3 points

I am an expert at this 4 points

This survey was used to answer research questions 1 – 3 and research question 6.

2002 Interview Questions (Appendix D)

Qualitative data were gathered using an interview protocol devised by the

researcher to guide the interview. Questions were modeled after a questionnaire

devised by Henry (1999) in a technology study with high school students attending a

private school.

The interview questions were pilot tested during the summer of 2002. Pilot

testing of the interview process was important for the researcher to be “alert to

communication problems, evidence of inadequate motivation on the part of the

respondents, and other clues that suggest the need for rephrasing questions” (Gall et

al., 1996, p. 317). Four academic students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind, but

34

who did not attend public school within the Region 10 service area, were chosen

randomly from a sample of students participating in Texas Commission for the Blind

2002 summer programs. The interview questionnaire was piloted with these students.

From review of the tape transcription of student responses, two questions were

deleted from the interview protocol as redundant and two questions were added to gain

further clarity regarding student computer usage. Questions concerning whether the

students used the same computer at home and at school and what type of computer

they used in each setting were deleted as these questions were already addressed in

prior surveys. However, two questions were added regarding computer programs that

were mainly used at home or at school. This survey was mainly developed to assist with

addressing research questions 5 and 6

After developing the research instruments, it was necessary to establish validity

and reliability of these tools. A variety of steps including pilot testing were taken to

assure validity and reliability of the surveys and the interview protocol.

Content validity is defined as “the degree to which the scores yielded by a test

adequately represent the content, or conceptual domain, that these scores purport to

measure” (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). To establish content validity, technology

professionals who serve students with visual impairments examined the 2002

Demographic Survey, the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage and the Region 10

Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments. Region 10 Education Service

Center Technology Consultant for Students with Visual Impairments and the Statewide

Consultant for Technology at Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired reviewed

the surveys. Both these experts indicated that the surveys were appropriate to measure

35

computer skills and usage of students with visual impairments. Each expert made

recommendations for minor word changes to increase clarity and the suggestions were

incorporated into the surveys.

In addition, each item from the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with

Visual Impairments was read to a Texas Commission for the Blind Employment

Assistance Specialist who also is a blind individual. He indicated that all skills on the

survey were skills that a person who was blind could complete with some type of

assistive technology. Furthermore, he indicated that if students graduate with the

majority of skills listed on the survey, they would be more likely to secure employment.

Furthermore, the transition counselors from the Texas Commission for the Blind

reviewed the surveys. These professionals are knowledgeable about the skills that are

necessary for students to be successful within post-secondary education and

employment settings. After examination of the surveys, the transition counselors

indicated that the surveys were comprehensive, addressing all the computer skills and

applications necessary for vocational and post-secondary education success. No

additions or deletions were suggested.

Moreover, the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey was devised using the International

Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) Basic Skills Survey provided by High Plains

Regional Technology in Education Consortium (HPR*TEC). The changes made to the

ISTE Basic Skills Survey in order to provide an adequate instrument for students with

visual impairments were approved by a HPR*TEC committee prior to the website

posting of the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey. Thus, the surveys withstood scrutiny from

36

professionals in the technology field as well as from professionals who serve the blind

and visually impaired population.

To establish construct validity and reliability, the survey instruments and interview

questionnaire protocol were pilot tested during the summer of 2002 with 10 academic

students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind but who do not attend public school

within the Region 10 service area. This student sample was chosen from students

involved in Texas Commission for the Blind summer programs.

Since “construct validity is the extent to which a particular test can be shown to

assess the construct that it purports to measure” (Gall et al., 1996), each quantitative

research question in this proposal was calculated using the Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS) to assure that the questions could be addressed appropriately

using the established survey design.

“Test-retest reliability is an approach to estimating test score reliability in which

the occasion of the test administration is examined” (Gall et al., 1996). To determine

test-retest reliability, the researcher surveyed each of the 10 students in the pilot sample

and then 7-12 days later surveyed them again. Using the coefficient of stability function

of the SPSS program, the correlation coefficients were calculated. In addition, the SPSS

program was used to calculate the coefficient of internal consistency for the 2002

Survey of Student Computer Usage and the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey.

The pilot of the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage results indicated

internal reliability of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of .84 and a coefficient of stability of

.89. The instrument also proved to have construct and content validity during pilot

testing and from expert review. The pilot of the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey indicated

37

internal reliability of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of .94 and a coefficient of stability of

.98. The Basic Skills instrument also proved to have construct and content validity

during pilot testing and from expert review. Research questions 1-3 were calculated

using the pilot Region 10 Basic Skills Survey data, and the results indicated that the

survey provides the data required to address these research questions.

During the pilot study, the researcher also interviewed four of the ten students

participating in the pilot sample using the 2002 Interview Questions. After the tape-

recorded student responses were transcribed, two of the interview questions were

deleted because they yielded little response and the information was more readily

obtained using the 2002 Computer Usage Survey. These questions concerned whether

the student used the same computer at home and at school and what type of computer

they used in these settings. However, two questions were added to give further clarity

regarding student computer usage. These two questions addressed computer programs

used in the home or school environments.

Procedures for Data Collection

Permission to conduct this human subjects research project was obtained from

the University of North Texas Institutional Review Board (IRB). A signed letter of

support was acquired from each participating school district. Parent consent for

students under the age of 18 and consent from each student regardless of the student’s

age was obtained. (See Appendix E: Plan for Obtaining Parent and Student Consent).

Quantitative data were procured through three survey instruments:

1. 2002 Survey of Student Demographics

2. 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

38

3. Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments.

Qualitative data were acquired through an interview questionnaire: 2002 Interview

Questions.

The researcher first trained each teacher of the visually impaired either

individually or in groups of 2-4 to administer the surveys. The written directions for

obtaining parent and student consent as well as the consent form itself were explained.

Then the written directions for administering each survey were reviewed (Appendix F).

The teachers were requested not to prompt their students in any way to rethink or

change their responses to the survey. The teachers were cautioned not to use remarks

such as “don’t you remember doing that just last week” or “you can do that, you did it

when you were completing that report.” They were to mark the answers just as the

student responded. Their attention was brought to the section at the end of the

Demographic Survey where the teachers could comment about the student’s responses

if they wanted or felt that clarification was needed.

The importance of keeping the consent forms separate from the survey forms for

confidential reasons was clarified. In addition, the teachers were asked not to write the

student’s name on the survey forms. They were to use only the specified student ID

number on the survey forms. Each teacher was given an envelope to return the consent

form and a separate envelope for returning the surveys.

The certified teachers of the visually impaired who served the students

completed the surveys during the months of January, February, and March 2003. The

surveys were given to the students orally so that the students’ reading abilities would

not be a variable in the results. Since the teachers and students had an established

39

rapport and the teachers regularly conduct compensatory skill evaluations, it was

anticipated that more honest responses would be obtained using these teachers to

conduct the surveys rather than the researcher. Teachers did not indicate any difficulty

in conducting the surveys and many stated that they found the survey information quite

enlightening.

The researcher then conducted interviews of 11 of the students who were

randomly chosen through a table of random numbers (Office of Environmental Health

Hazard Assessment, 1999), which was located from an Internet search of “table of

random numbers”. It was projected that the researcher would interview approximately

one-third of the students. However, as several students decided to be excluded from the

research project after the interview process had begun, a little more than one-third of

the students were surveyed. Since the researcher considered all the data gathered

during the interviews as valuable information to the research process, all the interview

protocols were included in this research project.

The interviews were conducted during March and April 2003 using a

standardized open-ended interview protocol combined with a conversation interview

strategy to clarify items from the surveys that the teachers of the visually impaired had

previously conducted and to assist with answering research questions 5 and 6. The

interviews were tape-recorded with permission from each student in order that the

conversation could be transcribed word for word at a later time. This enabled the

researcher to have an accurate record of what was said without being distracted by

taking copious notes.

40

The interview approach used was described by Gall et al. (1996) as the

standardized open-ended interview format with an added conversational strategy. The

standardized open-ended interview was defined as an interview, which “involves a

predetermined sequence and wording of the same set of questions to be asked of each

respondent in order to minimize the possibility of bias” (Gall et al., 1996, p. 310). In

addition, using a standardized open-ended interview instrument assured that the

“interview [was] highly focused so that the interviewee time is used efficiently” (Patton,

2002, p. 346). Since students were interviewed during the school day, it was very

important that the interviewer take as little time from the students’ academic day as

possible. In addition, prompts to each question were available to assist with the

interview process when students appeared unsure of a response by answering “I don’t

know” to an item, having a puzzled look, or not responding to the question. The

students were not given the questions prior to the interview in order to keep the

interview in a more conversational mode rather than an interrogative mode where the

students felt there might be a right or wrong response. Moreover, the researcher wanted

to assure that the responses were those of the students and not perceptions of others

who might review the interview protocol with them. The students were allowed to

expound about a questions as much as they wanted as long as their responses related

to the items on the survey. Furthermore, the addition of the conversational strategy

allowed the researcher to probe further when more clarification of the students’

responses was needed.

In addition the informal conversation strategy permitted the interviewer to probe

about items that might have appeared inconsistent or unclear when reviewing the

41

survey responses. For instance, some students were asked to clarify what types of

accessibility tools they used or who was most responsible in teaching them computer

skills if few computer courses were taken but the student had a high level of computer

knowledge. This information provided added value and clarification to the entire process

both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Conclusion

Chapter 3 described the population and sample of the study and the

development of the research instruments including establishing validity and reliability of

the tools. Procedures for how the data were collected through the survey process by the

teachers of the visually impaired and the interview process conducted by the researcher

also were detailed. Chapter 4 presents the data analysis including answering each of

the research questions and testing the hypotheses to determine statistical significance

of the difference in the findings.

42

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS

Introduction

Using qualitative and quantitative analytical methods allowed the researcher to

provide a holistic description of the students’ computer skills and usage and

appropriately answer each of the research questions and hypotheses. The data were

analyzed using each student as the unit of analysis. This chapter will present and

analyze the data in order to address each research question.

Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

This study described the basic computer skills and usage of academic students

in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and served within the Region 10 Education

Service Center service area. The research was guided by the following questions and

hypothesis:

1. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind report that they have mastered

basic computer skills necessary for successful transition from school to post-

secondary vocational opportunities?

2. Are students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind exceptionally experienced or

inexperienced with specific computer skills addressed on the Region 10 Basic Skills

Survey for Students with Visual Impairments?

3. Is the score on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual

Impairments related to the number of completed computer courses by students in

grades 10-12 who are legally blind?

43

Null Hypothesis: The number of computer courses completed by the students will

have no association with the student scores on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for

Students with Visual Impairments.

4. Does the environment (home, school or both) in which students in grades 10-12 who

are legally blind utilize the computer affect their abilities to independently use the

computer for a variety of activities and the frequency with which they use the

computer for these activities?

Null Hypothesis 4.1: There will be no significant difference between the environment

in which the students use the computer and their abilities to independently use the

computer for a variety of activities.

Null Hypothesis 4.2: There will be no significant difference between the environment

in which the students use the computer and the frequency with which the students

utilize the computer for a variety of activities.

5. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind use the computer similarly to their

sighted peers?

6. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind perceive that they will graduate

with the computer skills needed to be successful when they graduate from high

school?

Data Collection and Coding

Data from the three surveys administered by the students’ teachers of the

visually impaired were entered by student ID number into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet

that could be transferred to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for

calculation as needed to answer the research questions and hypotheses. The audio

44

taped interviews conducted by the researcher of 11 randomly selected students were

transcribed word for word into a Microsoft Word file. Then, the student responses to

each question were copied into a Microsoft Excel file for examination of patterns and

themes and for preliminary coding. A coding system was developed for each interview

question based on the patterns and themes which emerged. (See Appendix G)

For interview question 1, each student response was noted to have one of two

possibilities. The students either used the computer at home or at a school. Thus, the

responses to question 1 were coded as either “h” for home or “s” for school. For

interview question 2, a pattern of student responses was noted in that most students

used the computer either for personal reasons such as emailing, games or Internet

searching or they used the computer for schoolwork. So three codes were developed

for question 2: “p” for personal reason, “sw” for schoolwork and “o” for other. Because

question 3 and question 4 were very similar in that one related to computer applications

used at home and the other with applications used at school, the same coding system

was developed for these questions. The codes for question 3 and 4 included: “wp” for

word processor, “me” for Microsoft excel (spreadsheet), “e” for email, “w” for Windows,

“I” for Internet searching, “g” for games, “o” for other, and “n” for either when students

responded that they did not use the computer at home (question 3) or they did not use

the computer at school (question 4). Interview question 5 asked what would assist the

students in using the computer more frequently. After the responses were reviewed,

they were categorized into five codes which included “f” for faster devices, “I” for

Internet access, “ad” for adaptive technologies, “d” for don’t know and “o” for other.

Question 6 addressed whether there were other computer devices not currently owned

45

or used by the students that they might find useful. The student responses were

categorized into four groups and coded with “n” representing that no other equipment

was needed, “p” indicating that the student wanted various computer peripherals, “lt”

noting that the student wanted a laptop and “ad” denoting that assistive technologies

would be helpful. Answers to interview question 7 had a distinct pattern which were

coded “c” for planning to attend college after high school graduation, and “w” for

anticipating to work without post-secondary education. Question 8 as to whether the

students thought they would use the computer in their endeavors after graduation was

simply coded with a “y” for yes and an “n” for no. The same coding was used for student

responses to question 9 which questioned whether the students believed they had all

the necessary computer skills for success after high school. Finally a question that was

added after reviewing returned student surveys and, after the interview process had

begun, was where did the students perceive they had learned most of their computer

skills. These student responses were categorized into four codes: “cc” for computer

class, “f” for friend, “vi” for vision teacher, “s” for self-taught and those who were not

asked this question were coded with an “n”.

This analysis process was similar to the process used by Henry (1999) on a

comparable computer dissertation research project. Once the patterns and initial coding

were developed the initial codes were transformed into an alphabet code which easily

could be charted and reviewed for drawing conclusions (See Appendix H). In addition,

by charting the information using alphabet codes, the qualitative data could be

transformed into a quantitative measure for descriptive analysis. Quantifying qualitative

data can be important according to Miles and Huberman (1994) to determine

46

significance or recurrence of a pattern or theme. “You can ‘see’ the general drift of the

data more easily and rapidly by looking at the distributions” (Miles and Huberman, 1994,

p.253). In addition, student quotes were included in order to increase the meaning of the

data.

Descriptive Data

Student Data

This research included 27 students from 18 school districts in the Region 10

Education Service Center service area. Twenty-six percent of the students were from a

large urban district, 41% were from suburban districts and 33% were from rural districts.

Students were well distributed with regards to gender as 52% were male and 48% were

female. Eleven percent of the students were Braille readers, 44% were large print

readers, 41% read regular print and 4% were auditory learners. Sixty-three percent

indicated that they used the computer on a daily basis, while 15% used it weekly, 19%

used the computer occasionally and 4% indicated that they did not use a computer of

any kind.

Computer Courses

The average number of computer courses that the students had completed was

1.9. Every student had taken at least one semester of a computer course. The courses

ranged from required courses such as Business Computer Information Systems (BCIS)

and Keyboarding to advanced computer courses such as Architecture for Computers, a

Multimedia course, and a Webmaster course. Fifty-nine percent of the students took

BCIS, fifty-two percent had taken a keyboarding course, seven percent took a basic

computer course or an introduction to computers, and another seven percent took a

47

computer applications course. Eleven percent of the students reported that they had

participated in a desktop publishing, multimedia or Webmaster class. Other students

indicated that they had taken a computer science AP class, a computer literacy class,

and an industrial technology class, but these were limited to one response each.

Another respondent listed that he participated in a technology camp. Figure 1 displays

the types of computer courses that the students had completed.

Figure1

Type of Computer Courses Completed

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

A B C D E F G H I J

Name of Course (See Legend)

Per

cent

Tak

ing

Cou

rses

Legend A – Business Computer Information System F – Computer Science AP B – Keyboarding G – Computer Literacy C – Desktop Publishing; Multimedia; Webmaster H – Technology Camp D – Computer Applications I – Industrial Technology E – Introduction to Computers; Basic Computer J – Other

Assistive Technology

Thirty-three percent of the students used some type of screen enlarging

software. Zoomtext was the enlarging software most frequently mentioned. Speech

48

access, portable notetaker and accessibility wizard each were used by 15% of the

students. Another 15% utilized other forms of assistive technology while thirty-three

percent of the students did not use any assistive technology. Nineteen percent of the

students actually used more than one method of accessing the computer.

Analysis of the interview question asking whether the students wished they had

additional computer equipment, indicated that 45% of the 11 students interviewed had

all the equipment they needed. One student stated that he wished he had a “faster

modem, high tech stuff [such as] hooking your video game box up to the Internet.”

Another student stated that “it would be nice [to have additional equipment], but some

things are overkill for what I need, like Zoomtext is way too much for me.” Of the four

students who did not have a computer at home, three of them stated that they wished

that they had a laptop computer.

Teacher Comments

The teachers who conducted the surveys were requested not to coach the

students regarding their responses and were told to mark the responses exactly as the

students indicated. Therefore, on the Demographic Survey, the teachers were given an

opportunity to include remarks that they believed would be helpful to the process. Thirty-

seven percent of the teachers utilized the optional comment section. Seventy percent of

the teachers who made remarks commented about assistive technology devices used

by their students. In addition, a couple of teachers noted computer activities used by the

students that were not listed on the surveys such as using the computer to look up

vocabulary words. Only one teacher’s comment seemed to question some of the

student responses as exceeding the student’s true abilities.

49

Research Question 1

The inquiry posed in research question one was whether students in grades 10-

12 who are legally blind reported that they had mastered basic computer skills

necessary for successful transition from school to post-secondary vocational

opportunities. To address this question teachers of the visually impaired orally

administered the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments to

each of their students. Through professional review this survey met validity standards

for containing skills items which were necessary for successful transition from school to

post-secondary vocational opportunities. The student responses measured the

students’ perception of their computer abilities. Student responses on the 25-item,

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments were scored as

follows:

I have no experience with this 1 point

I am somewhat familiar with this 2 points

I am comfortable with this 3 points

I am an expert at this 4 points.

As students were required to answer each of the items on the survey, their scores

ranged from 25-100 points. Twenty-six percent of the students scored 75 or above,

forty-one percent of the students scored between 50-74, and thirty-three percent of the

students scored between 25-49. Using a score of 75 or above as an indicator of

mastery of basic computer skills would indicate that only 26% of the 27 students

reported that they had mastered these skills. Below, Figure 2 displays a histogram

representing student score percentages.

50

Figure 2.

Histogram of Student Scores on Region 10 Basic Skills Survey

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

75-95 50-74 25-49

Student Scores

Freq

uenc

y of

Sco

res

f

In summary, as only 26% of the students scored 75 points or above on the Basic

Skills Survey, it would seem that a majority of the students in grades 10-12 who are

legally blind have not mastered basic computer skills necessary for successful transition

from school to post-secondary vocational opportunities.

Research Question 2

Research question two was used to determine whether academic students in

grades 10-12 who are legally blind were exceptionally experienced or inexperienced

with specific computer skills addressed on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for

Students with Visual Impairments. On item one, every student indicated that they knew

how to start up and shut down a computer, open and close an application program and

insert/eject a removable disk. In fact student responses indicated that the experience

level for this skill was higher than any other skill on the survey as the mean student

score was 3.7 (of a 4 point scale) and 67% of the students rated themselves a 4 or

51

expert with regard to this skill item. Exceptionally high experience also was noted on

items 17 and 23. However, in each of these areas at least one student responded that

he had no experience with the skill. Furthermore, items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, and 23 either

had a mean score of 3.0 or higher and/or more than 50% of the students responded that

they were experts at this skill. Therefore, most of the students were either comfortable

with completing these skill items or experts.

Items where the majority of students were inexperienced were those items where

the mean score was 2.0 or below, and/or more than 50% of the students indicated that

they had no experience with the skill. Items in this category were 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15,

16, 20, and 25. Item 14, regarding using formula and/or function in a spreadsheet, was

the only skill in which no students indicated that they were experts with this skill.

A frequency distribution has been presented on Table 4 as well as the mean

score for each item to display patterns of high and low experience with individual

computer skills.

Table 4. Frequency Distribution of Student Scores on Individual Items

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 0 0%

2 0 0%

3 9 33%

1. Start up and shut down the computer; open and

close an application/program; insert/eject a removable

disk (floppy disk, CD-ROM)

4 18 67%

3.7

52

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 2 7%

2 4 15%

3 10 37%

2. Open file from a floppy disk or local or network hard

drive

4 11 41%

3.1

1 1 4%

2 4 15%

3 9 33%

3. Save a file to a floppy disk or specific location on a

local or network hard drive

4 13 48%

3.3

1 5 19%

2 6 22%

3 4 15%

4. Create, copy, move, rename and delete folders

4 12 44%

2.9

1 2 7%

2 8 30%

3 5 19%

5. Cut, copy, and paste text both within application

and between multiple open applications

4 12 44%

3.0

53

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 8 30%

2 3 11%

3 10 37%

6. Use the find command to find flies on the computer

4 6 22%

2.5

1 16 59%

2 3 11%

3 5 19%

7. Correct a locked-up computer

4 3 11%

1.8

1 14 52%

2 2 7%

3 9 33%

8. Solve common printing problems

4 2 7%

2.0

1 18 67%

2 5 19%

3 0 0%

9. Install/reinstall printer drivers

4 4 15%

1.6

54

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 17 63%

2 3 11%

3 1 4%

10. Install application software

4 6 22%

1.9

1 14 52%

2 8 30%

3 2 7%

11. Create and maintain backups

4 3 11%

1.8

1 13 48%

2 2 7%

3 2 7%

12. Use a word processor for classroom notetaking

4 10 37%

2.3

1 8 30%

2 6 22%

3 7 26%

13. Use advance features of word processor (tables,

headers and footer, macros, table of contents,

columns, etc.)

4 6 22%

2.4

55

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 11 41%

2 9 22%

3 7 26%

14. Use formulas and/or functions in a spreadsheet

4 0 0%

1.9

1 15 56%

2 6 22%

3 3 11%

15. Create a report (query/find request) in a database

and sort the results

4 3 11%

1.8

1 17 63%

2 6 22%

3 1 4%

16. Use calendar/planning software

4 3 11%

1.6

1 7 26%

2 4 15%

3 0 0%

17. Send and open email messages

4 16 59%

2.9

56

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 12 44%

2 3 11%

3 3 11%

18. Manage names and groups in an email address

book

4 9 33%

2.3

1 12 44%

2 4 15%

3 0 0%

19. Send and open email attachments

4 11 41%

2.4

1 15 56%

2 1 4%

3 2 7%

20. Create and use bookmarks/favorites

4 9 33%

2.2

1 4 15%

2 6 22%

3 5 19%

21. Locate web sites for classroom use or for

research

4 12 44%

2.9

57

Table 4 (continued).

Skills

Score

Freq

Percent

Mean

Score

1 9 33%

2 2 7%

3 4 15%

22. Use multiple Internet search engines

4 12 44%

2.7

1 2 7%

2 4 15%

3 7 26%

23. Print from a website

4 14 52%

3.2

1 9 33%

2 6 22%

3 5 19%

24. Use PowerPoint as a presentation tool

4 7 26%

2.4

1 18 67%

2 3 11%

3 3 11%

25. Scan a document

4 3 11%

1.7

Note. 1 = I have no experience with this; 2 = I am somewhat familiar with this; 3 = I am

comfortable with this; 4 = I am an expert at this.

58

To further determine whether students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind were

exceptionally experienced or inexperienced with specific computer skills addressed on

the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments, the students’

scores on each item were divided into four groups which were not mutually exclusive.

Table 5 displays the experience rating for each item. The first group Exceptionally

Experienced included items which 50% or more of the students rated themselves as

experts at this skill. Only 9% of the items, or 3 items, were categorized in this group.

The second group, labeled Experienced, included the first group of items and all other

items in which 50% or more of the students indicated that they either were comfortable

with this skill or that they were experts with the skill. Thirty-two percent of the skill items

are in this Experienced category. The third group consisted of items in which 50% or

more of the students rated themselves as only somewhat familiar with the skill or as

having no experience with the skill. This third group was labeled Inexperienced and

included 64% of the items on the Basic Skills Survey. The fourth group, Exceptionally

Inexperienced, which also was contained in the third group, includes those items in

which more than 50% of the students indicated that they had no experience with the

skill. Thirty-six percent of the items are categorized as Exceptionally Inexperienced as

the majority of the students reported that they had no experience and were not even

familiar with these skill items.

59

Table 5. Experience Rating of Each Item on the Basic Skills Survey

Item Number

Exceptionally

Experienced

4 > 50%

Experienced

3 & 4 > 50%

Inexperienced

1 & 2 > 50%

Exceptionally

Inexperienced

1 > 50%

1 1 1

2 1

3 1

4 1

5 1

6 1

7 1 1

8 1 1

9 1 1

10 1 1

11 1 1

12 1

13 1

14 1

15 1 1

16 1 1

17 1 1

60

Table 5 (continued).

Item Number

Exceptionally

Experienced

4 > 50%

Experienced

3 & 4 > 50%

Inexperienced

1 & 2 > 50%

Exceptionally

Inexperienced

1 > 50%

18 1

19 1

20 1 1

21 1

22 1

23 1 1

24 1

25 1 1

Total 3 9 16 9

% 9% 36% 64% 36%

Note. 1 = I have no experience with this; 2 = I am somewhat familiar with this; 3 = I am comfortable with this; 4 = I am an expert at this.

There was only one skill item on the Basic Skills Survey in which all the students

responded that they were either experts or comfortable with the skill. This skill was the

first item on the survey: Start up and shut down the computer; open and close an

application/program; insert/eject a removable disk (floppy disk, CD-ROM). In addition,

there only was one skill item (#14: use formulas and/or functions in a spreadsheet) in

which none of the students believed they were experts. Furthermore, for every skill item

with the exception of item 1 there was at least one of the students who indicated no

61

experience with the skill. The average of the mean scores on the Basic Skills Survey

was 2.4 with the highest mean score of 3.7 on item one and the lowest mean score of

1.6 on items 9 and 16. Figure 3 represents the mean score of each item on the Region

10 Basic Skills Survey.

Figure 3.

Mean Scores of Each Item on the Basic Skills Survey

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25

Item Number

Stu

dent

Sco

res

In summary the students were only exceptionally experienced with 9% of the

basic skill items and were exceptionally inexperienced with 36% of the items. Thus the

students reported that they were inexperienced with more of the basic computer skill

items than they were experienced.

Research Question 3

Research question three was devised to address whether the score on the

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments was related to the

number of completed computer courses by students in grades 10-12 who are legally

blind. The null hypothesis for this question stated: The number of computer courses

62

completed by the students will have no association with the student scores on the

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments.

To answer research question three, item 2 from the Survey of Student

Demographics regarding the number of completed computer courses by the students

and the scores from the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual

Impairments were correlated using the Pearson Product Correlation Coefficient. Hinkle,

Wiersma and Jurs (1998) indicated that the Rule of Thumb for interpreting the size of a

correlation coefficient is that when r is between .50 to .70 there is a moderate

correlation and when the r is between .30 and .50 there is a low correlation. However,

when the r is between.00 to .30 there is little to no correlation.

In this case r = .189 at the .05 level which indicated that there was little to no

correlation between the number of computer courses the students took and their scores

on the Basic Skills Survey. Therefore the null hypothesis that the number of computer

courses completed by the students will have no relationship to the students’ scores on

/the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments was retained.

The mean of the number of computer courses the students took was 1.9 and the mean

of the scores from the Basic Skills survey was 2.4. Table 6 denotes the number of

computer courses taken by the students and their corresponding scores on the Basic

Skills Survey

63

Table 6.

Computer Courses and Basic Skills Scores

ID #

# Of Courses

Basic Skills Score

22 0.5 40

15 1 36

21 1 37

24 1 45

18 1 47

28 1 52

31 1 59

36 1 60

32 1 81

39 1 83

14 1 84

10 1 87

11 1.5 66

33 2 29

35 2 32

30 2 51

20 2 55

19 2 58

64

Table 6 (continued).

ID #

# Of Courses

Basic Skills Score

16 2 65

34 2 90

37 3 46

38 3 46

23 3 68

41 3 72

45 3 90

42 5 50

12 5 95

Research Question 4

Research question four was posed to determine whether the environment (home,

school or both) in which students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind utilized the

computer impacted their abilities to independently use the computer and the frequency

they used the computer for a variety of activities. There were two null hypotheses for

this research question. The null hypothesis 4.1 stated: There will be no significant

difference between the environment in which the students used the computer and their

abilities to independently use the computer for a variety of activities. The null hypothesis

4.2 expressed that there will be no significant difference between the environment in

65

which the students use the computer and the frequency with which the students utilize

the computer for a variety of activities.

Item one from the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage which asked the

students if they only used the computer at home, only used the computer at school,

used the computer at home and school, or did not use a computer of any kind was used

to address research question 4. Only one student stated that he did not use a computer

of any kind and no students reported that they used the computer only in the home. The

remainder of the students either used the computer solely at school or they used the

computer in both the school and the home environment. Therefore the students were

divided into two groups. Group 1 included those who used the computer at school, but

not at home. For data entry into SPSS, Group 1 was coded with a “0” and included 8

students. Group 2 included those students who used the computer both at home and

school. Group two was coded with a “1” for SPSS data entry and consisted of 18

students. The one student who responded, “I do not use a computer of any kind” was

not included in either group. Thus, the n for both groups was 26 students instead of 27.

Null Hypothesis 4.1

Item two from the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage, which asked the

students to identify which computer applications they could use independently, was

used to address null hypothesis 4.1. The group mean of the student scores from item 2

was calculated, and then SPSS was used to perform a t-test. Using this test the critical

value of t was 2.74 with 24 degrees of freedom. This value exceeded the critical value

of 2.06 at the .05 level (p = .01), which indicated a statistical significance for a two-tailed

test at the .05 level. Therefore the null hypothesis 4.1 which stated that there would be

66

no significant difference between the environment in which the students use the

computer and their abilities to independently use the computer for a variety of activities

was rejected. This difference could not be explained by chance alone.

There was a significance difference between independent use of a variety of

computer activities compared to those students who used the computer both at school

and home and those students who only used the computer at school. Those who used

the computer in both environments utilized the computer independently for a larger

number of purposes than those who only used the computer at school.

Checkbook management was the least employed activity as only three students

indicated that they independently used the computer for this purpose and all of these

were students who used the computer in both the school and the home environment.

More students within both groups reported that they independently could use a word

processing application than any other activity with Internet searching/browsing as the

second rated activity. Table 7 portrays the computer activities where the students

indicated they independently could use the computer in descending order by Group 2

and Group 1, respectively.

67

Table 7. Number of Students Who Independently Used the Computer for Tasks

Tasks

% of students who independently used

the computer for these tasks

Group 1

School only

Group 2

School and Home

Word Processing 88% 100%

Internet Searching/Browsing 88% 89%

Listening to Music 63% 83%

Email/Telecommunicating 13% 83%

Spreadsheets 25% 72%

Games 13% 72%

Multi-media software (PowerPoint)

13% 72%

Database Management 13% 67%

Calendar/Planning 13% 56%

Electronic Shopping 13% 39%

Checkbook Management 0% 17%

Null Hypothesis 4.2

For null hypothesis 4.2, the group means of the student scores from item three

on the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage regarding the frequency of use of 70

68

various computer activities were calculated. Then using SPSS, a t-test was calculated

to determine whether there was a statistical difference at the .05 level. Again the

students were divided into two groups. Group 1 included students who just used the

computer at school and was coded as “0” for ease of SPSS input. Group 1 consisted of

8 students. Group 2 coded as “1” for data entry consisted of students who used the

computer in both the school and the home environments. Group 2 included 18 students.

One student, who indicated that he did not use the computer in either environment, was

excluded from this calculation. In addition, no student indicated that the computer was

used exclusively in the home environment.

Furthermore, the Likert scale values for item three of the 2002 Survey of Student

Computer Usage were used to address the null hypothesis 4.2. These values were

transformed, as SPSS preferred that 1 indicate a high response and 4 denote a low

response. So the values for item three were changed to 1 representing a computer

application used daily and the value 4 to indicate and application that was never used.

Table 8 illustrates this conversion.

Table 8. Question 3 Likert Scale from 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

Values

Of Survey

Values

For Data Entry

daily 4 1

weekly 3 2

sometimes 2 3

never 1 4

69

The group mean for Group 1 was 36.62 and Group 2 was 31.16. Using SPSS,

the computed t value was 2.31 with 24 degrees of freedom. This value exceeded the

critical t value of 2.06 at the .05 level for a two-tailed test (p = .03). Therefore the null

hypothesis 4.2 which stated that there will be no significant difference between

environment in which the students use the computer and the frequency with which the

students utilize the computer for a variety of activities was rejected. This difference

could not be explained by chance alone.

Students who used the computer in both the home and school environment used

the computer more frequently for a variety of tasks than those who only used the

computer at school. The most frequent usage of the computer for students who utilized

the computer in both environments was for emailing. In addition these students

frequently used the computer for Internet searching/browsing and for listening to music.

Those students who used the computer in both the home and school environments

were less likely to utilize checkbook management than any other computer task.

Students who exclusively utilized the computer in the school environment

primarily used the computer for word processing and secondarily for Internet

searching/browsing and playing games. They never used the computer for

calendar/planning and checkbook management. Only one school use student utilized

the computer for emailing. Table 9 presents the most frequent purposes for which the

computer was used by each group sorted in descending order by Group 2 and Group 1

respectively.

70

Table 9. Comparison of Frequency of Computer Usage

Tasks Group 1 Group 2

Email/telecommunicating 1.13 3.39

Internet searching/browsing 2.38 3.17

Listening to music 2.25 2.94

Word Processing 2.75 2.72

Games 2.38 1.67

Multi-media software (PowerPoint)

1.50 1.67

Spreadsheets 1.38 1.67

Database Management 1.25 1.67

Calendar/Planning 1.00 1.61

Electronic Shopping 1.38 1.39

Checkbook Management 1.00 1.11

Note. Values of Numbers 4 = daily, 3 = weekly, 2 = sometimes, 1 = never

Summary of Research Question 4

In summation, students who used the computer in both the home and at school

perceived that they could use the computer independently with a wider variety of

activities than those who just used the computer at school. In addition those students

who used the computer in both the school and home environment used the computer

more frequently for a variety of computer activities than those who exclusively used the

computer at school. No student reported that the computer was solely used at home.

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Research Question 5

Research question five was constructed to inquire whether students in grades

10-12 who are legally blind used the computer similarly to their sighted peers. Both

qualitative and quantitative data were used to answer this question in order to

triangulate the data, which was a way “to support a finding by showing that independent

measures of it agree with it, or at least, do not contradict it” (Miles and Huberman, 1994,

266). Triangulation of data adds reliability and validity to the data analysis process.

The qualitative data were gained from analyzing the interview responses of the

eleven students who were interviewed by the researcher. After the student responses

were coded and common themes were identified, some of the data were transformed

into descriptive quantitative data to emphasize the significance or importance of the

findings. Miles and Huberman (1994) believed that numbers should not be ignored in

qualitative research because “when we say something is ‘important’ or ‘significant’ or

‘recurrent’ we have to come to that estimate, in part, by making counts, comparisons,

and weights” (p. 253). In addition quotes of student responses were included to further

support the findings.

Furthermore, descriptive quantitative data from the student surveys were used in

conjunction with the qualitative data to corroborate and add validity to the findings. Both

the qualitative and quantitative data gathered regarding students who are legally blind

were compared to the findings from the literature concerning how sighted students

utilized the computer.

According to analysis of item 3 on the Computer Usage Survey, students who

are legally blind in grades 10-12 used the Internet more frequently than any other

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computer activity. Other activities for which the students used the computer frequently

were word processing, emailing, listening to music and playing games. They utilized the

computer less frequently for multi-media, database management, spreadsheets,

calendar planning, electronic shopping, and checkbook management. Figure 4 indicates

the frequency with which students who are legally blind used the computer for different

activities.

Figure 4.

Frequency of Computer Activities by Students Who Are Legally Blind

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

4

Intern

et

Word

proc

essin

gEmail

Music

Games

Multi-m

edia

Databa

se

Spread

shee

ts

Calend

ar

Shopp

ing

Check

book

Activities

Freq

uenc

y

Note. 4 = daily, 3 = weekly, 2 = sometimes, 1 = never

During the interview process, the students reported that the most frequently used

computer applications at school were word processing and internet searching (73% and

64% respectively). Of the students interviewed who used the computer at home, 100%

indicated that they utilized the Internet, and 43% indicated that they also used Microsoft

Word and games at home.

One student’s response to the question about what programs he mainly used at

home was:

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Microsoft Office the entire application and in Microsoft Office I use Microsoft

Word, the most followed by Microsoft Money, Excel and Access in that order

and I use Internet Explorer and just one game I have and basically that’s

it….

This student planned to attend college, obtain his CPA license, and become an auditor.

Another student indicated that she used “Windows [and] email, Internet, games…I

probably use the games the most.”

Houtz & Gupta (2001) found that most sighted students in high school used the

computer predominantly for word processing, Internet searching and for games. Sighted

students also utilized the computer for emailing but they were least likely to use the

computer for listening to music. Thus, it appeared that students who are legally blind

used the computer for similar activities as their sighted peers with a high emphasis on

Internet searching, word processing and games. However, students who are legally

blind seemed to use the computer to listen to music about as much as they used email

or played games, whereas sighted students were least likely to listen to music and

much more likely to use the computer for games and emailing.

In addition, Snyder (1997) and Pelgrum, Janssen & Plomp (1993) reported that

some of the least used programs by sighted students were spreadsheets and database

management. Of the students who are legally blind, 56% never used spreadsheet, 33%

indicated that they sometimes used them and only 6% (2 students) indicated that they

used spreadsheets weekly or daily. Databases were used even less as 59% of the

students who are legally blind responded that they never used them, 33% said they

sometimes used them, 11% used them weekly and none of the students used

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spreadsheets daily. Thus, students who are legally blind rarely used spreadsheets or

databases which was similar to their sighted peers.

Snyder’s (1997) review of the National Center for Education Statistics discovered

that 55.7% of sighted high school students had access to computers in the home and

48.8% of the students actually used the home computer. Of these 48.8% who used a

computer in the home, only 39% used the computer for schoolwork. Lauman (2000)

also found that students who used the computer at home rarely used it for schoolwork

as they mainly used the computer to play games. In fact, he stated that sighted students

who used the computer at home appeared “to be more interested in playing games than

working on assignments” (Lauman, 2000, p.199).

Sixty-seven percent of students who are legally blind used the computer at

home. Student responses to item four on the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage,

indicated that less than half (44%) of students who are legally blind used the computer

predominantly for schoolwork. The students who used the computer at home primarily

utilized the computer for personal reasons such as emailing and listening to music. Of

the students who were interviewed, 67% of the students used the computer in the home

and they mainly used the home computer for personal reasons. One student indicated

that she used the computer at home “because I like to play the games like solitaire [and]

get on the Internet.” Thus, students with significant visual impairments are similar to

their sighted peers in that most of the students who used the computer at home utilized

the home computer for personal reasons more than for schoolwork.

Carey & Gall (1986) denoted that students who used computers at home

involved themselves in a wider variety of computer-based activities than students who

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only used the computer at school. Research question 4 addressed whether academic

students with significant visual impairments used the computer for more activities when

they used the computer both at school and at home rather than just at school. This

researcher concluded that just as their sighted peers, students who are legally blind and

used the computer at home utilized a wider variety of activities than those who

exclusively used the computer at school.

Doherty and Orlofsky (2001) reported that more than half of the sighted students

learned most of their computer skills at home. However, in this study 86% of the

students who are legally blind responded to the interview question “Where did you learn

most of your computer skills?” by answering that they learned them at school in a

computer class or one students said from his teacher of the visually impaired. Student

responses in this investigation suggest students who are sighted and those who are

legally blind differed in where they learned the majority of their computer skills.

In summary, students who are legally blind in grades 10-12, for the most part,

used the computer similarly to their sighted peers. Students with significant visual

impairments were involved in similar computer activities as their sighted peers in that

they frequently used the computer for Internet searching, word processing, emailing and

playing games and rarely used the computer for developing spreadsheets or database

management. However, students who are legally blind appeared to listen to music with

the computer more frequently than their sighted peers, who rarely used the computer for

this task. In addition, of those students who used the computer at home, both sighted

and legally blind, more often used the computer for personal reasons rather than for

schoolwork. Sighted students, however, learned most of their computer skills in the

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home setting, whereas students with significant visual impairments appeared to obtain

most of their skills at school.

Research Question 6

Research question six queried whether academic students in grades 10-12 who

are legally blind perceived that they will graduate with the computer skills needed to be

successful when they graduate from high school. Just as in research question 5 this

question was addressed through triangulation of qualitative data from student interviews

and quantitative data acquired from the student surveys compared to information

gathered from a review of the literature concerning necessary computer skills for post-

secondary education and employment.

During the interview process each student was asked the following three

questions:

1. What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school?

2. Will you use a computer in this endeavor?

3. Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when

you graduate from high school?

Ninety-one percent of the students interviewed planned to go to college upon

high school graduation and each of these students believed that they would use

computer skills in college and in future employment. One student who planned to attend

college to be a nurse stated, “I talked to the school nurse and she uses the computer a

lot.” Only one student did not plan to go to college as she wanted to work in a hospital

nursery. This student did not believe that she would need to use the computer after high

school.

77

Seventy-three percent of the students did not believe that they possessed all the

computer skills they needed to be successful upon graduation. Several students

indicated that they still needed to learn some basic computer skills. One student

responded that he needed to learn to “take notes and stuff.” Another student said that

learning to work “with the Internet would be helpful, typing and knowledge how to use it

[computer] more.” Another student believed that she needed more training “just to get

the hang of it.”

According to Lifer (1992), “the three most important computer applications as

perceived by both businesses and the colleges and universities were: word processing;

electronic spreadsheets; and database management” (p. 1576). Davis (1997) also

found that employees believed that “computer competency skills were either important

or very important in the hiring decision” (p. 2). The employers that he surveyed specified

that the most important computer skills were again, word processing, basic and high

level skills related to electronic spreadsheets and basic skills in the area of database

management. Furthermore, 93% of the employers required email experience, and 63%

preferred competency with Internet searching. The National Center for Education

Statistics (Snyder, 1997) examined computer applications that were being used by

workers ages 18 years or older. This national information denoted that 57% of

employees were using word processing on the job, 41% spreadsheets, 38% calendars,

34% databases and 44% were using four or more computer applications on the job.

Using the results of these studies as criteria for necessary skills for successful

post-secondary education and employment, it would seem that students who are legally

blind will need increased attention in the area of electronic spreadsheets and database

78

management. According to the data collected from the 2002 Survey of Student

Computer Usage, 89% of the students never or rarely used electronic spreadsheets and

only 55% of the students believed they independently could use electronic

spreadsheets. Also, 92% of the students never or rarely used databases and only 52%

indicated that they could use databases independently. On the two items from the

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey which related to spreadsheets and databases, items 14

and 15 respectively, no students indicated that they were experts at using formulas or

functions of a spreadsheet, and 63% indicated that they either had no experience with

this skill or only were somewhat familiar with this skill. Moreover, seventy-eight percent

of the students indicated that they either had no experience or were only somewhat

familiar with creating a report in a database and sorting the results. Therefore, skills

related to spreadsheets and databases appeared to be lacking with regard to high

school students who are legally blind.

At first glance, it would appear that students who are legally blind were proficient

with regard to word processing skills as on item two of the 2002 Survey of Student

Computer Usage, 96% indicated that they could use a word processing application

independently. In addition, of the 11 students interviewed, 73% specified that the

application that they most often used at school was word processing. However, on item

three from the 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage, 44% of the students indicated

that they never or rarely used a word processing application and on the Basic Skills

Survey, 63% indicated that they had no experience or only were somewhat familiar with

advanced features of a word processor such as using tables, header and footer or table

of contents. Thus, although the students had experience with word processing, many

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were not using it on a regular basis (at least weekly) and more than half were not

familiar with advanced features of a word processing application.

Responses pertaining to Internet skills also seemed incongruous between the

students’ usage and skill abilities. When the students were interviewed, 64% indicated

that the Internet was one of the programs they most used at home and at school. Yet, of

the 88% of the students who responded on the 2002 Survey of Student Computer

Usage that they used the Internet independently, 41% said that they never or rarely

used the Internet. In addition on the four Internet items found within the Basic Skills

Survey, an average of 48% of the students either had no experience with the skill items

or only were somewhat familiar with the skills. The two skills at which the students were

most adept were in creating and using a bookmark (60%) and in printing from the

website (70%). Forty percent of the students were unfamiliar with using multiple search

engines, and 37% were not comfortable with locating specific websites. Thus, although

it appeared that the students had knowledge in using the Internet, many had limited

skills and did not use it regularly.

Employers also listed email as a very important skill for prospective employees.

More than 50% of the students who used the computer at home utilized email and one

student who used the computer solely at school used email. However, on the Basic

Skills Survey fewer than 50% of the students reported that they were comfortable or

experts on two of the items which addressed email, and only 59% rated themselves as

comfortable or expert on the remaining item concerning email. Of the students who

were interviewed only one student stated that she mainly used the computer at home

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for email. So although many of the students were familiar with email, they did not seem

to be proficient in its use.

Finally although Lifer (1992) and Davis (1997) did not indicate that using a

computer calendar application was a necessary skill, the National Center for Education

Statistics (1997) found that more employees were actually using a calendar/planning

tool than databases. This was the weakest of the skills needed for successful

employment among the students with legal blindness. On item 2 of the 2002 Survey of

Student Computer Usage, 44% of the students indicated that they could use a calendar

application independently. Yet, on item 3 of the computer usage survey, 93% indicated

that they rarely or never used this tool and on the Basic Skills Survey, 85% of the

students indicated that they were either only somewhat familiar with a calendar tool or

had no experience with this application.

Therefore although many of the students were exposed to the skills and

computer applications necessary for successful post-secondary education and

employment, 40% or more of the students noted they were using the applications less

than weekly and many were never using the applications. Furthermore, on the Region

10 Basic Skills Survey, a large number of students did not report they were experienced

with the skills related to the computer applications of calendar/planning, database

management, electronic spreadsheets, email/telecommunicating, Internet

searching/browsing and word processing.

The National Center for Education Statistics (Snyder, 1997) indicated 44% of

employees were using four or more computer applications. Data from the 2002 Survey

of Student Computer Usage indicated that students were at least being exposed to

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many different computer applications and 85% of the students indicated that they could

use four or more computer applications independently. Yet, only 26% of the students

scored 75 points or more on the Basic Skills survey indicating that the majority of the

student had limited computer skills with a variety of applications. Of the students

interviewed, 55% frequently used two or more applications at home, but only 45% of the

students often used more than two applications at school. It appeared from the

interviews that the students were more likely to use a greater variety of computer

applications at home than at school. One student stated that at home he mainly used

“Encarta and the Internet,” but when asked what he mainly used at school he just said

“Internet.” Another student who used the computer at home stated “I use pinball; that’s

one of the necessary games I play when I don’t have anything else to do. And

processing programs like typing, but mainly the Internet.” Yet when asked what he

mainly used at school he only replied “Internet.”

Table 10 summarizes the students’ use of the applications which Lifer (1992) and

Davis (1997) indicated were necessary for attending college/university and for

successful employment. The table displays the percentage of students who perceived

they independently could use different applications, the percentage of students who

rarely or never used the application, and the percentage of students who were either

only somewhat familiar with an application or had no experience with the application.

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Table 10. Student Abilities with Computer Applications Needed for Employment

Computer

Application

Computer Usage

Survey Item 2

Computer Usage

Survey Item 3

Basic Skill Survey

Independent Use Rarely or Never

Use

Somewhat Familiar

or No Experience

Calendar/Planning 44% 93% Item 16

85%

Database

Management

52% 92% Item 15

78

Electronic

Spreadsheets

55% 89% Item 14

63%

Email/

Telecommunicating

59% 48% Item 17

41%

Item18

55%

Item 19

59%

83

Table 10 (continued).

Computer

Application

Computer Usage

Survey Item 2

Computer Usage

Survey Item 3

Basic Skill Survey

Independent Use Rarely or Never

Use

Somewhat Familiar

or No Experience

Internet

Searching/Browsing

88% 41% Item 20

60%

Item 21

37%

Item 22

40%

Item 23

22%

Word Processing 96% 44% Item 12

55%

Item 13

63%

Although most of the students perceived that they had some level of competency

with a variety of applications needed for success in post-graduation endeavors, 74% did

not indicate mastery on the Basic Skills Survey and 73% of the students interviewed

affirmed that they needed more computer training to be successful after high school.

Only about half the students expressed confidence in their ability to use spreadsheets

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and databases, and most of the students rarely used these two applications. Yet,

according to the literature, competency in using spreadsheets and databases was very

important to post secondary success.

The students most frequently used word processing, the Internet and email.

Nevertheless, even with these applications, most of the students were using them less

than weekly nor did the students score well on the items on the Basic Skills Survey that

addressed word processing, the Internet and email. In addition, the student were very

weak in their ability to use the calendar function of a computer, even though the

National Center for Education Statistics found that many employees were using this

application. However, the students were familiar with a wide variety of computer

applications and those who used the computer at home seemed to use more

applications than those who solely used the computer at school.

Thus, students who are legally blind were not proficient in the skills required for

post graduation success. Several of the students stated that they needed to learn even

some of the basic computer skills. In addition the students needed to utilize all the

applications more frequently and they especially needed added instruction and practice

with spreadsheets and databases.

Other Statistical Information

In order to determine whether gender was relevant to this research several other

statistical procedures were conducted. First, using SPSS an independent t-test was

used to determine whether gender was a significant factor in the Region 10 Basic Skills

Survey for Students with Visual Impairments scores. The t value was computed to be

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-.723 with 25 degrees of freedom for a two-tail test at the .05 level and was smaller than

the critical value of t. Therefore, it was determined that gender was not statistically

significant in regard to the scores on the Basic Skills Survey.

An independent t-test was also computed with SPSS to analyze whether gender

was related to the independent use of various computer applications. The t value for a

two-tailed test at the 0.5 level was determined to be -.095, which is less than the critical

t value at 25 degrees of freedom. Therefore, gender did not significantly impact the

number of computer activities that the students could use independently.

Also an independent t-test was run to explore whether gender was significant in

regard to the frequency with which the students used various computer applications.

Once again the computed t value of -.629 was below the critical t value for 25 degrees

of freedom at the .05 level of a 2-tailed test. Thus, gender was not a significant factor in

the frequency of using various computer applications. In summary, it was determined

that gender did not play a role in this study.

Conclusion

In summation, Chapter 4 gave a detailed explanation of how the data were

analyzed and answered each research question. Also included was descriptive

information collected from the Demographic Survey. The chapter was concluded with

discussing gender relationship to the research, but students’ gender did not prove to be

relevant to the findings. Chapter 5 summarizes the presented data in Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This study was a descriptive analysis of computer usage and skills of academic

students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and served within the Region 10

Education Service Center service area. Chapter 5 presents an overview of the

methodology used in this research and a summary of the findings. The chapter also

addresses implications of the findings and recommendations for future research.

Methodology

A purposeful criterion sample of academic students who are legally blind

attending public schools within the Region 10 Education Service Center service area

was used rather than a random sample in order to collect data that could be used in the

regional planning process, and to design a system that other regions within the state

could emulate. Thus this research consisted of all the students attending public schools

within the Region 10 area who are legally blind, in grades 10-11 and whose district,

parents and students, themselves, gave consent for participation. Twenty-seven

students were included in this research process. Unlike previous studies, which relied

exclusively on surveying teachers to obtain information regarding computer abilities of

students with visual impairments, this process obtained first-hand student information by

surveying and interviewing the students directly. This study explored the students’

perceptions of their basic computer skills and utilization of the computer both at home

and at school. Data were acquired from surveying all of the 27 students and

interviewing 11 of the students chosen randomly. In addition, a comprehensive analysis

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of prior research was completed regarding computer skills needed for success in post-

secondary education and employment as well as research concerning how sighted

students used the computer. Then, the data obtained from the surveys and interviews

were compared to the results of the literature analysis.

Using both quantitative (surveys) and qualitative (interviews) research methods

allowed a thorough depiction of computer skills and usage by academic students in

grades 10-12 who are legally blind. Three survey instruments were administered by the

students’ teachers of the visually impaired to obtain the quantitative data:

1. 2002 Survey of Student Demographics

2. 2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

3. Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments.

Qualitative data were collected by the researcher who randomly selected 11

students and interviewed them, using the 2002 Interview Questions regarding their

computer skills and usage and plans for the future. The qualitative data provided

enrichment and triangulation of the quantitative data. A standardized open-ended

interview process combined with a conversational interview strategy was used. The

interview protocol provided the researcher a structured interview process but allowed for

further probing of responses when needed.

Information gathered through the surveys and interviews in combination with the

literature analysis provided a comprehensive description of the computer abilities of

students who are legally blind. The data will be used in the regional planning process at

Region 10 Education Service Center to enhance and improve the computer training of

students with significant visual loss within the region. In addition, this study provides a

88

process that other regions in the state may duplicate to document the computer skills

and usage of students with significant visual impairments in their region.

Summary of the Findings

This project was based on six research questions and three hypotheses

regarding the computer skills and usage of academic students in grades 10-12 who are

legally blind and attending public schools within the Region 10 Education Service

Center service area:

1. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind report that they have mastered

basic computer skills necessary for successful transition from school to post-

secondary vocational opportunities?

2. Are students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind exceptionally experienced or

inexperienced with specific computer skills addressed on the Region 10 Basic

Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments?

3. Is the score on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual

Impairments related to the number of completed computer courses by students in

grades 10-12 who are legally blind?

Null Hypothesis: The number of computer courses completed by the students will

have no association with the student scores on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey

for Students with Visual Impairments.

4. Does the environment (home, school or both) in which students in grades 10-12

who are legally blind utilize the computer affect their abilities to independently

use the computer for a variety of activities and the frequency with which they use

the computer for these activities?

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Null Hypothesis 4.1: There will be no significant difference between the

environment in which the students use the computer and their abilities to

independently use the computer for a variety of activities.

Null Hypothesis 4.2: There will be no significant difference between the

environment in which the students use the computer and the frequency with

which the students utilize the computer for a variety of activities.

5. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind use the computer similarly to

their sighted peers?

6. Do students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind perceive that they will graduate

with the computer skills needed to be successful when they graduate from high

school?

Research Question 1

Research question one was developed to examine whether students in grades

10-12 who are legally blind reported that they had mastered basic computer skills

necessary for successful transition from school to post-secondary vocational

opportunities. To address this question, teachers of the visually impaired surveyed their

students using the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments.

This survey was constructed after an examination of the literature regarding skills

needed in the workplace and from a bank of basic computer skills survey items

developed by High Plains Regional Technology in Education Consortium (HPR*TEC).

Then the survey was validated through professional review.

Of the 100 possible points on this survey, 26% of the students scored between

75-100, 41% scored between 50-74, and 33% scored between 25-49. These results

90

indicated that 74% of the students were inexperienced with many of the skills addressed

by the Basic Skills Survey. Thus, it does not appear that the majority of the students

with legal blindness in Region 10 public schools report that they have mastered basic

computer skills necessary for successful transition from school to post-secondary

vocational opportunities.

Research Question 2

Research question two was constructed to explore whether students in grades

10-12 who are legally blind were exceptionally experienced or inexperienced with

specific computer skills addressed on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students

with Visual Impairments. The majority of the students indicated that they were experts

or exceptionally experienced with only 9% of the skill items. Those skill items were as

follows:

Item 1. Start up and shut down the computer; open and close an

application/program; insert a removable disk (floppy disk, CD-ROM)

Item 17. Send and open email messages

Item 23. Print from a website.

Furthermore, the student responses indicated that a majority of the students

were exceptionally inexperienced or had no experience with 36% of the survey items

including the following:

Item 8 Solve common printing problems

Item 9 Install/reinstall printer drivers

Item 10 Install application software

Item 11 Create and maintain backups

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Item 15 Create a report (query/find request) in a database and sort the results

Item 16 Use calendar/planning software

Item 20 Create and use bookmarks/favorites

Item 25 Scan a document.

Thus on 9% of the skill items more than 50% of the students believed they were experts

with the skills, and on 36% of the items, more than 50% of the students indicated that

they were exceptionally inexperienced with these skill items.

When dividing all the survey items into two categories of Experienced and

Inexperienced, the items were categorized as 36% and 64% respectively. HPR*TEC’s

survey framework of basic computer skills further categorized the items listed on the

Basic Skills Survey into five skill areas. Items 1-5 were categorized as Operating

System skills, items 6-11 were Troubleshooting and Maintenance skills, items 12-16

were Tool Applications skills, items 17-23 were Internet and Telecommunications skills

and items 24 and 25 were Multimedia skills. The majority of the students had more

experience with Operating System skills than with any other skill area.

More than 50% of the students were extremely experienced (experts) or

experienced (comfortable) with the Operating System skills. The students were least

experienced with skills in sections related to Tool Applications and Multimedia. More

than 50% of the students rated themselves as inexperienced (only somewhat familiar)

or extremely inexperienced (no experience) on these items (See Table 11).

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Table 11. Experience Ratings within Skill Categories of the Basic Skills Survey

Skills Categories

Skill Category

Items

<50%

Experienced

<50%

Inexperienced

Operating System 1-5

100% 0%

Troubleshooting and Maintenance

6-11 17% 83%

Tool Applications 12-16

0% 100%

Internet and Telecommunications

17-23 43% 57%

Multimedia 24-15 0% 100%

Note. Experienced = comfortable or expert with skill items; Inexperienced = somewhat

familiar or no experience with skill items.

Thus there was only one skill category, Operating Systems, where all the items

were categorized as Experienced by the students rating themselves as either

comfortable with these tasks or experts. Three of the other five skill categories were

consider to be areas where the majority of the students were inexperienced, with the

category of Internet and Telecommunications as being somewhat split between

experience level ratings. In summary, analysis of the student responses to the Region

10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments indicated that the students

appeared inexperienced with more basic skills than they were experienced.

Research Question 3

Research question three was devised to explore whether the scores on the

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments was related to the

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number of computer courses completed by students in grades 10-12 who are legally

blind. The null hypothesis for this question stated: The number of computer courses

completed by the students will have no association with the student scores on the

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments. This null

hypothesis was retained, as it was determined that there was no correlation between

the number of computer courses that the students had taken and their scores on the

Basic Skills Survey. All but one student had completed at least one computer course

and some students had completed as many as five courses. To illustrate the

discrepancy between computer courses completed and survey scores, it was noted that

of the two students who had taken five courses, one student scored 50 points on the

Basic Skills Survey and the other scored 95 points.

Of the 11 students interviewed, only 27% of the students believed that they had

the skills necessary to be successful when they graduate from high school. Thus it was

interesting to note that mastery of basic computer skills could not be predicted from

examining the number of computer courses taken by the students. Some students who

had taken several courses had low scores on the Basic Skills Survey while other

students who had taken only one course had higher scores. One cannot assume that

students who have completed even five computer courses are competent computer

users. It is necessary to evaluate each individual student to assure that they have

mastery of the skills necessary for post-secondary endeavors.

Research Question 4

The supposition behind research question four was whether the environment

(home, school, or both) in which the students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind

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utilized the computer impacted their abilities to independently use the computer and the

frequency with which they use the computer for a variety of activities. This research

revealed that all but one student (who indicated that he did not use a computer of any

kind) used the computer in the school environment, and 67% of the students used the

computer both in the home and school setting. Null hypothesis 4.1, which stated that

there will be no significant difference between the environment in which the students

use the computer and their abilities to independently use the computer for a variety of

activities, was rejected. Students, who used the computer both at home and at school,

independently utilized the computer for a wider variety of activities than those students

who exclusively used the computer at school.

Ninety-six percent of all the students, including those who only used the

computer at school, indicated they independently could use a word processor, and 92%

of all the students indicated that they independently could use the Internet. However,

those who utilized the computer in both the home and school environments were more

likely to use email, spreadsheets, games, multi-media software, databases, calendars,

electronic shopping and checkbook management independently than those who only

used the computer at school.

Null hypothesis 4.2 proposed that there will be no significant difference between

the environment in which the students use the computer and the frequency with which

the students utilize the computer for a variety of activities. This null hypothesis also was

rejected. Students who used the computer in both the school and home environment

used the computer more frequently with a variety of activities than those who only used

the school computer. The majority of the students who used the computer in both

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environments utilized email and the Internet at least weekly while those who used the

computer solely at school did not. Word processing and playing games were the only

computer-based activities that were more frequently used by students who utilized the

computer only at school. The least frequently used computer activities by both groups

were multi-media software, spreadsheets, databases, calendars, electronic shopping

and checkbook management. Yet, the students who used the computer in both

environments more frequently used these applications compared to those who only

used the school computer. Therefore students who utilized the computer in both the

school and home environment more frequently used the computer for a wider variety of

activities than those who only used the computer at school.

Thus it would seem that it is important to ensure that students who are legally

blind have accessible computers at home. Of the four students, who were interviewed

who did not have a home computer (or one that worked), three responded to the

question, “Do you wish you had additional computer equipment?” by indicating that they

wanted a laptop in order to have computer access both at school and at home. Utilizing

the computer in both environments allowed students to become more independent and

more frequently utilize a wider variety of computer applications.

Research Question 5

Research question five was posed to inquire whether students in grades 10-12

who are legally blind used the computer similarly to their sighted peers. Information

gathered from the literature regarding how sighted students used the computer was

compared to quantitative survey data and qualitative interview data. For instance,

research conducted by Carey & Gall (1986) found that sighted students who used the

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computer at home utilized the computer for a wider variety of computer applications

than those sighted students who used the computer only at school. While addressing

research question four, this researcher concluded that students who are legally blind

and who used the computer both at home and school were more likely to use the

computer for a wider variety of activities than those who just used the computer at

school. Therefore, the premise that home computer usage is important in regard to the

extent that the students used the computer seemed to apply to both sighted and legally

blind students.

Doherty and Orlofsky (2001) discovered that more than half of the sighted

students in their research project learned most of their computer skills at home.

However the responses from the interviews of students who are legally blind indicated

that the majority of students learned most of their computer skills at school. The fact that

the students might have more assistance at school with their accessibility equipment

possibly could explain this difference. However, exactly why students who are legally

blind seemed to learn more skills at school rather than at home as did their sighted

peers would require further research.

Houtz and Gupta’s (2001) research indicated that sighted students in high school

used the computer most often for word processing, Internet searching and playing

games and less often for emailing. Sighted students rarely used the computer for

listening to music. This study determined that students who are legally blind also

frequently used the computer for Internet searching, word processing, emailing and

playing games, but students with significant visual loss were more likely to use the

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computer to listen to music than their sighted counterparts. Student who are legally

blind were more likely to listen to music than to play computer games.

Both students who are sighted and those who are legally blind rarely involved

themselves in using spreadsheets and databases. Spreadsheets and databases were

the least used programs by sighted students according to Snyder (1997) and Pelgrum,

Janssen & Plomp (1993). Of the legally blind students surveyed, 89% of the students

indicated that they never or only sometimes used databases, and 92% reported that

they never or only sometimes used spreadsheets. In regard to these applications

sighted students and students with significant visual loss were very similar.

Lauman (2000) found that most sighted students preferred to use the computer

for gaming or recreational-type activities rather than for schoolwork. Snyder (1997) also

disclosed that only 39% of the secondary students who utilized the computer at home

used it for schoolwork. Over half of the students who are legally blind indicated that they

mainly used the computer for personal reasons such as emailing and listening to music.

This finding was validated by the interview process where 67% of the students

interviewed reported they preferred to use the home computer compared to the school

computer because they used it mainly for personal reasons such as to play games or

Internet surf. Again students who are legally blind had similar computer usage as their

sighted peers in that both groups of students used the computer more for personal

reasons than for schoolwork.

Students, both sighted and legally blind, appeared to use the computer in very

similar ways except that students who are legally blind used the computer to listen to

music more than did their sighted peers. In addition, students with significant visual loss

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learned most of their computer skills in the school environment while sighted students

learned much of their computer knowledge at home.

Research Question 6

Research question six was constructed to inquire whether students in grades 10-

12 who are legally blind perceived that they will graduate with the computer skills

needed to be successful when they graduate from high school. The student responses

on the Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Visually Impaired indicated that 74% of the

students had not mastered basic computer skills as their scores were less than 75 of

100 points. This was further corroborated through the interview process where 73% of

the students indicated that they did not believe that they possessed all the necessary

computer skills to be successful upon graduation. Several students who were

interviewed even specified that they still needed to learn some basic skills such as

notetaking and typing.

Investigation of the literature revealed that the most important computer

applications perceived by businesses, universities and colleges were word processing,

spreadsheets and databases (Lifer, 1992, and Snyder, 1997). In addition employers

specified that email experience and Internet searching skills were important (Davis,

1997).

Fifty-five and fifty-two percent of the students reported that they independently

could use spreadsheets and databases, respectively. However, 89% of the students

stated that they rarely or never used spreadsheets and 92% said they rarely or never

used databases. In addition, skills related to spreadsheets and databases on the Basic

Skills Survey were rated low on the experience scale by more than half of the students.

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Therefore it did not appear that, even if the students believed that they could use

spreadsheets or databases independently, they actually practiced these skills very

often, or they had experience with many basic skills related to these applications.

Since Internet searching, word processing and emailing were the three most

frequently used computer applications by students who are legally blind, it would

appear, at first glance, that the students should be competent in their abilities to use

these computer applications. However, after examining how frequently the students

used these software applications, it became clear that many students used them less

than weekly. Furthermore on the Basic Skills Survey, the students did not rate

themselves as being experienced with the majority of the skills involved in using these

applications. Thus, it would seem that students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind

need more practice and perhaps more instruction in Internet searching, word processing

and emailing.

Snyder (1997) also found that 44% of employees were using four or more

computer applications. Although students who are legally blind were being introduced to

many computer-based activities, those students who used the computer at home as

well as at school had more expertise with a greater variety of programs than those

students who only used the computer at school. Nevertheless as noted before, many

students were not using the applications on a regular basis (at least weekly) and did not

rate themselves as proficient with the various computer application skills needed to be

successful in post-secondary education and employment. Therefore, assuring that

students are proficient as well as regularly using software applications such as word

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processing, Internet searching, emailing, spreadsheets and databases should be a

priority in the students’ school curriculum and programming.

Implications of the Findings

Students who are legally blind were taking computer courses along with their

sighted peers, as the average number of computer courses taken by the students was

1.9. In addition 33% of the students were using some type of assistive technology to

access the computer. However, 74% of the students in grades 10-12 had little

experience with many of the basic computer skills needed for vocational success.

Although the students who are legally blind were using the computer similarly to their

sighted peers, the students lacked proficiency with a variety of computer applications

needed for post-secondary success and did not use these applications on a regular

basis. Most of the students did not profess to be competent computer users. In fact, of

those who were interviewed, 73% indicated that they had not learned all the computer

skills they would need upon graduation.

Therefore there are some implications for administrators and teachers of the

visually impaired as well as regional education service centers in the state of Texas.

First, administrators need to devise an accountability system that will assure that

students who are legally blind not only attend computer courses, but also become

proficient and competent computer users. Since monies are being spent annually to

provide access equipment for these students and the Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997, Part B provides that public school districts

must “ensure that all children with disabilities have available to them a free appropriate

public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to

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meet their unique needs and prepare them for employment and independent living”

(Section 300.1(a)), administrators need to ensure that programs for students with

significant visual loss will lead to post-graduation success.

One of the ways to ensure success by academic students who are legally blind is

to address not only content area skills and knowledge that will be tested through state

assessment, but the extended core curriculum areas which include computer skills.

Computer skills are essential for post-secondary success both in the education arena

and in the workforce. “If students with visual impairments are going to be competitive in

the workplace and independent in their access of information, it is imperative that they

have experience with a wide range of technology and that their instructors, if not

knowledgeable themselves, have access to resources to facilitate instruction in and the

adaptation of technology” (Corn & Wall, 2002, p. 207). Thus, administrators need to

establish accountability standards in the area of computer skills for students who are

legally blind and need to ensure that teachers of the visually impaired have the skills

and knowledge to assist their students.

In addition, administrators may want to explore the options for ensuring that

students have accessible computers within the home environment. This study with

students who are legally blind and research regarding sighted students confirmed that

students who used the computer at home were more proficient, and used the computer

more frequently with a greater variety of computer applications, than those students

who only used the computer at school.

Second, teachers of the visually impaired need to use surveys, such as those

within this research project, to evaluate individual student perceptions of their own

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computer abilities. The teachers cannot assume that since the student has had one or

more computer courses, the student has learned all the skills necessary for success

upon graduation. Although it may or may not be the responsibility of the teacher of the

visually impaired to actually instruct the student in these skills, the teacher needs to

ensure that the student has an accessible computer and has knowledge in how to use

the assistive technology. In addition, the teacher of the visually impaired may need to

assist the ARD committee in setting computer skill development as a priority by

presenting evaluation data to the committee in order explore instructional options to

address deficit skills.

Finally, regional education service centers within the state of Texas are

responsible for developing a plan to ensure that students with visual impairments are

receiving comprehensive services not only in academic areas but also in compensatory

skill areas including computer skills. Thus, education service centers may want to use a

process such as the one used in this investigation to evaluate students’ computer skills

and usage on a regional level. Data collected from such a systematic process can assist

regional education service centers in developing appropriate professional development

opportunities and other regional activities for teachers, parents, and students to address

identified needs.

Recommendations for Future Research

This study has provided a descriptive analysis of computer skills and usage of

academic students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind and attending public school in

the Region 10 Education Service Center area. Duplication of this research in other

regions around the state of Texas could provide information regarding statewide trends

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and increase the ability to generalize these findings. In addition, the process might be

conducted with other children who are visually impaired but not legally blind, or with

children who do not have visual limitations. These additional data could provide

comparison information that would be useful in programming for students with visual

impairments.

Furthermore, a follow-up study of the students participating in this research

regarding their post-secondary success in educational and vocational endeavors could

further validate the findings of this research. A follow-up study also could provide

additional information regarding what computer skills were most important to individuals

with significant visual loss upon graduation from high school. Abner and Lahm (2002)

proposed that “further research on the role of technology in the workplace will help

educators streamline a curriculum for students…[and] help determine the competencies

that teachers need” (p. 105).

In addition, prior research suggested that one of the major barriers for students

learning technology (Abner & Lahm, 2002; Corn & Wall, 2000; Edward & Lewis, 1998,

Kapperman, Sticken, & Heinze, 2002) was that teachers of the visually impaired need

more training in its use. A study might be conducted in which teachers of the visually

impaired, as well as their students, complete the Computer Usage Survey and the Basic

Skills Survey to determine whether there is a correlation between the usage and skills of

the teachers and the usage and skills of their students. Do teachers who use the

computer frequently with a variety of applications and who have a high level of

experience regarding basic skills have students who also use the computer frequently

and competently with a variety of computer-based activities?

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Conclusion

This study has met its purpose of providing descriptive information about the

computer usage and skills of academic students in grades 10-12 who are legally blind

and attending public schools in the Region 10 Education Service Center area. In

addition, this research process has proven to be a viable process that other regional

education service centers or agencies can emulate in order to document the computer

usage and skills of students with visual impairments in their region. The data from this

study currently are being utilized by Region 10 Education Service Center for regional

planning purposes to address deficit skill areas and to assure that students who are

legally blind will graduate with the skills they need for success upon graduation from

high school.

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APPENDIX A

2002 SURVEY OF STUDENT DEMOGRAPHICS

106

Appendix A

2002 Survey of Student Demographics

ID # Gender: M F School District: Grade Enrolled: Primary Reading Medium (circle only one):

Braille Large print Regular print Auditory 1. I use a laptop, desktop and/or portable notetaker (circle one): daily weekly sometimes never 2. I have completed computer class(es). (indicate number) 3. I have completed these computer courses. 4. I use the following equipment (check ALL that apply):

a. Windows platform computer b. Mac platform computer c. Laptop d. Scanner e. Print printer f. Braille printer g. Refreshable Braille Devices (e.g. ALVA Braille Terminal, Key Braille, Navigator) h. Portable Notetaker (e.g., BrailleNote, Braille ‘n Speak, Mountbatten Brailler, Pocket Braille) i. Speech Access (e.g., ASAP, JAWS, Vocal-EYES) j. Enlarging Hardware/Software (e.g., Infocus, MAGic, Maxi- Screen, Zoomtext) k. Other: specify

Certified Teacher of the Visually Impaired Comments (optional):

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APPENDIX B

2002 SURVEY OF STUDENT COMPUTER USAGE

108

Appendix B

2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

ID # 1. I use a computer (laptop, desktop, and/or portable notetaker):

Only at school Only at home At school and at home I do not use a computer of any kind

2. With or without adaptive software/equipment, I independently can use the

computer for the following purposes (check ALL that apply). a) calendar/planning b) checkbook management c) database management (e.g., address and phone

number database) d) electronic shopping e) email/telecommunicating f) games g) internet searching/browsing h) listening to music i) multi-media software (PowerPoint) j) spreadsheets

k) word processing

3. With or without adaptive software/equipment, how often do you use the computer for the following purposes?

daily weekly sometimes never a) calendar/planning 4 3 2 1 b) checkbook management 4 3 2 1 c) database management 4 3 2 1 d) electronic shopping 4 3 2 1 e) email/telecommunicating 4 3 2 1 f) games 4 3 2 1 g) internet searching/browsing 4 3 2 1 h) listening to music 4 3 2 1 i) multi-media software (PowerPoint) 4 3 2 1 j) spreadsheets 4 3 2 1 k) word processing 4 3 2 1

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4. I use the computer more frequently for (choose one): Completing school assignments and homework Playing games and/or personal reasons (i.e., emailing, address and phone log, listening to music, etc.)

Devised from: Edwards, B. J., & Lewis, S. (1998). Assistive Device Surveys used in the study regarding The Use of Technology in Programs for Students with Visual Impairments in Florida. Unpublished Survey Instruments, Florida State University at Tallahassee, Fl.

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APPENDIX C

REGION 10 BASIC SKILLS SURVEY FOR STUDENTS

WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

111

Appendix C

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students

with Visual Impairments.

ID # __________________

Instructions: Please complete the survey below by selecting one of the choices (indicating your best estimate of your skill or knowledge level) about each of the technology related indicators. A 4 means that you are very knowledgeable and an expert with a particular skill indicator whereas a 1 means that you have no experience with this skill Groups: Operating System

Troubleshooting and Maintenance

Tool Applications

Internet and Telecommunications

Multimedia

Choices:

1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

Questions: 1 Start up and shut down the computer; open and close an application/program;

insert and eject a removable disk (floppy disk, CD-ROM) 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

2 Open a file from a floppy disk or a local or network hard drive 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

3 Save a file to a floppy disk or to a specific location on a local or network hard drive 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

4 Create, copy, move, rename, and delete folders

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1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

5 Cut, copy, and paste text both within an application and between multiple open applications 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

6 Use the find command to find files on the computer 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

7 Correct a locked-up computer 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

8 Solve common printing problems 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

9 Install/reinstall printer drivers 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

10 Install application software 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

11 Create and maintain backups 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

12 Use a word processor for classroom notetaking 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this.

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3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

13 Use advanced features of a word processor (tables, headers and footers, macros, table of contents, columns, etc.) 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

14 Use formulas and/or functions in a spreadsheet 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

15 Create a report (query/find request) in a database and sort the results 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

16 Use calendar/planning software 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

17 Send and open email messages 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

18 Manage names and groups in an email address book 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

19 Send and open email attachments 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

20 Create and use bookmarks/favorites 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

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21 Locate websites for classroom use or for research 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

22 Use multiple Internet search engines 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

23 Print from a website 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

24 Use PowerPoint as a presentation tool 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

25 Scan a document 1. I have no experience with this. 2. I am somewhat familiar with this. 3. I am comfortable with this. 4. I am an expert at this.

Profiler is provided by: HPRTEC Logo

Altec Logo

Profiler copyright © 1996-2000 SCR*TEC; copyright © 2001-2002 HPR*TEC

Used with permission from: High Plains R*TEC. (2000). http://profiler.hprtec.org/survey_wizard/preview.jsp

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APPENDIX D

2002 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

116

Appendix D

2002 Interview Questions

ID #

1. Do you use the computer more at home or at school? a. home b. school

2. Why do you use the computer more at home or school (the one chosen above)? a. convenience b. more accessible c. more assistance d. use mainly for schoolwork

e. use mainly for homework f. Other reasons

3. What type of program(s) do you use mostly when you use the computer at

home? a. word processing, purpose? b. email, with whom? c. Internet, searching or chatting? d. games, specify

4. What type of program(s) do you use mostly when you use the computer at

school? a. word processing, purpose? b. Internet, purpose? c. group projects, example

5. What would be necessary for you to use the computer more frequently? a. better equipment b. faster equipment c. more accessible d. more training e. more time to use equipment f. never would use it, unless I have to g. Other reasons

6. Do you wish you had additional computer equipment? a. No b. Yes, specify

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7. What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school?

a. Go to a college/university b. Go to a trade school c. Work d. Other: e. Don’t know

8. If you said a, b, or c in the above question, do you think you will use a computer in this endeavor? a. Yes b. No, why not?

9. Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate from high school? a. Yes b. No Comments:

Devised from: Henry, E. O. (1999). How High School Students Choose to Use Computer Technology: A Case Study. UMI Microform. (UMI No. 9942214).

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APPENDIX E

PLAN FOR OBTAINING PARENT

AND STUDENT CONSENT

119

Appendix E

Plan for Obtaining Parent and Student Consent

This plan for obtaining parent and student consent is based on the following

objectives:

1. To assure that all procedural safeguards regarding student confidentiality are

followed

2. To assure that all parties involved are fully informed and understand they may

choose not to participate and/or that they may withdraw from the process at any time

3. To cause minimal disruption to the student’s educational program

a) Involving the student’s teacher of the visually impaired in this process will

afford efficient communication with principals and parents as rapport already

has been established.

b) The student’s teacher of the visually impaired will be able to best address

parent concerns about when the surveys will be conducted.

c) The relationship of trust between the parent, student and teacher of the

visually impaired is critical in assuring parents that all safeguards outlined

within the consent form will be followed.

d) This researcher, who has an established relationship with each teacher of the

visually impaired, believes that working through local ISD personnel will be

the most effective and efficient method of obtaining consents as each ISD has

different procedures and policies that the researcher may not be privy.

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Steps For Obtaining Parent And Student Consent

1. The researcher will discuss research process with each teacher of the visually

impaired either individually or in small groups of 3-4 (depending on the number

involved in each district). During this discussion the following points will be

emphasized:

a. Principals at each school should be made aware and give approval of the

research process prior to obtaining consents.

b. Parent consent must be obtained for students under the age of 18 prior to

conducting the surveys. Parents of students 18 or older should be informed of

the process.

c. Student consent must be obtained.

d. Parents have the right to deny student participation.

e. Students have the right not to participate or withdraw from the research process

at any time.

f. Students should not be coerced in anyway to participate in the process.

g. Surveys marked SAMPLE will be provided for principal and parent review.

1. Teachers of the visually impaired will contact parents by phone and provide an

overview of the research process and indicate that the consent forms will be sent

home for a parent signature. The process will not begin until the consent form has

been returned to the school.

2. Two copies of the consent form will be sent home for parent signature, one for the

parent to keep and one for the parent to return to the school.

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3. Once parent signature has been obtained, the teacher of the visually impaired will

read the consent form to the student in the presence of another school personnel. If

the student agrees to participate, the students will be assisted in signing the form.

Then, the teacher of the visually impaired will sign the form as well as the witness.

Two copies will be made.

4. One copy of the signed consent form will be sent home to the parent. The second

copy will be kept by the ISD, and the original will be sent to Region 10 ESC. Upon

receipt, the official surveys with IRB stamped approval will be sent to the teacher of

the visually impaired for completion with the student.

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APPENDIX F

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CERTIFIED TEACHER

OF THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED

123

Appendix F

Instructions for the Certified Teacher of the Visually Impaired

Tell the student the following:

• “Your participation is needed in completing the following surveys to gain your

perspective regarding how you use the computer and your computer skills

abilities.

• These surveys are a part of a University of North Texas doctoral dissertation

study examining the computer skills and usage of students who are in grades 10-

12.

• Your individual answers will not be reported. Your scores will be compiled with

other student scores. All information you provide today will be confidential. Your

name will not be associated with the information that you provide.

• Your willingness to participate and give your teacher accurate information about

how you use the computer and your skill abilities is greatly appreciated.”

Complete the consent form. Read the cover letter to student and assist student in

signing the form if the student chooses to participate. Parent permission must be

obtained prior to conducting the surveys if student is under 18 years of age.

2002 Survey of Student Demographics

TVI--Please complete the first three lines of this survey yourself.

• ID#--please indicated the ID number that was given to you by the researcher.

The student name or initials should not appear on the response forms.

• Complete questions regarding Gender, School District and Grade Enrolled of the

student.

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• Primary Reading Medium—use the information from the most recent Learning

Media Assessment to determine the student’s primary reading medium.

At the 1., begin reading each statement to the student and the following prompts. The

student may look at the statements, if needed.

• Do not coach the student. However you may clarify terms if needed.

• Complete the statements with the exact information that the student provides,

without editing.

Certified teacher of the visually impaired comments (optional)

• If you would like to make any comments regarding the student information on this

survey, please use the last section.

2002 Survey of Student Computer Usage

Read each statement to the student and the following prompts. The student may look at

each statement, if needed.

• Do not coach the student. However, you may clarify terms if needed.

• Complete the statements with the exact information that the student provides,

without editing.

Region 10 Basic Skills Survey for Students with Visual Impairments

Read each statement to the student and the following prompts.

• Do not coach the student. However, you may clarify terms if needed.

• Circle the appropriate statement as indicated by the student.

Return consent form in envelope labeled “Consent Form”. Put completed surveys in the

envelope labeled “Surveys”. Return both envelopes using district van mail or in the U.S.

mail to: Kitra Gray, Region 10 ESC, P.O. Box 831300, Richardson, TX 75083-1300.

125

APPENDIX G

INITIAL CODING OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

126

Appendix G

Initial Coding of Interview Questions

Table 12. Initial Coding of Interview Questions

Code ID# Question # Responses

1 Do you use the computer more at home or at school?

h 14

I use it more at home

h 18

At home

s 21

At school

s 22

At school

s 24

At school

h 30

At home

h 35

I use the computer more at home

s 37

At school

h 38

At home

s 42

School

h 45

Home

h = home; s = school

127

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

2 Why do you use the computer more at home or school?

p 14

Personal reason, internet surfing and more for the use of

writing my novel--home

p 18

Home- Gain information or learn information by picking up

tips from books, and science most of all R. When you are

using the computer? S Yes

p/sw 21

Sometimes I go on the Internet and play around or do work

for Mr. [teacher's name]

o 22

Because I don’t have one at home

sw 24

I use it for schoolwork

p 30

Because its personal I guess at home

p 35

Because I like to play the games like solitaire, get on the

internet

sw 37

Research

p 38

More comfortable with it at home; Like being able to just ask

my family more for help for things I really don’t know

128

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

sw 42

Because I have a computer class and we do stuff on the

computer like we go into the Internet or we do a PowerPoint

thing and my teachers name is Mrs. [name] and we like a

what you call it, like you are trying to color and we do multiple

choice.

p 45

More convenient, I don’t like getting on up here

p = personal reason; sw = schoolwork

3 What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at home?

wp, me, I, g, o

14

Microsoft office the entire application and in Microsoft Office I

use Microsoft Word, the most, followed by Microsoft Money,

Excel and Access in that order and I use Internet Explorer

and just one game I have and basically that’s it and whatever

application tools I have on the computer to maintain it

g, wp, I

18

I use pinball; that’s one of the necessary games I play when I

don’t have anything else to do. And processing programs like

typing; but mainly Internet

g, wp, I

21

R Do you have a computer at home? Yeh I have one but the

keyboard broke; It had games on there and we played on it

129

Table 12 continued.

Code ID# Question # Responses

n 22

You don’t have a laptop or anything that you take home?--NO

So if you had a computer at home would you use it there?

Yes; Would you like to have a computer at home? Yes;

Practice and do work that I need to turn in

n 24

R You don’ t really use it at home for anything? S Nope

I, wp, o

30

Internet, Microsoft word and media-player

w, e, I, g

35

Well, I use Windows; Like email, Internet, games; I probably

use the games the most.

w,I 37

Microsoft Windows and Internet

I, o 38

Mainly use Encarta and the Internet

h 42

I don’t have one

I 45

The Internet

wp = word processing; me = Microsoft excel; e = email; w =

windows; I = Internet; g = games; o = other; n = don't use

computer at home

4 What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at school?

I, mw 14

Internet Explorer and Microsoft Word

I 18

The Internet

130

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

wp 21

I just go in there and look around in Mr. [teacher’s name]

class Zoomtext and typing program; Just type where you

learn how to type good

wp, I 22

Word processing; A little bit of the Internet

wp 24

Just mainly input information

30

Same thing (as home—Internet, Microsoft word and media-

player)

wp 35

I used Microsoft Word mainly

I 37

Internet

I 38

Internet

wp, I, o

42

Microsoft Word or Internet, and document thing like where

you make stuff like hearts and stars and stuff

wp 45

Word

wp = word processing; me = Microsoft excel; e = email; w =

windows; I = Internet; g = games; o = other; n = don’t use

computer at school

5 What would be necessary for you to use the computer more

frequently?

131

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

f 14

Well, a faster hard drive and actually through this year all I

have learned, to utilize my computer for fit my needs;

Basically that’s all I need a computer and a faster hard drive

f 18

Faster equipment; I go on the computer and it takes forever

to load up

I 21

I don’t know; a keyboard that works; Internet hookup, but I

don’t think I could get it

d 22

I don’t know; Every other day; I don’t know how to answer

that.

d 24

I don’t know. No comment

o 30

One in my room.

d 35

I don’t know; its just fun to use

d/f 37

I don’t know; Oh, more faster

o 38

Probably just people being there to help me

o 42

I need more training and more time

ad 45

More adaptive technology; Stuff to make the icons bigger and

stuff like that; like the start programs

f =faster; I = Internet; ad = adaptive technology; d = I don’t

know; o = other

132

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

6 Do you wish you had additional computer equipment?

n 14

None that I can think of

p 18

Scanner, printer, speakers

21

Laptop

lt 22

Yes; A laptop

n 24

Uh,not right now, no; R What about later? S Probably; I don’t

know, but I’m sure at some point I might be in the job force

n 30

No

n 35

I have everything I need

p 37

Faster modem, high tech stuff; hooking your video game box

up to the internet

n 38

No

lt 42

I wish I had a laptop

ad 45

It would be nice, but some things are overkill for what I need,

like Zoomtext is way too much for me; maybe half or 2 times

as much would be good, but its too much

p = peripherals; lt = laptop; ad = adaptive technology; n = no

133

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

7 What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school?

c 14

I plan to go to junior college for two years get an associate

degree with transferable credits. My goal is to transfer those

credits up to UT in Austin to get my accounting degree. And

then plan to get my MBA my executive MBA right after and

CPA license

c 18

I plan to become an artist; I want to go to art college

d/c 21

I don’t know right now.; Mrs. [teacher's name] is trying to find

me an art school to go into as she says I have great art skills

c 22

Go to college to be a nurse

c 24

Go to Criss Cole (Rehab. Center); Tyler Junior College

c 30

Well I plan to go to college

w 35

I’m probably going to work at the hospital in the nursery. ;Like

helping with the babies, I love babies

c 37

Go to college; Computer graphics or cooking school

c 38

Plan on going to community college for two years and get

some basics done and try to transfer to a university and work

on athletic trainer

c 42

I want to go to college; I want to be a singer, but I also want

to be a computer technician

134

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

c 45

Go to college; Physical education; Coach; Football, power

lifting, track, anything

c = college; w = work without post-secondary education

8 Will you use a computer in this endeavor?

y 14

Oh yes, Oh yes

y 18

Yes mam, very much R So you are going to use the

computer for your artwork, then? S Yes mam

y 21

I think so

y 22

Probably; Yes, I talked to the school nurse and she uses the

computer a lot

y 24

Yes

y 30

Yes, Assignments, help me study

n 35

I don’t know, probably not, like if I am working in the nursery,

I probably would not have to use the computer

y 37

Probably

y 38

Probably in college to get some studies done. With the

athletic training not mainly, but some work

y 42

Yeah; I think I will use to do my homework, picture things or

projects

135

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

y 45

Yes, probably; I have already taken an anatomy course. So I

will probably using stuff off the Internet to look up the human

body to map it out and stuff

y = yes; n = no

9 Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be

successful when you graduate from high school?

n 14

Not, all but most that I need for college...but afterwards when

I actually enter you know the career line in both my CPA and

MBA programs I have to learn the accounting programs,

Microsoft excel program, I have to master that, Access, and

even Microsoft Word, depending on the position I enter

n 18

No. Typing and a better way of how to use the scanner

n 21

I don’t know; I ain’t too good at find things Internet R So you

could use some better typing skills? S Yes

n 22

I think I would need more training; No, just to get the hang of

it

n 24

Uh, maybe not all the skills; I don’t know (what skills I will

need to learn)

y 30

I think I do, I’m not sure R You feel pretty confident in all the

skills areas? S Yes

136

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

n 35

Pretty much, like I can type really good.; Like, checking my

emails; I would love to learn how to download music

n 37

Not really; Like, take notes and stuff

n 38

Not really; Working with the Internet would be helpful, typing,

knowing how to use it more usefully R So some real basic

kind of skills? S Yeah

y 42

I think so

y 45

Yes

y = yes; n = no

10 Where did you learn most of your computer skills?

cc/f 14

Oh, most I have learned from school, but a good portion…like

not exactly half but a very good foundation for it at home.

One of my dad’s friends is a computer programmer. He is a

very good friend. So I learned the foundation of the computer

from him. So at school do you mean like computer

classes…? Computer classes, yes

n 18

Not asked

n 21

Not asked

cc 22

Computer class

vi 24

School from my vision teacher

137

Table 12 (continued).

Code ID# Question # Responses

cc 30

At school; Yes in BCIS

n 35

Not asked

s 37

I just learned by myself.; The teacher helped me some

cc 38

Mainly from computer classes in middle school and junior

high; I took the required BCIS, and Communications and

keyboarding in high school

n 42

Not asked

s 45

Just playing around with it, not really going with a mission but

just playing around to see what I can find out how to do

cc = computer class; f = friend; vi = vision teacher; s =s self; n

= not asked this question

138

APPENDIX H

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

139

Appendix H

Content Analysis Of Interview Questions

Eleven of the twenty-seven students were chosen randomly and interviewed to

triangulate the quantitative data that was gathered and to gain information to assist with

answering Research Questions 5 and 6. Since the students could provide more than

one response to each question, the total number of responses for a question may

surpass the number of interviewees. In addition, when student responses alone would

not be clear to the student meaning, more of the interview dialog is given under

Responses than just a student response. “R” in front of a phrase or questions indicates

the researcher was talking and “S” before a phrase indicates that the student was

responding. A similar process to the analysis interview framework developed by Henry

(1999) was utilized in this qualitative research analysis. The following tables review the

coding and data analysis for the interview responses.

140

Table 13. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 1: Do you use the computer more at home or at school? Question Number 1: Do you use the computer more at home or at school?

A B Student ID # Responses

1 14 I use it more at home

1 18 At home

1 21 At school

1 22 At school

1 24 At school

1 30 At home

1 35 I use the computer more at home

1 37 At school

1 38 At home

1 42 School

1 45 Home

6 5

Note. A= home, B=school

141

Table 14. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 2: Why do you use the

computer more at home or school?

Question Number 2: Why do you use the computer more at home or school?

A B C Student ID # Responses

Home(h)/School (s)

1 14 Personal reason, internet surfing and

more for the use of writing my novel

h

1 18 Gain information or learn information

by picking up tips from books, and

science most of all

R When you are using the computer?

S Yes

h

1 1 21 Sometimes I go on the Internet and

play around or do work for Mr. [a

teacher’s name]

s

1 22 Because I don’t have one at home s

1 24 I use it for schoolwork s

1 30 Because its personal I guess at home h

1 35 Because I like to play the games like

solitaire, get on the internet

h

1 37 Research s

142

Table 14 (continued).

Question Number 2: Why do you use the computer more at home or school?

A B C Student ID # Responses

Home(h)/School (s)

1 38 More comfortable with it at home; Like

being able to just ask my family more

for help for things I really don’t know

h

1 42 Because I have a computer class and

we do stuff on the computer

s

1 45 More convenient, I don’t like getting on

up here

h

6 5 2

Note. A= personal, B=schoolwork, C=other

143

Table 15. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 3: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the computer at home?

Question Number 3: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at home?

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Student ID #

Responses

1 1

1 1 1 14 Microsoft office the entire application and in

Microsoft Office I use Microsoft Word, the most,

followed by Microsoft Money, Excel and Access in

that order and I use Internet Explorer and just one

game I have and basically that’s it and whatever

application tools I have on the computer to

maintain it.

1 1 1 18 I use pinball; that’s one of the necessary games I

play when I don’t have anything else to do. And

processing programs like typing; but mainly

Internet

1 21 R Do you have a computer at home?

S Yeah I have one but the keyboard broke

1 22 R You don’t have a laptop or anything that you

use at home? S No

144

Table 15 (continued).

Question Number 3: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at home?

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

Student ID #

Responses

1 24 R You don’ t really use it at home for anything?

S Nope

1 1 1 30 Internet, Microsoft word and media-player

1 1 1 1 35 Well, I use Windows; Like email, Internet, games;

I probably use the games the most.

1 1 37 Microsoft Windows and Internet

1 1 38 Mainly use Encarta and the Internet

1 42 I don’t have one

1 45 The Internet

3 1 1 2 7 3 3 4

Note. A=word processing, B=spreadsheet (Excel), C=email, D=Windows, E=Internet,

F=games, G=other, H=doesn’t use the computer at home

145

Table 16. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 4: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the computer at school? Question Number 4: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at school?

A

B

C

D

E

F

G H Student ID#

Responses

1 1 14 Internet Explorer and Microsoft Word

1 18 The Internet

1 1 21 I just go in there and look around in Mr. [teacher’s

name] class Zoomtext and typing program; Just

type where you learn how to type good.

1 1 22 Word processing; A little bit of the Internet

1 24 Just mainly input information

1 1 1 30 Same thing (as home--Internet, Microsoft Word

and media-player)

1 35 I used Microsoft Word mainly

1 37 Internet

1 38 Internet

1 1 1 42 Microsoft Word or Internet, and document thing

like where you make stuff like hearts and stars

and stuff

146

Table 16 (continued). Question Number 4: What type of programs do you use mostly when you use the

computer at school?

A

B

C

D

E

F

G H Student ID#

Responses

1 45 Word

8 0 0 0 7 0 3

Note. A=word processing, B=spreadsheet (Excel), C=email, D=Windows, E=Internet,

F=games, G=other, H=doesn’t use the computer at school

Table 17. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 5: What would be necessary for you to use the computer more frequently? Question Number 5: What would be necessary for you to use the computer more

frequently?

A B C D E Student ID#

Responses

1 14 Well, a faster hard drive and actually through this

year all I have learned, to utilize my computer for

fit my needs. Basically that’s all I need a computer

and a faster hard drive.

1 18 Faster equipment. I go on the computer and it

takes forever to load up.

147

Table 17 (continued). Question Number 5: What would be necessary for you to use the computer more

frequently?

A B C D E Student ID#

Responses

1 1 21 I don’t know; a keyboard that works; Internet

hookup, but I don’t think I could get it

1 22 I don’t know; Every other day; I don’t know how to

answer that.

1 24 I don’t know. No comment

1 30 One in my room.

1 35 I don’t know; its just fun to use.

1 1 37 I don’t know; Oh, more faster

1 38 Probably just people being there to help me

42 I need more training and more time

1 1 45 More adaptive technology; Stuff to make the icons

bigger and stuff like that; like the start programs?

3 1 1 4 4

Note. A=faster, B=Internet, C=adaptive technology, D=I don’t know, E=other

148

Table 18.

Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 6: Do you wish you had

additional computer equipment?

Question Number 6: Do you wish you had additional computer equipment?

A B C D Student #

Reponses

1 14 None that I can think of

1 18 Scanner, printer, speakers

1 21 Laptop

1 22 Yes; A laptop

1 24 Not right now, no

1 30 No

1 35 I have everything I need

1 37 Faster modem, high tech stuff; hooking your video

game box up to the internet

1 38 No

1 42 I wish I had a laptop

1 45 It would be nice, but some things are overkill for

what I need, like Zoomtext is way too much for

me; maybe half or 2 times as much would be

good, but its too much

2 3

1 5

Note. A=peripherals, B=laptop, C=adaptive technology, D=no

149

Table 19. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 7: What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school? Question Number 7: What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 14 I plan to go to junior college for two years get an

associate degree with transferable credits. My

goal is to transfer those credits up to UT in Austin

to get my accounting degree. And then plan to get

my MBA my executive MBA right after and CPA

license.

1 18 I plan to become an artist. I want to go to art

college.

1 21 I don’t know right now; Mrs. [teacher’s name] is

trying to find me an art school to go into as she

says I have great art skills

1 22 Go to college to be a nurse

1 24 Go to Criss Cole; Tyler Junior College

1 30 Well I plan to go to college

1 35 I’m probably going to work at the hospital in the

nursery; Like helping with the babies, I love babies

150

Table 19 (continued). Question Number 7: What do you plan to do when you graduate from high school?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 37 Go to college; Computer graphics or cooking

school

1 38 Plan on going to community college for two years

and get some basics done and try to transfer to a

university and work on athletic trainer.

1 42 I want to go to college; I want to be a singer, but I

also want to be a computer technician

1 45 Go to college; Physical education; Coach;

Football, power lifting, track, anything

10 1

Note. A=college, B=work without post-secondary education

151

Table 20. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 8: Will you use a computer in this endeavor? Question Number 8: Will you use a computer in this endeavor?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1

14

Oh yes, Oh yes.

1 18 Yes mam, very much; R So you are going to use

the computer for your artwork, then? Yes mam

1 21 I think so.

1 22 Probably; Yes, I talked to the school nurse and

she uses the computer a lot

1 24 Yes

1 30 Yes, Assignments, help me study

1 35 I don’t know, probably not, like if I am working in

the nursery, I probably would not have to use the

computer

1 37 Probably

1 38 Probably in college to get some studies done.

With the athletic training not mainly, but some

work

1 42 Yeah; I think I will use to do my homework, picture

things or projects

152

Table 20 (continued).

Question Number 8: Will you use a computer in this endeavor?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 45 Yes, probably; I have already taken an anatomy

course. So I will probably using stuff off the

Internet to look up the human body to map it out

and stuff.

10 1

Note. A=yes, B=no

Table 21. Content Analysis of Student Interview Question Number 9: Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate from high school? Question Number 9: Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate from high school?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 14 Not, all but most that I need for college

1 18 No; Typing and a better way of how to use the

scanner.

153

Table 21 (continued). Question Number 9: Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate from high school?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 21 I don’t know; I ain’t too good at find things Internet

R Anything else that you wish you had more skills

with? S Bigger keyboard; Its hard to see when I

look down. R So you could use some better

typing skills? S Yes

1 22 I think I would need more training; No, just to get

the hang of it

1 24 Uh, maybe not all the skills; I don’t know [what

skills I will need to learn]

1 30 I think I do, I’m not sure R You feel pretty

confident in all the skills areas? S Yes

1 35 Pretty much, like I can type really good; Like,

checking my emails; I would love to learn how to

download music

1 37 Not really; Like, take notes and stuff

154

Table 21 (continued). Question Number 9: Do you believe you have the computer skills needed to be successful when you graduate from high school?

A B Student ID#

Responses

1 38 Not really; Working with the Internet would be

helpful, typing, knowing how to use it more

usefully R So some real basic kind of skills?

S Yeah

1 42 I think so

1 45 Yes

3 8

Note. A=yes, B=no

155

Table 22. Content Analysis of Student Interview Conversational Question: Where did you learn

most of your computer skills?

Conversational Question: Where did you learn most of your computer skills?

A B C D E Student ID#

Responses

1 1 14 Oh, most I have learned from school, but a good

portion…like not exactly half but a very good

foundation for it at home. One of my dad’s friends

is a computer programmer. He is a very good

friend. So I learned the foundation of the computer

from him. So at school do you mean like computer

classes…? Computer classes, yes

1 18 Not asked

1 21 Not asked

1 22 Computer class

1 24 School from my vision teacher

1 30 At school; Yes in BCIS

1 35 Not asked

1

1 37 I just learned by myself; The teacher helped me

some

156

Table 22 (continued). Conversational Question: Where did you learn most of your computer skills?

A B C D E Student ID#

Responses

1 38 Mainly from computer classes in middle school

and junior high; I took the required BCIS, and

Communications and keyboarding in high school

1 42 Not asked

1 45 Just playing around with it, not really going with a

mission but just playing around to see what I can

find out how to do.

5 1 1 2 4

Note. A=computer courses, B=friend, C=vision teacher, D=self, E=not asked question

157

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