Computers: Computers: A short historyA short history

In the beginning….In the beginning….

The best place to begin is in the The best place to begin is in the beginning…beginning…

Man has been attempting to improve Man has been attempting to improve the accuracy and capability of it’s the accuracy and capability of it’s mathematical abilities since we mathematical abilities since we learned to count…..learned to count…..

Computers:Computers:Early AttemptsEarly Attempts

PascalPascal

Blaine Pascal (1623 – 1662)Blaine Pascal (1623 – 1662) Created a machine that was able to do Created a machine that was able to do

addition and subtraction by means of gears addition and subtraction by means of gears and a hand crank.and a hand crank.

This was to aid his father, a French tax collectorThis was to aid his father, a French tax collector He built it when he was 19He built it when he was 19

LeibnizLeibniz

Baron Gottfied Wilheml von Leibniz Baron Gottfied Wilheml von Leibniz (1645 – 1716) (1645 – 1716) Created a machine that could also Created a machine that could also

multiply and dividemultiply and divide

BabbageBabbage

Charles Babbage (1792 – 1871) Charles Babbage (1792 – 1871) Created a machine similar to Pascal’sCreated a machine similar to Pascal’s

It used one formula to create tables used for marine It used one formula to create tables used for marine navigation and printed the results onto a copper navigation and printed the results onto a copper engraver’s plateengraver’s plate

Babbage's “difference engine” could only add and Babbage's “difference engine” could only add and subtract. He quickly desired to create a better machinesubtract. He quickly desired to create a better machine

Babbage cont.Babbage cont.

““analytical engine”analytical engine” Had four componentsHad four components

The store (memory)The store (memory) The mill (computation unit)The mill (computation unit) Input Section (punched card reader)Input Section (punched card reader) Output Section (punched and printed Output Section (punched and printed

output)output) Could store 1000 words of 50 decimal digitsCould store 1000 words of 50 decimal digits

Babbage cont.Babbage cont.

Innovations from the inventionInnovations from the invention Data could be loaded from memory, Data could be loaded from memory,

acted upon and then stored back into acted upon and then stored back into memorymemory

Decisions about what the “program” Decisions about what the “program” should do could be based on whether a should do could be based on whether a certain value was positive or negative certain value was positive or negative (“branching”)(“branching”)

Operated according to user created Operated according to user created instructions (programmable)instructions (programmable)

Babbage cont.Babbage cont.

Creation of first programming languageCreation of first programming language First programmerFirst programmer

Lady Ada LovelaceLady Ada Lovelace Daughter of British Poet Lord ByronDaughter of British Poet Lord Byron

Opportune ConditionsOpportune Conditions

““One has only to recall the lack of One has only to recall the lack of significant interest in calculating significant interest in calculating machines in the seventeenth and machines in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to realize that a eighteenth centuries to realize that a technology becomes important technology becomes important historically not when it is developed historically not when it is developed but when it is applied in a practical but when it is applied in a practical and cost-effective manner.”and cost-effective manner.”

-James W. Cortada-James W. Cortada

Author Author

Modern technologies tend to build Modern technologies tend to build on previous technologies. on previous technologies. Calculators and punch-card driven Calculators and punch-card driven

machines were growing in popularity machines were growing in popularity from the late 1800’s into the early from the late 1800’s into the early 1900’s1900’s

ElectricityElectricity

Electrical Power Production, 1920 Electrical Power Production, 1920 4040

(billions of kilowatt hours)(billions of kilowatt hours)YearYear U.S.U.S. GermanyGermany FranceFrance ItalyItaly U.K.U.K.

192019203030 15 15 66 55 99

192519255555 20 20 1111 77 1212

193019309090 29 29 1717 1111 1818

193519359898 36 36 1818 1414 2626

19401940140140 62 62 2424 2121 3838

Mathematical and Mathematical and Information TheoryInformation Theory

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 1716) 1716) Founded universal calculusFounded universal calculus

Leibniz notationLeibniz notation

George Boole (1815 1864) George Boole (1815 1864) “…“…made the critical leap forward in made the critical leap forward in

mathematics that would directly mathematics that would directly influence the evolution of any computer influence the evolution of any computer that used electricity.”that used electricity.”

Advances in technologyAdvances in technology

Vacuum tubes, relays, switches Vacuum tubes, relays, switches We will discuss these in more detail We will discuss these in more detail

shortlyshortly

Modern Modern ComputersComputers

Generation 1Generation 1

Vacuum TubesVacuum Tubes

COLOSSUS COLOSSUS

11stst Electronic computer Electronic computer Built by Britain to crack the Built by Britain to crack the

ENIGMA encoding system used by ENIGMA encoding system used by the Nazi’s in WWIIthe Nazi’s in WWII

Was classified for 30 yearsWas classified for 30 years No affect on the computer industryNo affect on the computer industry

ENIAC ENIAC 11stst American Computer American Computer Built to calculate Built to calculate

artillery trajectory artillery trajectory tablestables This task was currently This task was currently

being done by hundreds being done by hundreds of women hired by the of women hired by the governmentgovernment

Weighed 30 tons and Weighed 30 tons and consumed 140 consumed 140 kilowattskilowatts

Programmed by 6000 Programmed by 6000 multi-position switchesmulti-position switches

EDSAC EDSAC

Maurice Wilkes, University of Maurice Wilkes, University of ChicagoChicago Wilkes came up with the idea of having Wilkes came up with the idea of having

a separate language to write code in a separate language to write code in and then creating a way to break that and then creating a way to break that down into machine usable codedown into machine usable code

EDVAC EDVAC

Better version of the ENIACBetter version of the ENIAC Created by Mauchley and Eckert's Created by Mauchley and Eckert's

new companynew company Later became Unisys Corp.Later became Unisys Corp.

Also was over-budget and lateAlso was over-budget and late

Computers in printComputers in print

Calculators were first written about Calculators were first written about by Newsweek and Businessweek in by Newsweek and Businessweek in 19451945

They, along with Time and Life, ran They, along with Time and Life, ran articles on calculators again in 1946articles on calculators again in 1946

Computers go Prime Computers go Prime TimeTime

The UNIVAC I made it’s television debut on The UNIVAC I made it’s television debut on Nov. 4, 1952. Nov. 4, 1952. With only 27 states reporting and 3.4 million votes With only 27 states reporting and 3.4 million votes

out of an estimated 60 million the UNIVAC I out of an estimated 60 million the UNIVAC I predicted the outcome to within 4 electoral votespredicted the outcome to within 4 electoral votes

1940’s – early 1950’s1940’s – early 1950’s

Computers were primary the domain Computers were primary the domain of theorists, engineers and of theorists, engineers and educational instituteseducational institutes The vast majority of funding came from The vast majority of funding came from

the government who had seem the the government who had seem the benefits as related to defense usebenefits as related to defense use

John von Neumann John von Neumann GeniusGenius

““..was a genius in the same ..was a genius in the same league as Leonardo Da Vinci. league as Leonardo Da Vinci. He spoke many languages, was He spoke many languages, was an expert in the physical an expert in the physical sciences and mathematics, and sciences and mathematics, and had total recall of everything he had total recall of everything he ever heard, saw , or read.” “…ever heard, saw , or read.” “…he was already the most he was already the most eminent mathematician in the eminent mathematician in the world”world”

von Neumann machinevon Neumann machine

Memory

Control Unit

Arithmeticlogic unit

Input

Output

Generation 2Generation 2

Transistors (1955 – 1965)Transistors (1955 – 1965)

Transistors Transistors

Developed at Bell Labs in 1948Developed at Bell Labs in 1948 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and

William Shockley were awarded the William Shockley were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for this 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for this inventioninvention

Government dollars drive Government dollars drive R&DR&D

““As late as 1959, one government As late as 1959, one government study suggested that 85% of study suggested that 85% of research and development in research and development in electronics in the U.S. was being electronics in the U.S. was being paid for by various government paid for by various government agencies”agencies”

-Cortada p. 67-Cortada p. 67

Late 1950’s – 1960’sLate 1950’s – 1960’s

New technologies have made it New technologies have made it economically possible for companies economically possible for companies to purchase to purchase a a computer to do their computer to do their large scale data processing. large scale data processing.

The “industry” has started to drive The “industry” has started to drive the improvements in technology the improvements in technology thereby taking some of the financial thereby taking some of the financial burden off of the governmentburden off of the government

TX-0TX-0

Developed at M.I.T.Developed at M.I.T. First computer to use transistorsFirst computer to use transistors Didn’t become very popularDidn’t become very popular A student that worked on the TX-0 A student that worked on the TX-0

founded DECfounded DEC

PDP-1PDP-1 Was created by DEC Was created by DEC

which was founded by which was founded by a former M.I.T. a former M.I.T. student. student.

Created as a cheaper Created as a cheaper solution than the IBM solution than the IBM 7090 which was the 7090 which was the fastest computer in the fastest computer in the world at the timeworld at the time PDP-1 = $120,000PDP-1 = $120,000 7090 = $millions7090 = $millions

spacewarsspacewars

PDP-8PDP-8

Followed the PDP-1Followed the PDP-1 Sold 50,000 unitsSold 50,000 units Cost $16,000Cost $16,000

66006600 Released in 1964Released in 1964 Was 10x faster than the Was 10x faster than the

7094 when it was 7094 when it was released due to multiple released due to multiple processing unitsprocessing units Separate processors for Separate processors for

addition and addition and multiplicationmultiplication

Separates systems tasks Separates systems tasks and computationsand computations

Designed by Seymour Designed by Seymour Cray who went on to Cray who went on to found Cray Super found Cray Super Computers which is still Computers which is still one of the premiere one of the premiere producers of super producers of super computers.computers.

Generation 3Generation 3

Integrated Circuits (1965 – Integrated Circuits (1965 – 1980)1980)

Silicon Integrated Silicon Integrated Circuit Circuit

Developed by Robert Noyce in 1958 Developed by Robert Noyce in 1958 ““allowed dozens of transistors to be allowed dozens of transistors to be

put on a single chip.” put on a single chip.”

IBM 360 seriesIBM 360 series

360 series was the first “family” of 360 series was the first “family” of computerscomputers

Shared arcitechture and languageShared arcitechture and language Provided scalability and a common Provided scalability and a common

interface for companiesinterface for companies

PDP-11PDP-11

Little brother to Little brother to IBM’s 360 family IBM’s 360 family just as PDP-1 was a just as PDP-1 was a little brother to the little brother to the 70907090

Sold well due to it’s Sold well due to it’s lower costlower cost

Still popular Still popular amongst computer amongst computer hardware collectors hardware collectors and hobbyistsand hobbyists

1970’s1970’s

We begin to see computer shrinking We begin to see computer shrinking in size and growing in powerin size and growing in power

This enables companies to buy This enables companies to buy workstations which hook individual workstations which hook individual employees into the giant mainframes employees into the giant mainframes from their desksfrom their desks

Email - 1972Email - 1972

““Ray Tomlinson of BBN develops a Ray Tomlinson of BBN develops a program to send messages across program to send messages across ARPANET. His program uses the ARPANET. His program uses the "@" sign to separate email users' "@" sign to separate email users' names from their machines.” –names from their machines.” –History ChannelHistory Channel

Three days later Ray is the first Three days later Ray is the first person to received Spamperson to received Spam

PhreakingPhreaking Tech savy nerds were Tech savy nerds were

able to build “little able to build “little blue boxes” which blue boxes” which allowed them to allowed them to control the phone control the phone switching systems by switching systems by setting the boxes to setting the boxes to produce certain tonesproduce certain tones The phone companies The phone companies

beat this by sending beat this by sending the switching signals the switching signals and the callers voice and the callers voice on separate lineson separate lines

The Social Side of The Social Side of ComputingComputing

Computers and the computing Computers and the computing industry was in an interesting phase industry was in an interesting phase as the industry was beginning to be as the industry was beginning to be driven by the elite who were driven by the elite who were breaking ground daily.breaking ground daily.

Companies where now beginning to Companies where now beginning to try and harness these geniuses but try and harness these geniuses but they really didn’t care (for the most they really didn’t care (for the most part) about the moneypart) about the money

Problems in ParadiseProblems in Paradise

First document network plagueFirst document network plague In 1972 a computer had an error telling In 1972 a computer had an error telling

other email servers that it could deliver other email servers that it could deliver mail for a negative costmail for a negative cost All mail on the “internet” at the time was All mail on the “internet” at the time was

routed to this computer and was routed to this computer and was subsequently lostsubsequently lost

Happened again Oct 27, 1980Happened again Oct 27, 1980 Jan 15, 1990Jan 15, 1990

Generation 4Generation 4

Very Large Scale Circuits Very Large Scale Circuits (VLSI)(VLSI)

1980 - present1980 - present

VLSIVLSI

VLSI allowed for thousands, then VLSI allowed for thousands, then hundreds of thousands and now hundreds of thousands and now millions of transistors to be put onto millions of transistors to be put onto a chipa chip

1980’s1980’s

Continual improvements in Continual improvements in technology have made it feasible for technology have made it feasible for individual employees to actually individual employees to actually have their own computer that they have their own computer that they alone work onalone work on

Centralized computer still exist and Centralized computer still exist and done large tasks but also serve as a done large tasks but also serve as a data repository for the smaller, data repository for the smaller, independent machinesindependent machines

““Own one today”Own one today”

Computers were beginning to come Computers were beginning to come home and as such were becoming home and as such were becoming less ominousless ominous

The software and hardware really The software and hardware really weren’t built for the average weren’t built for the average consumer and still required a good consumer and still required a good deal of technical knowledge to use deal of technical knowledge to use wellwell

Tragedy in technologyTragedy in technology

Computer Horror Story: the Therac-Computer Horror Story: the Therac-2525 Late 1980’sLate 1980’s Was the “newest” in a line of cancer Was the “newest” in a line of cancer

treatments which used a focused pulse of treatments which used a focused pulse of radiation to kill cancer cellsradiation to kill cancer cells

The machine was not properly designed The machine was not properly designed and as a result several patients were and as a result several patients were literally “cooked” by the supposedly literally “cooked” by the supposedly helpful radiation beamshelpful radiation beams

Birth of the PCBirth of the PC

In the early 80s IBM, now the king In the early 80s IBM, now the king of high-end computers, decides that of high-end computers, decides that they want to enter the consumer they want to enter the consumer marketmarket

Give a lone engineer a bag of money Give a lone engineer a bag of money and instruct him to build a computerand instruct him to build a computer

He returns with a reasonably prices He returns with a reasonably prices computer built from parts he bought computer built from parts he bought from a local electronics storefrom a local electronics store

PC cont.PC cont.

The new computer was sold as a kit The new computer was sold as a kit that one would assemblethat one would assemble

Along with the kit IBM sold the Along with the kit IBM sold the manual that the engineer had manual that the engineer had assembled when he built the first assembled when he built the first computercomputer

New Type of MillionaireNew Type of Millionaire Computer companies started creating a new Computer companies started creating a new

class of 20-something millionaire’s “overnight”class of 20-something millionaire’s “overnight” Apple’s stock went public in 1980. It went from $7 Apple’s stock went public in 1980. It went from $7

to $29 in one day making both of its founders to $29 in one day making both of its founders millionairesmillionaires

“The Steves”

(Wozniak and Jobs)

Founders of Apple Computers

Millionaires cont.Millionaires cont.

Most of the “techies” that drove the Most of the “techies” that drove the computer revolution didn’t end up computer revolution didn’t end up making a lot of moneymaking a lot of money Some had not cared about the business end Some had not cared about the business end

at all or had fell victim to “aggressive” at all or had fell victim to “aggressive” business partnersbusiness partners

Some reinvested their earned money into Some reinvested their earned money into starting their own companies which starting their own companies which subsequently floppedsubsequently flopped

Some did it for the love of the game and still Some did it for the love of the game and still do(i.e. do(i.e. The The WozWoz))

GUI’s, Mice and GUI’s, Mice and networksnetworks

As computers worked As computers worked their way into homes their way into homes users demanded users demanded more usability.more usability.

All three of these All three of these were actually were actually developed by XEROX developed by XEROX at their PARC facility at their PARC facility but XEROX but XEROX executives decided executives decided that the copier that the copier market was more market was more lucrativelucrative

More problemsMore problems

Feb 25, 1991Feb 25, 1991 US Patriot Anti-missle had an error in US Patriot Anti-missle had an error in

the code resulting in a loss of accuracy the code resulting in a loss of accuracy of 1/100,000,000 of a second every of 1/100,000,000 of a second every secondsecond This was acceptable as these batteries were This was acceptable as these batteries were

made to run for a maximum length of 14 made to run for a maximum length of 14 hrs. at a time but on this day the battery hrs. at a time but on this day the battery had been going for 4 dayshad been going for 4 days

Economic ReasoningEconomic Reasoning

Computers were an economic Computers were an economic anomaly in that as the technology anomaly in that as the technology matured, the production cost went matured, the production cost went down and not updown and not up The dollar cost for computing The dollar cost for computing

“horsepower” has been dropping rates “horsepower” has been dropping rates between 22% and 26% per year since between 22% and 26% per year since the 1950’sthe 1950’s

1990’s - today1990’s - today

The personal The personal computer now can be computer now can be found in the home, found in the home, the dorm, the office, the dorm, the office, the park and most the park and most every where else. every where else.

Families now own Families now own multiple computersmultiple computers

Consumers are able Consumers are able to purchase parts to purchase parts and build their ownand build their own

Technology DriversTechnology Drivers The uber-nerd has given up control of The uber-nerd has given up control of

the industry now and it is driven by the the industry now and it is driven by the consumerconsumer Companies will include technology that isn’t Companies will include technology that isn’t

even useful in order to make their product even useful in order to make their product look more attarctivlook more attarctiv

StandardizationStandardization There are now far less computer There are now far less computer

manufacturers than there used to be and manufacturers than there used to be and even fewer operating systemseven fewer operating systems

Standardization has given the end user a simpler Standardization has given the end user a simpler product but has also limited their optionsproduct but has also limited their options

Moore’s LawMoore’s Law

Gordon Moore published Gordon Moore published a paper a paper in in the mid 60’s which stated the one the mid 60’s which stated the one could expect technology to double could expect technology to double every one to two years. every one to two years.

New WorriesNew Worries

VirusesViruses New Viruses are constantly being written/found. New Viruses are constantly being written/found.

These can bring entire companies to there knees These can bring entire companies to there knees and are a very real fear for most and are a very real fear for most

HackersHackers Many fear entry by an individual seeking to do harm Many fear entry by an individual seeking to do harm

to their companyto their company WhitehatsWhitehats

Individuals who “hack in” and then fix the holes Individuals who “hack in” and then fix the holes they used to get inthey used to get in

Moore’s Law cont.Moore’s Law cont.

Can we maintain this rate of advanceCan we maintain this rate of advancement ment indefinatelyindefinately??

Computers as we know Computers as we know them…them…

Looking at the table which gives an Looking at the table which gives an idea of where Moore’s law will take us idea of where Moore’s law will take us in the future we can see that around in the future we can see that around 2020 the width of the circuitry will be 2020 the width of the circuitry will be in the 1 molecule range which will be in the 1 molecule range which will be too unstable for normal usage. too unstable for normal usage.

Other options, such as bio-computers, Other options, such as bio-computers, are the topic of current researchare the topic of current research

The future…The future…

““the choice between alternatives the choice between alternatives ultimately depends neither on technical ultimately depends neither on technical nor economic efficiency, but on the ‘fit’ nor economic efficiency, but on the ‘fit’ between devices and the interests and between devices and the interests and beliefs of the various social groups that beliefs of the various social groups that influence the design process. What influence the design process. What singles out an artifact is its relationships singles out an artifact is its relationships to the social environment, not some to the social environment, not some intrinsic property”intrinsic property”-Feenberg 1999, 79-Feenberg 1999, 79

Some numbers to Some numbers to consider…consider…

Sixty million transistors were Sixty million transistors were manufactured last year for every manufactured last year for every man, woman, and child on Earth. By man, woman, and child on Earth. By 2010, that figure will reach 1 billion 2010, that figure will reach 1 billion transistors a year transistors a year

W. says…..W. says….. I was interested to read that our I was interested to read that our

government plans to spend $53 government plans to spend $53 billion on information technology billion on information technology next year. Now, if you're one of next year. Now, if you're one of the recipients of that $53 billion, the recipients of that $53 billion, make sure that the product make sure that the product actually works, please. (Laughter actually works, please. (Laughter and applause.) It is important. It's and applause.) It is important. It's important to make sure important to make sure government functions better, but government functions better, but more importantly, it will help our more importantly, it will help our taxpayers have better response to taxpayers have better response to democracy and get better democracy and get better information more quickly. And so information more quickly. And so I'm pleased that we're working on I'm pleased that we're working on e-government. I just urge people e-government. I just urge people to focus on results and not to focus on results and not process. process.

-www.whitehouse.gov-www.whitehouse.gov

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