Conditional Cash Trasnfer Program in Brazil: Bolsa Familia (BF) 24% of population receive BFConditions participation through: schooling, health

and nutritionTargets the 2 groups: very poor (with monthly incomes

of R60) and poor (with monthly incomes of R60 to R120)

World Bank framed BF as most successful CCT in Latin America (citing 73% of benefits reach poorest 20% of pop.)

An independent study found that between 2001-04, the poorest 10% saw an increase of household income of 23.5%, while incomes fo the rich dropped by by 7.5

Evaluation of Bolsa Familia2004 World Bank evaluative study found no major

changes in consumption (cash transfers largely used for food, education materials and clothing).

Use of funds for basic essentials were at expense of health items.

Little impact on child nutrition (esp. 12-36 months)Labor market participation increased slight (2.6%),

particularly among women (4.3%)Large percentage of funds from BF directed to

Northeast Brazil and 44% to rural areas (following Perlman’s theory of development, increased funds to rural areas may exacerbate outmigration to cities).

Criticisms of Bolsa FamiliaUnable to reduce rise in urban poverty, which has risen

from 13% in 1995 to 15% in 2004.Between 1995 to 2004, earning potential provided by BF

have been less effective in reducing income inequality (22%) than employment generation (78%)

Means-testing of BF recipients has been linked to stimulate move toward informal work (recipients acceptance of formal work could disqualify them for BF)

Has been linked as a political tool to obtain votes across political parties

Increase in spending for BF (assisting 11% of poorest) has been accompanied by larger cuts in federal spending in sanitation (44%) health (7.5%) and education (5.4%).

Regulating Sex/Gender and Reproductive Behavior:

State Health Interventions in the Guatemalan Refugee Community of La

Gloria

Scope of Violence & DisplacementThe Commission for Historical Clarification (CEH) estimates

that 200,000 people were murdered and/or disappeared20% of Guatemala’s population was displaced (one and a half million) at least temporarily.200,000 crossed the Mexican border.18,500 were relocated by Mexico to the states of Campeche

and Quintana Roo.More than 85% of registered refugees were from

approximately 8 different ethnic-linguistic Mayan groups.

Worby, P. 1999. Lessons Learned from UNHCR’s involvement in the Guatemala refugee repatriation and reintegration programme (1987-1999). Regional Bureau for the Amercias, and Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit.Baines, E. K. 2004. "In Ruby Splendor: Guatemala." in Vulnerable Bodies: Gender, the UN and the Global Refugee Crisis. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing.

Research Questions:1. How do displaced forced migrants contest or

create representations of their identities in light of their marginality, and give voice to their complex human agency?

2. How do multilateral humanitarian organizations and states attempt to shape gender relations and health policy for migrants?

3. What role do institutions and states play in shaping how gender relations impact employment opportunities and outcomes transnationally?

PROGRESA/OPORTUNIDADES: Compulsory Reproductive

Health Services as a Precondition for Cash Transfer

Program

Do Materialist and Equality Measures under Oportunidades Empower Women? Materialist Measures – Overwhelmingly require

mothers and young girls to conduct unremunerated work.

Equality Measures – Take the form of education stipends (10 percent more for girls than boys) that are disbursed bi-monthly. As of 2007, the amounts disbursed in each Elementary School: boys (27.50 USD) girls (32.50 USD)Secondary School: boys (47.50 USD) girls (52.50 USD)High School: boys (86.50 USD) girls (94.50 USD)

Provision of Oportunidades in La GloriaEducation stipends and food grants distributed in La Gloria

since 2002As of 2009, 380 families are beneficiariesRequires conditional responsibilities:

A. monthly medical check-ups by the head of household (normally by adult female)

B. Attendance to monthly public-health lecturesC. Minimum school attendance (85%) by students

Angelucci, M. (2004) Aid and Migration: An Analysis of the Impact of Progresa on the Timing and Size of Labour Migration, Bonn: The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).

Molyneux, M. (2006) Mothers at the service of the new poverty agenda: Progresa/oportunidades, Mexico's conditional transfer programme. Social Policy & Administration, 40, 425-449.

Surveillance: How are conditionality requirements regulated?

Picture of Dr. Cristian Caro Guillen Perez; Florinda Pascual Lopez, health auxiliary and translator; Rosa Maria Aguilar, nurse trainee; Agusto Gomez Mendez, General Nurse Practitioner in health center in La Gloria (note, map of La Gloria used to identify each home for conducting periodic surveys and home visits hangs to right of picture). Picture taken by research assistant, Manuel Gil.

Oportunidades Coordinators in La Gloria are all women and are shown here in a community-wide meeting for recipients of Oportunidades grants. Picture taken by Manuel Gil.

Women stand in line in La Gloria’s health center to seek a medical examination by the doctor. They hold their medical health records used to certify that they meet the conditional requirements of monthly health exams for beneficiaries under Oportunidades. As there is only one doctor and one certified nurse, the waiting period can take between 3 to 4 hours for both women and children to be seen. Picture taken by photography research assistant, Manuel Gil.

Factors shaping women’s reproduction and mothering (Vania Smith-Oka, 2009).

A large group of mostly women accompanied by children wait in alphabetical order, arranged previously by the local Oportunidades coordinators, to receive the educational stipend and food grant. Beneficiaries waited for Oportunidades agents to arrive, but the agents were delayed by 2 hours. Picture taken by photography research assistant, Manuel Gil.

Oportunidades and Population Control“…[P]opulations deemed of a better quality are

linked to those with lower birthrates [and are] highly correlated with higher status for women”

“…the process of making populations accountable requires a degree of community participation”

Gupta, A. 2001. “Governing Population: The Integrated Child Development Services Program in India." in States of Imagination: Ethnographic Exploration of the Postcolonial State, edited by T. B. Hansen and F. Stepputat. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Page 71, emphasis in original

Five armed soldiers with automatic machine guns accompanied the Oportunidades civil servants by pick-up truck, and surrounded the perimeter. Ironically, the rapid fire of a camera made the soldiers uncomfortable, and soldiers requested that Manuel stop taking photographs. Manuel tried to continue to photograph, but eventually, the male community leaders were approached by the soldiers to have Manuel halt taking photographs and remove cameras from the scene.

Oportunidades & Education: Will employment opportunities improve through conditional grants?

Students of the junior high school (telesecundaria) in La Gloria salute the Mexican flag every Monday morning. Photo taken by Manuel Gil.

Students of the high school (COBACH) in La Gloria also salute the Mexican flag every Monday morning. Photo taken by Manuel Gil.

Students from the first graduating class of the COBACH sit in La Gloria’s multipurpose space as they prepare to receive their diplomas from instructors. Members of the community gather outside to view the graduation ceremony, while a temporary stage is built for a musical performance to celebrate the students’ accomplishments.

Gender Empowerment?Advocates of Oportunidades note the programs

ability to “empower” beneficiary mothers and daughters by instilling leadership and citizenship skills, but overlook:1. existent community & income generating responsibilities 2. greater workload responsibilities for women3. imbalance of care work between men & women4. Child-centered focus in organizational objectives

“In our analysis of the fertility of immigrants and their descendants from Mexico and Central America, we find that personal characteristics are much more important in understanding outcomes than are neighborhood characteristics or immigrant generation. In fact, generations are no longer independently important once we control for such personal characteristics as educational attainment, marital status, and family socioeconomic status (as measured by poverty). Of those, educational attainment is particularly important. A four-year increase in educational attainment is associated with a .50 decrease in CEB [children ever born]. In short, changes in these personal characteristics between the first and second generations of immigrant families—and not immigrant generation as such—account for the lower fertility levels among the second generation”

(HILL, L. E. and JOHNSON, H. P. (2002) Understanding the Future of Californians' Fertility: The Role of Immigrants. San Francisco, CA, Public Policy Institute of California., viii-ix, my emphasis).

Thank You

Oscar F. Gil-Garcia, Ph.D.Traveling FacultyHealth and CommunityInternational Honors Program

E-mail: dr.gilgarcia@gmail.com