Conrad Conero, Braden Brook, Greenfield Park, NY · Integrated water quality man-agement begins with a basic under-standing of how water moves through the environment, comes into

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Introduction

The National Water QualityInventory Report to Congress is the primary vehicle for informingCongress and the public about thequality of water in our nation’srivers, streams, lakes, ponds, reser-voirs, wetlands, estuaries, andcoastal waters. This document char-acterizes waters by their capacity to meet water quality standardsestablished by states, territories,and tribes. The Clean Water Actgrants states the authority andresponsibility for establishing waterquality standards and sets a nation-al goal that all waters will, at a min-imum, achieve the basic goals ofsupporting healthy aquatic commu-nities and allowing swimming andother recreational activities.

Section 305(b) of the CleanWater Act requires states and otherjurisdictions to assess the health of their waters and the extent towhich their waters support waterquality standards, including thebasic goals of the Clean Water Act.In addition, Section 305(b) requiresstates to identify the contribution of nonpoint sources to water qual-ity impairment. It also calls for ananalysis of the social and economiccosts and benefits of achieving thegoals of the Clean Water Act.Section 305(b) specifies that statessubmit reports describing waterquality conditions to the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) every 2 years. Section 305(b)also requires that EPA summarizethe reports submitted by the statesand other jurisdictions and convey

the information to Congress bien-nially. This report, the twelfth in aseries published since 1975, satisfiesthe reporting requirements inSection 305(b) of the Clean WaterAct.

This report is organized intotwo major sections. Part I presentsthe national assessment. The infor-mation reported by the 50 statesand the District of Columbia, 5 ter-ritories, 4 interstate commissions, and 9 tribes is compiled for eachtype of waterbody and presented inChapters 3 through 7 of this report.These national summaries identifythe portions of waters that wereassessed and, of those assessed, theportions found to be supportingthe water quality standards and theportions that are impaired. Eachchapter also describes the mostwidespread causes and sources ofwater quality problems emergingfrom the information reported. Thefinal chapter in Part I addresses thecosts and benefits of achieving thegoals of the Clean Water Act.

Part II includes two-page factsheets that summarize the informa-tion reported by each jurisdiction.The first chapter in Part II summa-rizes recommendations provided bystates on improving water resourcemanagement and the assessmentprocess. The full report submittedby a jurisdiction is available fromthe point of contact named on itsfact sheet.

This report is a compilation ofinformation submitted in individual

The Clean Water Act of 1972

. . . it is the national goalthat, wherever attainable, an interim goal of water quality which provides for the protection and propaga-tion of fish, shellfish, andwildlife and provides forrecreation in and on thewater . . .

4 Chapter One Introduction

1998 water quality inventories bystates, territories, interstate commis-sions, tribes, and the District ofColumbia. The water quality infor-mation contained in this reportreflects their efforts to assess theirwaters against their water qualitystandards. It is important to notethat the states, tribes, and otherjurisdictions do not use identicalmethods to rate their water qualitynor are their water quality stand-ards identical.

States exercise flexibility pro-vided in the Clean Water Act and inEPA regulations when they establishwater quality standards and assessattainment of those standards. Thisflexibility is important because thereare natural variations among watersacross the United States. Variationsin location determine the type offish communities that waters sup-port. Variations in geology influencethe natural chemistry of the water,which, in turn, influences the toxic-ity and bioavailability of pollutantsentering the water from humanactivities.

There is a trade-off betweenflexibility and consistency. Withoutconsistent monitoring and assess-ment methods in place, EPA andstates cannot compare data overtime to identify trends in waterquality. For example, states andother jurisdictions may modify theirstandards or assess different water-bodies from one reporting periodto the next. Similarly, it is difficult to compare data from one state toanother because they may usedifferent indicators to assess attain-ment of water quality standardsand are quite likely to have differentstandards.

For more than 10 years, EPAhas been working with states to

pursue a balance between flexibilityand consistency in the Section305(b) assessment process. Themost recent development in thisprocess was the publication inSeptember 1997 of the revisedGuidelines for Preparation of Compre-hensive Water Quality Reports. Theseguidelines reflect the recommen-dations of the National 305(b)Consistency Workgroup, which ismade up of states, other jurisdic-tions, and EPA. This 1998 Report toCongress is the first report since thenew guidelines were published. Theworkgroup intends that theseguidelines will be in effect for boththe 1998 and 2000 reportingcycles. A few key elements of therevised guidelines are

■ Comprehensive assessments of all waters and all applicablestandards

■ Electronic reporting of waterquality assessment data

■ Georeferencing assessed watersso that both healthy and impairedwaters can be located on a map

■ Documenting the quality of dataused to support assessments.

EPA and the states recognizethe need to continue to improvethe water quality assessmentsreported under Section 305(b).Increasingly, these assessments areused to identify and prioritize waterquality problems within states. Forexample, Section 303(d) of theClean Water Act calls for each stateto develop a list of impaired andthreatened waters. These are watersthat do not or are not expected tomeet water quality standards afterimplementation of water pollution

Chapter One Introduction 5

controls. The Section 305(b) assess-ments are the primary tool for iden-tifying these waters and the pollut-ants contributing to impairment.

After preparing 303(d) lists,states develop total maximum dailyloads (TMDLs). A TMDL is theamount of a pollutant the water-body can accept and still meetwater quality standards. The differ-ence between the TMDL and thecurrent load to the waterbody isthe amount of pollutant that mustbe reduced by pollutant sources(both point source discharges andnonpoint source runoff).

Unified Watershed Assessmentsalso rely heavily on the state 305(b)assessments. In an effort to pro-mote holistic, watershed-basedproblem solving, the Clean WaterAction Plan called for states to workwith local and federal partners andidentify watersheds most in need of restoration or protection. In addi-tion to 305(b) assessments and303(d) lists, states use informationon wildlife and fisheries, forestry,agriculture, and land use in defin-ing priorities for watershed restora-tion.

The Index of Watershed Indi-cators (IWI) is another tool that usesthe 305(b) assessment results. Inthe past, IWI was a discrete toolused to look at national watershedhealth. It is evolving toward a set of data layers that includes 305(b)assessment results, the 303(d) listsof impaired waters, and othernational and local information.

EPA and state water programsare currently working on sequenc-ing water quality monitoring todetermine water quality standards(WQS) attainment/nonattainmentso that it better supports the fullrange of water quality management

activities. The sequence of activitiesconsists of

■ Characterizing waters for the305(b) assessment

■ Using the subset of watersidentified as not supporting WQSto develop 303(d) lists

■ Identifying source contributions

■ Developing TMDLs

■ Implementing source controls

■ Performing followup monitoringto evaluate the effectiveness ofsource controls and to track trendsin water quality improvements.

Waters of the United States

Integrated water quality man-agement begins with a basic under-standing of how water movesthrough the environment, comesinto contact with pollutants, andtransports and deposits pollutants.The water cycle depicted on page 6illustrates the general links betweenthe atmosphere, soil, surfacewaters, ground waters, and plants.

The United States has diversewater resources. The major types ofwater resources assessed by statesand covered in this report aredescribed below.

Rivers andStreamsRivers and streams

are characterized by flow. Perennialrivers and streams flow continuous-ly, all year round. Intermittent orephemeral (nonperennial) riversand streams stop flowing for some


HIGHLIGHT HIGHLIGHT HIGHLIGHTHI

The Water Cycle

The water cycle describes howwater moves through the environ-ment and identifies the linksbetween ground water, surfacewater, and the atmosphere (seefigure). For convenience, discussionsof the water cycle usually begin andend in the atmosphere. Water in

the atmosphere condenses and fallsonto the earth in the form of rain orsnow. The rain or snow can containcontaminants from air pollution.The rain and snow may fall directlyonto surface waters, be interceptedby plants or structures, or fall ontothe ground. Intercepted waterevaporates directly back into theatmosphere or drips onto theground.

On the ground, rainfall andmelting snow percolate deeper intothe ground, saturating the soil andrecharging ground water aquifers.Trees and other plants take up water in the upper soil zonethrough their roots and return thewater to the atmosphere in aprocess called transpiration. Groundwater below the root zone maymigrate many miles and emerge (or discharge) into a distant surfacewater.

When rainfall or melting snowsaturates soils, water runs off theground into surface waterbodies(such as lakes, streams, wetlands,and coastal waters). Runoff maydislodge soil particles and pollutantsand carry them into surface water-bodies. Surface waters may evapo-rate back into the atmosphere,percolate into the underlyingground water, or flow into othersurface waters until reaching theocean. From the ocean, waterevaporates back into the atmos-phere, completing the cycle.

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period of time, usually due to dryconditions or upstream withdraw-als. Many rivers and streams origi-nate in nonperennial headwatersthat flow only during snowmelt orheavy rains. Nonperennial streamsprovide critical habitats for nonfishspecies, such as amphibians anddragonflies, as well as safe havensfor juvenile fish escaping predationby larger fish.

Nonperennial waters pose chal-lenges to monitoring programsbecause their flow is unpredictable.Some intermittent waters’ flowrecurs predictably during particulartimes of the year, for example,following spring snowmelt. Ephem-eral waters are almost impossible to monitor because their flow is sounpredictable. Most states focusmonitoring activities in perennialwaters, although many statesmonitor intermittent waters duringperiods of predictable flow.

The health of rivers and streamsis directly linked to the integrity ofhabitat along the river corridor andin adjacent wetlands. Stream qual-ity will deteriorate if activities dam-age vegetation along river banksand in nearby wetlands. Trees,shrubs, and grasses filter pollutantsfrom runoff and reduce soil erosion.Removal of vegetation also elimi-nates shade that moderates streamtemperature. Stream temperature,in turn, affects the availability ofdissolved oxygen in the watercolumn for fish and other aquaticorganisms.

Lakes,Reservoirs, and Ponds

Lakes, reservoirs, and ponds aredepressions that hold water for

extended periods of time. Thesewaterbodies may receive watercarrying pollutants from rivers andstreams, melting snow, runoff, orground water. Lakes may alsoreceive pollution directly from theair.

Pollutants become trapped inlakes, reservoirs, and ponds becausewater exits these waterbodies at aslow rate. Therefore, they are espe-cially vulnerable to additional inputsof pollutants from human activities.Even under natural conditions, sedi-ment, nutrients, and organic mate-rials accumulate in lakes and pondsas part of a natural aging processcalled eutrophication. Increasedloads of nutrients from humanactivities such as wastewater dis-charges, septic systems, and agri-cultural runoff can overload lakesystems and accelerate eutrophica-tion. Algae blooms, depressedoxygen levels, and aquatic weedsare symptoms of accelerated eutro-phication from excessive nutrients.

The GreatLakesThe Great Lakes—

Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,and Ontario—are the largest systemof fresh surface water on earth, byarea. They contain approximately18% of the world’s fresh watersupply. The Great Lakes basin iscurrently home to one-tenth of thepopulation in the United States andone-quarter of the population ofCanada.

Despite their large size, theGreat Lakes are sensitive to theeffects of a broad range of contami-nants that enter the Lakes frompolluted air, ground water, surfacewater, wastewater discharges,


and overland runoff. Even dilutequantities of toxic chemicals canhave adverse effects on water quali-ty because many toxic chemicalspersist in the environment andconcentrate in organisms, includingfish.

Scientists estimate that atmos-pheric deposition contributes 35%to 50% of a variety of chemicalsentering the Great Lakes each year.Atmospheric deposition occurs intwo forms, wet or dry. In wet depo-sition, precipitation events (such asrain or snow) remove pollutantsfrom the atmosphere. Dry deposi-tion occurs when particles settle outof the air directly on a lake surfaceor within the extensive land basindraining into a lake. It is difficult tomanage atmospheric sources ofpollutants entering the Great Lakesbecause these pollutants may origi-nate in the Great Lakes basin orhundreds of miles away.

EstuariesThe fresh water ofrivers mixes with

the salty ocean water in estuaries.Estuarine waters include bays andthe tidal portions of rivers. Estuariesserve as nursery areas for manycommercial fish and most shellfishpopulations, including shrimp, oys-ters, crabs, and scallops. Most ofour nation’s fish and shellfish indus-try relies on productive estuarinewaters and their adjacent wetlandsto provide healthy habitat for somestage of fish and shellfish develop-ment. Recreational anglers alsoenjoy harvesting fish that reproduceor feed in estuaries, such as stripedbass and flounder.

Pollutants from both local anddistant sources tend to accumulatein estuaries. Most pollutants that

enter rivers flow toward the coast.As rivers approach the coast, theirmouths broaden and currents slow.The low flow and fluctuating tides,typical of estuarine waters, reduceflushing and trap nutrients andpollutants. This natural trappingprocess lays the foundation for richestuarine ecosystems but alsomakes estuaries vulnerable to over-loading of nutrients and pollutants.

Historic development patternshave amplified this natural processin estuaries and along all our coasts.Historically, industrial developmentand population centers have clus-tered around estuarine bays thatprovided access to shipping and an adjacent waterbody for wastedisposal. Now, many coastal citiesmust address historic contaminatedsediments and develop alternativedisposal systems for their outdatedcombined sewer systems.

OceanShorelineWaters

Our ocean shoreline watersprovide critical habitat for variouslife stages of commercial fish andshellfish (such as shrimp), providehabitat for endangered species(such as sea turtles), and supportpopular recreational activities,including sport fishing and swim-ming.

Despite their vast size andvolume, oceans are vulnerable toimpacts from pollutants, especiallyin nearshore waters that receiveinputs from adjoining surfacewaters, ground water, wastewaterdischarges, and nonpoint sourcerunoff. Beach closures due toelevated bacterial concentrationsare one of the most visible

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symptoms of water quality degra-dation in ocean shoreline watersresulting from activities onshore.Wastes disposed of offshore mayalso impact nearshore waters. Oilspills from tankers or offshoreextraction facilities can generatepersistent adverse impacts onocean shoreline waters.

Coral ReefsCoral reefs areamong the most

productive ecosystems in theocean. These living ecosystems areinhabited by a wide variety of fish,invertebrate, and plant species.They also provide important eco-nomic opportunities, primarily interms of fishing and tourism. Coralreefs are found in three states—Hawaii, Florida, and Texas—and five U.S. territories—AmericanSamoa, Guam, Northern MarianaIslands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S.Virgin Islands.

Recent evidence indicates thatcoral reefs are deteriorating world-wide. To prevent further deteriora-tion of coral ecosystems, PresidentClinton signed Executive Order13089 on Coral Reef Protection.This order created the U.S. CoralReef Task Force made up of repre-sentatives from the three states andfive territories with coral resources.In response, these areas have initiat-ed or increased efforts to identifythe causes of coral reef degradationand approaches to prevent furtherloss.

WetlandsIn general, wet-lands are a transi-

tion zone between land and water

where the soil is occasionally orpermanently saturated with water.Wetlands are populated by plantsthat are specially adapted to growin standing water or saturated soils.There are many different types ofwetlands, including marshes, bogs,fens, swamps, mangroves, prairiepotholes, and bottomland hard-wood forests. Wetlands may notalways appear to be wet. Manywetlands dry out for extended peri-ods of time. Other wetlands mayappear dry on the surface but maybe saturated underneath.

Saltwater wetlands fringe estu-aries; freshwater wetlands borderrivers, lakes, and the Great Lakes or occur in isolation. In general,wetlands improve water quality,provide critical habitat for a widevariety of fish and wildlife, providestorage for flood waters, and stabi-lize shorelines. Wetlands filter sedi-ment and nutrients (from bothnatural and nonnatural sources) outof the water before they enter adja-cent waterbodies and underlyingground water aquifers. Wetlandsalso provide storage for floodwatersand reduce the velocity of overlandrunoff. Reduced velocity translatesinto less damage from flood waters.

Wetlands can be physicallydestroyed by filling, draining, anddewatering, or wetlands can bedamaged by the same pollutantsthat degrade other waterbodies,such as toxic chemicals andoxygen-demanding substances.

GroundWaterBeneath the land’s

surface, water resides in two gen-eral zones, the saturated zone and


the unsaturated zone (Figure 1-1).The unsaturated zone lies directlybeneath the land surface, where airand water fill in the pore spacesbetween soil and rock particles.Water saturates the pore spaces inthe saturated zone beneath theunsaturated zone in most cases.The term “ground water” applies to water in the saturated zone. This water is an important naturalresource and is used for myriadpurposes, including drinking water,irrigation, and livestock uses.

Surface water replenishes (orrecharges) ground water by perco-lating through the unsaturatedzone. Therefore, the unsaturatedzone plays an important role inground water hydrology and mayact as a pathway for ground watercontamination.

Ground water can move later-ally and emerge at discharge sites,such as springs on hillsides or seeps in the bottoms of streams,lakes, wetlands, and oceans.Therefore, ground water affectssurface water quantity and qualitybecause polluted ground water can

contaminate surface waters.Conversely, some surface waters,such as wetlands, contain floodwaters and replenish groundwaters. Loss of wetlands reducesground water recharge.

Water QualityStandards

In 1972, Congress adopted theClean Water Act (CWA), whichestablishes a framework for achiev-ing its national objective “. . . torestore and maintain the chemical,physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters.” Congressdecreed that, where attainable,water quality “. . . provides for theprotection and propagation of fish,shellfish, and wildlife and providesfor recreation in and on the water.”These goals are referred to as the“fishable and swimmable” goals ofthe Act.

The Act required states, tribes,and other jurisdictions to developwater quality standards to guidethe restoration and protection of allwaters of the United States. EPAregulations require that, whereverattainable, they include, at a mini-mum, the fishable and swimmablegoals of the Act. States must submittheir standards to EPA for approval.Once approved, water qualitystandards are the benchmarkagainst which monitoring data arecompared to assess the health ofwaters under Section 305(b), to listimpaired waters under Section303(d), and to develop TotalMaximum Daily Loads in impairedwaters. They are also used to

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calculate water-quality-baseddischarge limits in permits issuedunder the National PollutantDischarge Elimination System(NPDES).

Water quality standards havethree elements: designated uses,criteria developed to protect eachuse, and an antidegradation policy.

■ State designated uses are thebeneficial uses that water qualityshould support. Where attainable,all waters should support drinkingwater supply, recreation (such asswimming and surfing), aquatic life,and fish consumption. Additionalimportant uses include agriculture,industry, and navigation. Wastetransport or disposal is not anacceptable designated use. Eachdesignated use has a unique set ofwater quality criteria that must bemet for the use to be realized.States, tribes, and other jurisdictionsmay designate an individual water-body for multiple uses.

■ State water quality criteriacome in two forms, numeric criteriaand narrative criteria.

Numeric criteria include aquaticlife criteria, human health criteria,biological criteria, and sedimentquality guidelines. They establishthresholds for the physical condi-tions, chemical concentrations, and biological attributes required to support a beneficial use.

Narrative criteria define, ratherthan quantify, conditions that mustbe maintained to support a desig-nated use. For example, a narrativecriterion might be “Waters must befree of substances that are toxic tohumans, aquatic life, and wildlife.”

Narrative biological criteria addressthe expected characteristics ofaquatic communities within awaterbody. For example, “Ambientwater quality shall be sufficient tosupport life stages of all indigenousaquatic species.”

■ Antidegradation policies areintended to protect existing usesand prevent waterbodies fromdeteriorating even if their waterquality is better than the fishableand swimmable goals of the Act.

Water QualityAssessment

Section 305(b) of the CWArequires that states evaluate theextent to which their state watersmeet water quality standards andachieve the fishable and swimmablegoals of the Act. This section callsfor states to report the results toEPA every 2 years. The states,

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Water quality standards consist of

• Designated beneficial uses

• Numeric and narrativecriteria for biological,chemical, and physicalparameters

• Antidegradation policy


participating tribes, and other juris-dictions measure attainment of theCWA goals by determining howwell their waters support their des-ignated beneficial uses. They deter-mine designated use support bycomparing water quality data tothe narrative and numeric criteriadeveloped to ensure use support.States, tribes, and other jurisdictionsassess waterbodies for support ofthe individual uses designated for aparticular waterbody, which gener-ally include the following individualuses:

Aquatic Life Support

The waterbodyprovides suitable habitat for protec-tion and propagation of desirablefish, shellfish, and other aquaticorganisms.

Drinking Water Supply

The waterbody can supply safe drinking water withconventional treatment.

Fish Consumption

The waterbodysupports fish free

from contamination that couldpose a human health risk toconsumers.

ShellfishHarvesting

The waterbodysupports a population of shellfishfree from toxicants and pathogensthat could pose a human health riskto consumers.

Primary ContactRecreation –Swimming

People can swim in the waterbodywithout risk of adverse humanhealth effects (such as catchingwaterborne diseases from rawsewage contamination).

SecondaryContactRecreation

People can perform activities on thewater (such as boating) without riskof adverse human health effectsfrom ingestion or contact with thewater.

Agriculture

The water quality issuitable for irrigat-

ing fields or watering livestock.

States, tribes, and other juris-dictions may also define their ownindividual uses to address specialconcerns. For example, many tribesand states designate their waters forthe following additional uses:

Ground Water Recharge

The surface water-body plays a significant role inreplenishing ground water, andsurface water supply and quality are adequate to protect existing or potential uses of ground water.

Wildlife Habitat

Water quality sup-ports the water-

body’s role in providing habitat andresources for land-based wildlife aswell as aquatic life.


Tribes may designate theirwaters for special cultural andceremonial uses.

Culture

Water quality sup-ports the waterbody’s role in tribalculture and preserves the water-body’s religious, ceremonial, orsubsistence significance.

States, tribes, and other juris-dictions determine the level of usesupport by comparing monitoringdata with the narrative and numericwater quality criteria adopted toensure support of each use desig-nated for a particular waterbody. Ifmonitoring data are not available,the state, tribe, or other jurisdictionmay determine the level of usesupport with qualitative informa-tion. Valid qualitative informationincludes land use data, fish andgame surveys, and predictive modelresults.

States identify the type of data,monitored or evaluated, that theyused to make each use supportdetermination. Monitored assess-ments are based on recent moni-toring data collected during thepast 5 years. These data includeambient water chemistry, biologicalassessments, fish tissue contaminantlevels, and sediment chemistry.Evaluated assessments are based on qualitative information or moni-tored information more than 5years old.

Summary of UseSupport

For waterbodies with morethan one designated use, the states,tribes, and other jurisdictions con-solidate the individual use supportinformation into a summary usesupport determination:

Good/Fully SupportingAll Uses – Based on anassessment of availabledata, water quality sup-

ports all designated uses. Waterquality meets narrative and/ornumeric criteria adopted to protectand support a designated use.

Good/Threatened forOne or More Uses –Although all the assesseduses are currently met,

data show a declining trend inwater quality. Projections based onthis trend indicate water quality willbe impaired in the future, unlessaction is taken to prevent furtherdegradation.

Impaired for One or More Uses – Based onan assessment of avail-able data, water quality

does not support one or moredesignated uses.

Use Not Attainable –The state, tribe, or otherjurisdiction performed ause-attainability analysis

and demonstrated that one ormore designated uses are notattainable due to one of six condi-tions specified in the Code of Federal


Regulations (40 CFR 131.10). Theseconditions include

■ Naturally high concentrations ofpollutants

■ Other natural physical featuresthat create unsuitable aquatic lifehabitat (such as inadequate sub-strate, riffles, or pools)

■ Low flows or water levels

■ Dams and other hydrologicmodifications that permanentlyalter waterbody characteristics

■ Poor water quality resulting fromhuman activities that cannot bereversed without causing furtherenvironmental degradation

■ Poor water quality that cannotbe improved without imposingmore stringent controls than thoserequired in the CWA that wouldresult in widespread economic andsocial impacts.

Waters Assessed forthe 1998 Report

This report does not describethe health of all waters of theUnited States. Chapters 3 through7 summarize the health of only the portion of waters that statesreported on in their individual 1998water quality inventories. Figure 1-2compares the amount of watersassessed for the 1998 report to thetotal amount of waters in theUnited States.

Most states do not assess all oftheir waterbodies during the 2-yearreporting cycle required underCWA Section 305(b). However,following the recommendations ofthe 305(b) Consistency Workgroup,many states are employing tech-niques to enable them to character-ize all of their waters. The approachused by most states is a rotatingbasin approach. Some states areusing statistically based sampledesigns.

Under the rotating basinapproach, states achieve compre-hensive monitoring of all watersover a set period of time (typically5 years). In each year the state

Source: 1998 Section 305(b) reports submitted by the states, tribes, territories, and commissions.

842,426 miles = 23% assessedTotal miles: 3,662,255 (of which 35% are perennial,

excluding Alaska)

Rivers and Streams

17,390,370 acres = 42% assessedTotal acres: 41,593,748

Lakes, Ponds,and Reservoirs

28,687 square miles = 32% assessedTotal square miles: 90,465

Estuaries

3,130 miles = 5% assessedTotal miles: 66,645, including Alaska’s 44,000 milesof shoreline

Ocean ShorelineWaters

4,950 miles = 90% assessedTotal miles: 5,521

Great LakesShoreline

Percentage of Waters Assessedfor the 1998 Report

Figure 1-2


monitors a portion (typically one-fifth) of the watersheds within thestate. This approach enables statesto integrate their monitoring activi-ties with other regulatory activitiessuch as permit issuance.

A statistically based approachuses random sampling designed sothat data collected at a relativelysmall number of sample locationscan be extrapolated to characterizeall waters of the state. An advan-tage of this approach is that itallows states to characterize state-wide water quality each year. Arandom sample design also reducesthe potential for bias in the selec-tion of sample locations.

Some states’ monitoring pro-grams combine both of theseapproaches. They apply a randomsampling design within each water-shed under a rotating basin moni-toring schedule. This allows themto both improve the statistical con-fidence of sampling results andintegrate their monitoring programwith other regulatory activities.

Because states employ differentmonitoring designs and becausethey have not achieved compre-hensive assessment of water quality,the summary information in thisreport is not intended to predictthe health of waters that have notbeen assessed. Rather this reportpresents a description of the watersthat states have assessed. It identi-fies which of the assessed watersappear healthy and which areimpaired. For those waters charac-terized as impaired, states providedinformation on the causes andsources of impairment.

Pollutants ThatImpair Water Qualityand Their Sources

Where possible, states, tribes,and other jurisdictions identify thepollutants causing water qualityimpairments and the sources ofthose pollutants. Causes of impair-ment are pollutants or stressors thatprevent water quality from meetingnumeric or narrative criteria adopt-ed by states to protect designateduses. Causes of impairment includechemical contaminants (such asPCBs, dioxins, and metals), physicalparameters (such as temperature),and biological parameters (such asaquatic weeds). The leading causesof impairment reported by the

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states, tribes, and other jurisdictionsin 1998 are described in the high-light beginning on page 18.

Sources of impairment generatethe pollutants that cause waterquality impairment (Table 1-1).Point sources discharge pollutantsdirectly into surface waters from aconveyance. Point sources includeindustrial facilities, municipal sew-age treatment plants, combinedsewer overflows, and storm sewers.Nonpoint sources deliver pollutantsto surface waters from diffuseorigins. Nonpoint sources includeurban runoff that is not captured ina storm sewer, agricultural runoff,leaking septic tanks, and depositionof contaminants in the atmosphere

due to air pollution. Habitat alter-ations, such as hydromodification,dredging, and streambank destabi-lization, can also degrade waterquality.

In Chapters 3 through 7, EPAtallies the significance of causes andsources of pollution by the percent-age of assessed waters impaired byeach individual cause or source(obtained from the Section 305(b)reports submitted by the states,tribes, and other jurisdictions). It isimportant to remember that thistally reflects the condition of thesubset of waters that were assessedand identified as impaired. It doesnot address the condition of thewaters that were not assessed.

Table 1-1. Pollution Source Categories Used in This Report

Category Examples

Industrial Pulp and paper mills, chemical manufacturers, steel plants, metal process and product manufacturers, textile manufacturers, food processing plants

Municipal Publicly owned sewage treatment plants that may receive indirect discharges from industrial facilities or businesses

Combined Sewer Single facilities that treat both storm water and sanitary sewage, whichOverflows may become overloaded during storm events and discharge untreated

wastes into surface waters

Storm Sewers/ Runoff from impervious surfaces including streets, parking lots, buildings,Urban Runoff and other paved areas

Agricultural Crop production, pastures, rangeland, feedlots, animal operations

Silvicultural Forest management, tree harvesting, logging road construction

Construction Land development, road construction

Resource Mining, petroleum drilling, runoff from mine tailing sitesExtraction

Land Disposal Leachate or discharge from septic tanks, landfills, and hazardous waste sites

Hydrologic Channelization, dredging, dam construction, flow regulationModification

Habitat Removal of riparian vegetation, streambank modification, drainage/Modification filling of wetlands


In the WestIn the West, water flows uphill

Leaping across the Tehachapi MountainsTo fill the mouth of the City of Angels.

In the West, the streams serve usCaptured and prisoned, in tunnels, in siphons and aqueducts

Bleeding into our irrigated lands.

In the West, once the rivers’ voicesCoaxed the salmon, surging thick against the currentLured the antelope and bison herds to their banks.

Now there is silence.

In the West, the rivers are the DisappearedTheir bones buried in a common grave

We forget their namesAnd call the land “Desolation”

River of Words 1998 Grand Prize Winner (Poetry, Grades 7-9)Todd Detter, Grade 9, AZ

River of Words 1999 Grand Prize Winner (Art, Grades K-2)Ella Katherine Darham, Raging River, MT



Pollutants and StressorsThat Impair Water Quality

This highlight describes indi-vidual pollutants and stressorsseparately. In reality, water qualityusually suffers from the combinedeffects of several pollutants andprocesses. EPA encourages waterquality managers and the public touse a holistic approach to managingour integrated water quality prob-lems.

Oxygen-DepletingSubstances

Dissolved oxygen is a basicrequirement for a healthy aquaticecosystem. Most fish and beneficialaquatic insects “breathe” oxygendissolved in the water column.Some fish and aquatic organisms(such as carp and sludge worms)are adapted to low-oxygen condi-tions, but most desirable fish species(such as trout and salmon) suffer ifdissolved oxygen concentrations fallbelow 3 to 4 mg/L (3 to 4 milli-grams of oxygen dissolved in 1 literof water, or 3 to 4 parts of oxygenper million parts of water). Larvaeand juvenile fish are more sensitiveand require even higher concentra-tions of dissolved oxygen, rangingfrom 5 to 8 mg/L.

Many fish and other aquaticorganisms can recover from shortperiods of low dissolved oxygenavailability. However, prolongedepisodes of depressed dissolvedoxygen concentrations of 2 mg/L

or less can result in “dead” water-bodies. Prolonged exposure to lowdissolved oxygen conditions cansuffocate adult fish or reduce theirreproductive survival by suffocatingsensitive eggs and larvae or canstarve fish by killing aquatic insectlarvae and other prey. Low dissolvedoxygen concentrations also favoranaerobic bacterial activity thatproduces noxious gases or foulodors often associated with pollutedwaterbodies.

Oxygen concentrations in thewater column fluctuate under natu-ral conditions, but severe oxygendepletion usually results fromhuman activities that introducelarge quantities of biodegradableorganic materials into surfacewaters. Biodegradable organicmaterials contain plant, fish, oranimal matter. Leaves, lawn clip-pings, sewage, manure, shellfishprocessing waste, milk solids, andother food processing wastes aretypes of biodegradable organicmaterials that enter our surfacewaters.

In both pristine and pollutedwaters, beneficial bacteria use oxy-gen to break apart (or decompose)organic materials. Pollution-contain-ing organic wastes provide a contin-uous food supply for the bacteria,which accelerates bacterial activityand population growth. In pollutedwaters, bacterial consumption ofoxygen can rapidly outpace oxygen



replenishment from the atmosphereand photosynthesis performed byalgae and aquatic plants. The resultis a net decline in oxygen concen-trations in the water.

Often, water quality managersmeasure the biochemical oxygendemand (or BOD) of pollution ornatural organic materials in water.BOD is a measure of how muchoxygen is consumed during thedegradation of organic matter andthe oxidation of some inorganicmatter. Toxic pollutants can indi-rectly elevate BOD by killing algae,aquatic weeds, or fish, whichprovides an abundance of food foroxygen-consuming bacteria.Oxygen depletion can also resultfrom chemical reactions that do notinvolve bacteria. Some pollutantstrigger chemical reactions that placea chemical oxygen demand onreceiving waters.

Other factors, such as tempera-ture and salinity, influence theamount of oxygen dissolved inwater. Prolonged hot weather willdepress oxygen concentrations andmay cause fish kills even in cleanwaters because warm water cannothold as much oxygen as cold water.Warm conditions further aggravateoxygen depletion by stimulatingbacterial activity and respiration infish, which consumes oxygen.Removal of streamside vegetationeliminates shade, thereby raisingwater temperatures, and accelerates

runoff of organic debris. Under suchconditions, minor additions ofpollution-containing organic mate-rials can severely deplete oxygen.

NutrientsNutrients are essential building

blocks for healthy aquatic communi-ties, but excess nutrients (especiallynitrogen and phosphorus com-pounds) overstimulate the growthof aquatic weeds and algae. Exces-sive growth of these organisms, inturn, can clog navigable waters,interfere with swimming and boat-ing, outcompete native submergedaquatic vegetation (SAV), and, withexcessive decomposition, lead tooxygen depletion. Oxygen concen-trations can fluctuate daily duringalgae blooms, rising during the dayas algae perform photosynthesisand falling at night as algae contin-ue to respire, which consumesoxygen. Beneficial bacteria alsoconsume oxygen as they decom-pose the abundant organic foodsupply in dying algae cells.

Lawn and crop fertilizers,sewage, manure, and detergentscontain nitrogen and phosphorus,the nutrients most often responsiblefor water quality degradation. Ruralareas are vulnerable to groundwater contamination from nitrates(a compound containing nitrogen)found in fertilizer and manure. Very high concentrations of nitrate



(>10 mg/L) in drinking water causemethemoglobinemia, or blue babysyndrome, an inability to fix oxygenin the blood.

Nutrients are difficult to controlbecause lake and estuarine ecosys-tems recycle nutrients. Rather thanleaving the ecosystem, the nutrientscycle among the water column,algae and plant tissues, and thebottom sediments. For example,algae may temporarily remove allthe nitrogen from the water col-umn, but the nutrients will return tothe water column when the algaedie and are decomposed by bacte-ria. Therefore, gradual inputs ofnutrients tend to accumulate overtime rather than leave the system.

Sedimentation and Siltation

In a water quality context, sedi-ment usually refers to soil particlesthat enter the water column fromeroding land. Sediment consists ofparticles of all sizes, including fineclay particles, silt, sand, and gravel.Water quality managers use theterm “siltation” to describe thesuspension and deposition of smallsediment particles in waterbodies.

Sedimentation and siltation canseverely alter aquatic communities.Sedimentation may clog and abradefish gills, suffocate eggs and aquaticinsect larvae on the bottom, and fillin the pore space between bottomcobbles where fish lay eggs.Suspended silt and sediment inter-fere with recreational activities andaesthetic enjoyment at waterbodiesby reducing water clarity and filling

in waterbodies. Sediment may alsocarry other pollutants into water-bodies. Nutrients and toxic chemi-cals may attach to sediment parti-cles on land and ride the particlesinto surface waters where thepollutants may settle with thesediment or detach and becomesoluble in the water column.

Rain washes silt and other soilparticles off of plowed fields, con-struction sites, logging sites, urbanareas, and strip-mined lands intowaterbodies. Eroding streambanksalso deposit silt and sediment inwaterbodies. Removal of vegetationon shore can accelerate streambankerosion.

Bacteria and PathogensSome waterborne bacteria,

viruses, and protozoa cause humanillnesses that range from typhoidand dysentery to minor respiratoryand skin diseases. These organismsmay enter waters through a numberof routes, including inadequatelytreated sewage, storm water drains,septic systems, runoff from livestockpens, and sewage dumped over-board from recreational boats.Because it is impossible to testwaters for every possible disease-causing organism, states and otherjurisdictions usually measure indica-tor bacteria that are found in greatnumbers in the stomachs andintestines of warm-blooded animalsand people. The presence of indica-tor bacteria suggests that the water-body may be contaminated withuntreated sewage and that other,more dangerous, organisms may be



present. The states, tribes, and otherjurisdictions use bacterial criteria todetermine if waters are safe forrecreation and shellfish harvesting.

Toxic Organic Chemicalsand Metals

Toxic organic chemicals aresynthetic compounds that containcarbon, such as PCBs, dioxins, andDDT. These synthesized compoundsoften persist and accumulate in theenvironment because they do notreadily break down in natural eco-systems. Many of these compoundscause cancer in people and birthdefects in other predators near thetop of the food chain, such as birdsand fish.

Pesticides are chemicals appliedto control or eliminate insect,fungal, or other organisms that mayseriously reduce the yields of cropsor impact the health of livestock.When pesticides run off the landand enter waterbodies, they maybecome toxic to aquatic life. Somenewer pesticide agents decomposerapidly after application; however,many older types are more persis-tent. These longer-lived agents canpollute larger areas and many forms(e.g., DDT or chlordane) can buildup in sediments or bioaccumulate infood chains, posing potential healthrisks to wildlife or humans.

“Total toxics” is a term used by a number of states to describevarious combinations of toxic pol-lutants identified in waterbodies.These may include pesticides, toxic organic chemicals, metals,

un-ionized ammonia, and chlorine.In some instances, laboratory testswith plankton, minnows, or othertarget species may show the pres-ence of toxicity, but more work may be required to identify thespecific toxicants. These impactsfrom unknown toxicity may also besummarized under the concept oftotal toxics.

Metals occur naturally in theenvironment, but human activities(such as industrial processes andmining) have altered the distribu-tion of metals in the environment.In most reported cases of metalscontamination, high concentrationsof metals appear in fish tissuesrather than the water columnbecause the metals accumulate ingreater concentrations in predatorsnear the top of the food chain.

pHAcidity, the concentration of

hydrogen ions, drives many chemi-cal reactions in living organisms.The standard measure of acidity ispH, and a pH value of 7 representsa neutral condition. A low pH value(less than 5) indicates acidic condi-tions; a high pH (greater than 9)indicates alkaline conditions. Manybiological processes, such as repro-duction, cannot function in acidic oralkaline waters. Acidic conditionsalso aggravate toxic contaminationproblems because sediments releasetoxicants in acidic waters. Commonsources of acidity include minedrainage, runoff from mine tailings,and atmospheric deposition.



Habitat Modification/Hydrologic Modification

Habitat modifications includeactivities in the landscape, on shore,and in waterbodies that alter thephysical structure of aquatic ecosys-tems and have adverse impacts onaquatic life. Examples of habitatmodifications to streams include

■ Removal of streamside vegetationthat stabilizes the shoreline andprovides shade, which moderatesin-stream temperatures

■ Excavation of cobbles from astream bed that provide nestinghabitat for fish

■ Burying streams

■ Excessive development sprawlthat alters the natural drainage pat-terns by increasing the intensity,magnitude, and energy of runoffwaters.

Hydrologic modifications alterthe flow of water. Examples ofhydrologic modifications includechannelization, dewatering,damming, and dredging.

Suspended Solids and Turbidity

Suspended solids are a measureof the weight of relatively insolublematerials in the ambient water.These materials enter the watercolumn as soil particles from landsurfaces or sand, silt, and clay fromstream bank erosion or channelscour. Suspended solids can include

both organic (detritus and biosolids)and inorganic (sand or finer col-loids) constituents. Under low-flowconditions, excessively high sus-pended solids can become siltationproblems as the materials settle outand impact the substrate on riversor fill in reservoirs or the upper endsof estuaries.

Turbidity is an optical propertyof very small particles that scatterlight and reduce clarity in water-bodies. Although algal blooms canmake waters turbid, turbidity isusually related to the smaller inor-ganic components of the suspendedsolids burden, primarily the clayparticles. In addition to creatingaesthetically undesirable conditions,turbidity helps trap heat. This canbecome a problem in cold watertrout streams where fish areadapted to a particular range oftemperatures.

Noxious Aquatic PlantsNoxious aquatic plants refers to

species of rapidly growing macro-phytes (vascular plants as opposedto algae) that may lead to unwant-ed alterations in the ecological bal-ances of lakes, rivers, or other water-bodies and that can also interferewith human recreational activities.In most cases, the nuisance plantsare nonnative introductions such asthe Eurasian milfoil or hydrilla.

Oil and GreaseOil and grease can be docu-

mented quantitatively fromchemical tests or from qualitative



observations of surface films withdistinctive oily sheens. Oil andgrease problems are usually relatedto spills or other releases of petrole-um products. The most dramaticcases are associated with accidentsinvolving oil tankers (e.g., the ExxonValdez) or major pipeline breaks.Minor oil and grease problems canresult from wet weather runoff fromhighways or the improper disposalin storm drains of motor oil. Largeamounts of oil can be toxic to fishand wildlife, but even persistentsurface films may decrease reaera-tion rates and cause damage to thegills or other exposed surfacemembranes of fishes.

Salinity andMineralization

Salinity and mineralization aremeasures of the concentrations ofvarious salts or other minerals

dissolved in water. In near-coastalareas, these dissolved materials will include appreciable levels ofsodium, which is a natural compo-nent of seawater. In estuaries wherethe natural inputs of fresh waterhave been reduced from upstreamdams or diversions, evaporationmay increase the salinity levels tovery high levels that can stress fishor shellfish. For inland areas, theconcerns commonly focus on suchchemicals as dissolved chlorides orsulfates that can lead to high levelsof mineralization. Areas with under-lying gypsum deposits will oftenshow high levels of mineralization asreflected in tests for total dissolvedsolids. Some reservoirs and river sys-tems in arid regions may experienceincreases in mineralization levelsthat may make the water hard touse for drinking water or even irriga-tion purposes.

River of Words 1999 Finalist, Lauren D. Beebe, River of Peace, Age 11, CA



Comprehensive Assessments

EPA and the states establisheda goal of comprehensively charac-terizing all surface and groundwaters of each state using a varietyof techniques targeted to the con-dition of, and goals for, the waters.These techniques may include acombination of targeted monitor-ing and probability-based designs.

Currently, states report on only a fraction of their waters (seeFigure 1-2, page 14). In the past,states focused their monitoring on waters with known problems.This puts healthy waters at risk ofdeteriorating without anyoneknowing. The goal of comprehen-sive assessments is to be able tocharacterize all waters of the statein an unbiased manner.

Comprehensive assessment isan evaluation of resources thatprovides complete spatial coverageof the geographic area or resourcebeing studied. It provides informa-tion on the assessment value (con-dition of the resource), spatial andtemporal trends in resource condi-tion, causes/stressors and sourcesof pollution, and locational infor-mation.

Different methods are used bythe states to achieve comprehen-sive monitoring. The two primarymonitoring designs employed toachieve comprehensive assessmentare probability-based design andtargeted design. These designs areimplemented on a statewide basis

or on selected watersheds under arotating basin approach, or both.

Several states discussed the useof probability-based monitoring.This involves choosing monitoringsites using statistical techniquesthat allow the state to infer theresults for a specific waterbodytype across an entire river basin, an entire ecoregion, or the entirestate.

■ Maryland used a probability-based design to assess the biologi-cal condition of headwater streamsstatewide.

■ Arizona developed a probability-based network of ground waterwells in order to make statisticallyvalid statements about water qual-ity in each of its aquifers; theseaquifers will be sampled on a rotat-ing basis until the entire state isassessed.

■ The western states of EPA Regions8, 9, and 10 are developing aprobability-based sampling designto characterize water quality of allperennial rivers and streams ofeach state under the EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment ProjectWestern Pilot.

Many states are expanding their targeted monitoring designsto be more representative of waterquality. Monitoring stations are



representative of a stream water-body for a distance upstream anddownstream that has no significantinfluences that might tend tochange water or habitat quality.Examples of such influencesinclude point or nonpoint sourceinputs, change in land use, or alarge tributary or diversion. Thetargeted monitoring design iscommonly used in the rotatingbasin approach.

About half of the states haveimplemented, or are in the processof implementing, a rotating basinapproach. Under this approach,states intensively monitor a differ-ent set of basins each year. Typi-cally, each basin in the state ismonitored intensively in 1 out of every 5 years. Thus, the totalamount of water monitored overthe 5-year period approaches 100%. South Carolina hasincreased the number of sitesmonitored over a 5-year period by more than 50% due to thestate’s conversion to a rotatingbasin approach.

However, since monitoringresources in most states are rela-tively static, EPA is encouragingstates to incorporate probability-based monitoring into their rotat-ing basin frameworks. This may bethe most powerful way for a stateto achieve the goal of comprehen-sive assessments without increasingtheir monitoring budget. Severalstates are already implementing

this concept. Indiana sampleswater chemistry, fish and aquaticmacroinvertebrates, and fish tissueand sediment contaminant levels atprobability-based sites in selectedbasins each year. South Carolinahas also implemented a statewideprobability-based network. WestVirginia is testing a probability-based design within a rotatingbasin schedule to provide assess-ment summaries for all streams as well as for a subpopulation of smaller headwater streams. Seethe highlight on West Virginia’sprogress in achieving comprehen-sive assessments in Chapter 3.

Data sharing and coordinationis another tool for increasing theamount of waters assessed. Manystates have successfully used citizenvolunteer monitoring and antici-pate increased emphasis on volun-teers in the future. Several otherstates are redesigning their state-wide water quality monitoring pro-grams, sometimes in cooperationwith the U.S. Geological Surveyand other state and federal agen-cies. A number of states haveformed monitoring councils. Theyprovide a forum for local, state,federal, university, and volunteerorganizations to coordinate moni-toring activities. EPA encouragesthe states to incorporate the goalof comprehensive assessment of allwaters into such monitoring initia-tives.

Documents

Conrad Conero, Braden Brook, Greenfield Park, NY · Integrated water quality man-agement begins with a basic under-standing of how water moves through the environment, comes into