Construction details of a piggery

A piggery meant for rearing pigs on a permanent basis should be strong and

durable. Certain constructional details specific to piggery are important.

Floor

The snout of a pig is said to be harder than a crowbar. It can dig up even the

hardest surfaces and create pot holes. Therefore, the floor of the piggery should

be hard, unbreakable and rough. Materials such as reinforced concrete, stone

slabs or hard cement tiles fixed with cement are suitable materials for

constructing the floor of the piggery. A concrete floor laid on a hard and thick

foundation with rough surface is the best. The floor should have proper slope

from all sides towards the drainage.

Feeders and waterers

Pigs’ saliva is very corrosive and the feeders and waterers get easily pitted and

holed. Under such situation hygienic feeding is impossible. To avoid this

problem care should be taken while constructing the feeders and waterers.

Reinforced concrete with a mixture of 1: 1.5: 3 cement, sand and stone chips

respectively are the best material for a permanent feeders. This is topped with a

thick coating of cement which is given a smooth and fine finish. There should be

a separate drainage facility from each feeder and waterer to the outside. The

corners of the feeders and waterers should be round and smooth. Stone, wood,

brick and cement are other types of materials that can be used for the

construction of feeders and waterers.

Walls

The walls of a permanent piggery may be made of brick or stone with cement

and should be of nine inch thickness. The walls should be plastered and coated

with fine cement up to a height of 4 -5 ft. The corners and the place where the

walls join the floor should be made smooth and round. The walls should be 4-5

ft high from the floor. The rest of the wall up to the roof can be open.

Roof

The roof which can be conical or flat should be sufficiently high (about l0-12ft)

to have enough air circulation. It can be supported by pillars raised on walls

with a minimum height of 8 -10ft from the floor. The roof should be all weather

proof and material should not make the housing too hot or too cold inside. In

hot/warmer areas the roof should be raised high to provide enough ventilation

in the pig house.

Doors

The doors should be strong and durable. Any material may be used for the door

but the best material is iron. Metal sheets fixed on an iron frame are excellent.

The door should be fixed close to the floor so that pigs do not lift it up by

putting the snout under it. The width of the door should be at least 3 -4 ft.

Wallowing tank

In hot areas it is desirable to provide a wallowing tank in each room or on the

open space of combination system. On an average, a tank of 8 x 6 x 1 ft is

sufficient. The size may be increased depending on the number of pigs. The

gradient should gradually decrease by one 2ft deep on one side of the tank to

four inches on the other side. An underground drainage should be provided.

Feeding passage

The feeders can be constructed in a row on one side of the feeding space of

each room. The rooms of the piggery should be constructed in such a way that

the feeders come in one line. A feeding passage of about 3- 4 ft is convenient

for moving around. Openings made on the half wall towards each feeder make it

convenient for feeding, and these should be considered during construction.

Alternatively a wire or iron frame provides a good convenient wall.

Cleaning passage

A cleaning passage on the opposite side of each room is very necessary. The

door of each room opens to the cleaning passage. One should be able to enter

each room, remove dung and other wastes, wash and sweep, clean and drain

out into the main drainage from each room. The same passage can be used to

transfer pigs from one room to another for breeding, littering, weaning, etc.

Drainages

The drainages from each room and the main drainage should be constructed

with sufficient slope (generally 1: 100). The surface of these drainages should

be smooth so that cleaning becomes easy.

Sewage tank

In a very big piggery, a large quantity of sewage may be drained. Under such

situation, it is highly advisable to have a separate collection tank for sewage

collection.

Compost pits

Two compost pits are required side by side. They can be built with brick or

stone, no plastering is required on the sides or on the floor at the bottom. If

bricks are used, a coating of thick cement solution is recommended to preserve

the brick from weathering. The pits can be underground or built on the surface.

Room arrangement

The three sections, namely eating space, resting space and dunging area can be

arranged in the following order.

The three sections are made together under the roof (indoor system).

Resting place under roof and eating and dunging space in the open air

(combination system in less rainfall areas).

Resting place and eating place under the roof and dunging in the open air

(combination system in more than average rainfall area).

Partitions: (a) no partitions between sections, (b) partition between sections,

(c) partition separates dunging space from the other two, and (d) partition

separates resting space from the other two.

Surroundings

The surroundings of the piggery should be maintained clean and free of bushes.

There should be facilities for proper drainages from the surroundings of the

piggery. Clean and dry surroundings reduce the occurrence of diseases and

parasites.

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Components of a Piggery

Resting place

Pigs prefer to rest most of the time hence the need for a good resting place.

The resting place should be dry, clean and provide protection from cold, heat

and rain.

There are many recommendations regarding resting space requirement. A

single fully grown pig has varying length between five to six feet from snout to

the root of the tail. Consequently the minimum requirement for the pig will be

7-8 feet on both sides. However, the requirement of resting place for one pig

while resting is only about 5 X 2 ft space. This makes it possible for one to keep

three to four pigs in the space actually required for one full grown pig. However,

the actual size of the resting place should be in consonance with .the feeding

and exercising space.

Feeding space

Feeding space includes the space for feed as well as for watering. Every growing

or grown up pig requires a separate feeder, although water can be common.

The size of each feeder on the inner side should be 12" X 12" X 6" length, width

and height, respectively. The height of the feeder may be reduced by one or

two inches for smaller pigs. The size of the waterer is the same as for the

feeder. Several feeders and waterers can be constructed together in a line with

4"-6" thick partitions. The number of partition will be one less than the total

number of feeders and waterers. On the basis of these, we can calculate the

total feeding and watering length' required for any number of pigs one wants to

keep in, one room. This is further clarified by following example.

To keep 6 growers, six feeders and one waterer are required (total seven

troughs with 6 partitions). If the thickness of the partition is maintained at 4",

we require 9ft (7 + 4" x 6) feeding space, whereas if thickness kept is 6" then

we require 10ft feeding space. The second side of the feeding area will require

at least 6ft space for the pig to stand and eat comfortably. The feeding area

should be dry, clean and easily cleanable.

Dunging and exercising space

This area should be the same as the feeding area in the indoor system. But in

the combination system it could be at least double the space of resting area.

Drainage

There should be facilities for proper drainage from the resting, eating and

dunging space into a common drain.

Waste disposal space

The surrounding of the piggery should be kept clean therefore it is necessary to

have proper waste disposal place. Two rectangular pits or boxes of 10' x 8' x 6'

will be sufficient for about 50-75 grown up pigs. The dung and other wastes are

dumped into one pit at a time. When one is filled, start filling the other. By the

time the second is full, the contents of the first pit will be fully decomposed and

can be used as manure. Any waste except polythene papers, metal, glasses,

stones and hard wooden pieces, can be placed in these pits. The decomposition

takes place within 5 to 6 months time. Hence the size of pits should be such

that it should take about 6 months to fill.

Feed store

A full grown or growing pig requires about 2 kg of feed per day. Based on this,

the requirement of feed can be estimated per day for all the pigs. If feed is not

purchased on a monthly basis the store should be sufficiently big enough to

store at least four months feed.

Recording facilities

Various records on feeding, breeding, production, etc, should be maintained

even in a small piggery if one wants to run it economically. In a small piggery,

recording facilities would mean few recording registers and a small shelf to keep

them safely. In a commercial pig farm, it may mean even a computerized

record keeping room and other facilities including staff.

Space for equipments and tools

Proper equipments and implements are required for cleaning, watering,

preparing feed, feeding, disinfecting, slaughtering, etc. They should be

maintained in a proper and convenient condition for use. The size of this place

will vary with the size of piggery.

Space for first aid and medicines

All piggeries should have essential medicines and first aid facilities. In small

piggery, a small shelf with essential items will be sufficient, whereas in a big

commercial piggery a full fledged infirmary or hospital with staff may be

required.

Butchering and weighing space

If pigs are sold as pork, there should be a place to slaughter them with

minimum efforts and without disturbing other pigs in the piggery. Weighing of

pigs is done periodically to maintain the growth record. The slaughter area

should be kept clean and dry.

Office facilities

In commercial and large farms, proper office facilities are required for carrying

out various kinds of transactions. In a small piggery, office facilities can be

combined with storage, recording equipments, tools and medical items.

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Reproduction and lactation in pigs

For a commercial pig enterprise animals that produce fast and mature quickly

are required so that the farm’s productive capacity can be maximized.

Understanding the pig’s reproduction and lactation hold the key to increased

productivity. One primary goal in pig farming is to induce early puberty. This is

because early maturity in gilts will mean early reproduction hence less feed

spent on reproduction.

In order to be able to control reproduction the pig farmer must understand the

factors that affect it.

Puberty in gilts

Puberty is the onset of estrus and ovulation with continued regular estrus cycle

and is affected by the following:

Age, liveweight and growth rate

These factors are interrelated. However they are not indicators of maturity

because a gilt of say 40kg can show signs of estrus while another of the same

weight may not. Growth rate is the best indicator among the three because it

shows the activities of the pituitary.

Nutrition

Lysine and methionine supplements seem to induce puberty

Breed

Certain breeds of pigs attain puberty earlier than others e.g. landrace attains

puberty earlier than most breeds.

Heterosis

Hybrid vigor reduces the age at puberty. Crossbreeds attain puberty earlier than

purebreds.

Sire dam puberty age difference

Polland china x Duroc less 11 days

Duroc x Yorkshire less 36 days

Photoperiod

The length of day influences the onset of puberty such that long days tend to

induce puberty.

Crowding

Crowding induces puberty probably because of interaction and production of

hormones.

Boar contact

Gilts kept close to boars will attain puberty early. Optimum exposure period is

150 to 170 days of age. If exposed at an early age of 120 days they tend to get

used to the boar and will not reach puberty early. If over 200 days in age there

will be no effect.

The Estrus cycle

The pig will cycle on average after every 21 days but this varies between 18

and 24 days.

Signs of estrus

Mounting on other females but will not tolerate being mounted. This is very

early signs

Swollen vulva

Discharge from the vulva - this may not be very pronounced

Stands to riding test

Signs may last 3 to 4 days but gilts will allow mating only for 2 to 3 days.

Ovulation

This occurs in late estrus usually the second day after the onset of estrus. The

ova released will remain fertile for 24 hours therefore conception can optimally

occur if mating or artificial insemination is done in late estrus. The highest

conception rate will be achieved if insemination is done 6 – 10 hours before

ovulation.

Depending on the ovulation rate, litter size varies from 7 to 16 piglets.

Factors affecting ovulation rate

Estrus number

Whether the pig is cycling for the first, second or third time etc. The number of

ova released increase with each cycle. The number of ova released at a single

estrus gradually increases through the first three cycles. Litter size represents

only about 70% of the number of ova released.

Breeds of pigs

Chinese breeds are very prolific with litter size going as high as 30. Yorkshire

and Landrace are also prolific. Hampshire and Duroc are not.

Energy intake

High energy intake tends to increase ovulation rate (2 weeks prior to breeding)

Temperature

High temperature from 330C and above will reduce ovulation rate. Low

temperatures do not have any effect.

Artificial control of estrus

This can be done by parenteral gonadotrophin administration after weaning.

This involves injecting the sow with Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotrophin

(PMSG) at weaning or anytime after and following it 60 to 70 hours with Human

Chorionic Gonadotrophin (HCG). The sow will cycle in less than 3 days.

Conception rate

This is the percentage of mating that result in the development of viable fetus.

A rate of 70% is acceptable for gilts and sows in the first service. It is difficult to

attain 100% conception rate due to factors like cystic follicles, improper estrus

timing, boar or female infertility and other anomalies.

Litter size in relation to prenatal death

Litter size refers to the number of piglets born to a sow. The size of a litter will

depend on:

The number of ova produced

Percent fertilization

The number of prenatal death and stillbirths

Usually prenatal death accounts for 40% and increases with gestation period,

the possible reasons for prenatal being:

Excess secretion of estrogen

Uterine crowding

High plane of nutrition after conception especially the first 3 weeks

Natural mating versus Artificial Insemination (AI)

Natural service is the most common system of mating for pig farmers in Kenya.

It is an efficient way of mating but the cost of a boar can be quite high. Where

AI is practiced fresh semen is used because of the poor keeping quality of boar

semen. Currently with the use of extenders the semen can be kept fertile for 3

to 5 days. Whereas bull semen can be frozen at -960C for life, boar semen

cannot be frozen. Bull semen can be extended using citrate and phosphate

extenders but these extenders are toxic to boar semen. However it is possible

to use fresh semen for 4 to 5 days. Semen can be collected twice a week per

boar.

Lactation

Milk production in the sow is a necessary process for the survival of the young

piglets. Milk yield and composition of the sow can be estimated by weighing of

piglets before and after suckling. Sometimes it becomes necessary to inject

oxytocin in order to induce milk letdown.

Peak milk production is attained in the 5 – 6 weeks. By 9 or 10 weeks daily

production is negligible. Average milk production is about 5 to 8kg per day over

a period of 8 weeks.

Milk production depends on nutrition, body size and breed.

Milk from sows is characteristically deficient in iron and copper and however

much iron is provided it does not pass through the milk.

Post natal development

The new born piglet is rather immature and therefore certain changes must

occur to make it well acquainted to the environment. Piglets are born when they

weigh 1.1 to 1.4kg on the average. Usually the birth weight of the piglet will

determine its survival chances. The lower the birth weight the higher the

mortality rate. Litter size also affect mortality rate indirectly. A large litter size

tends to have high mortality rate due to low birth weights.

New born piglets have very low liver glucose levels and at the same time the fat

content of the whole piglet is below 1% therefore there is no energy stored in

the piglet. The piglet must therefore suckle immediately in order to get energy.

If it does not suckle the blood glucose drops dramatically in the first 48 hours.

Because of this such piglets will undergo hypoglycemic comma leading to death.

Digestive development

During the first 24 hours the digestive tract is permeable to intact protein.

Following the intake of colostrum the ability to absorb such proteins is lost.

When the new born piglet is allowed to suckle immediately after birth it will

acquire passive immunity due to the immunoglobulin content of colostrum.

Colostrum has certain antibodies and this will be present in the cells of the

young piglet at least 6 hours after suckling.

Active immunity in young piglets start after 3 weeks but production of

antibodies is minimal up to 5 weeks of age.

The newborn piglet will readily absorb glucose but the utilization of sucrose and

polysaccharides are not as sufficient. Another carbohydrate that is readily

utilized is lactose. The older pigs will utilize lactose very poorly because they

have lower lactase secretion.

Complex carbohydrates like cellulose cannot be digested well by pigs. This is

because the pigs do not have the ability to secret cellulose and has very little

micro-flora in the true stomach. However certain microbes which have the

ability to degrade cellulose are present in the pig in the large intestine and

caecum. This microbes release volatile fatty acids which are absorbed in the

large intestine for energy metabolism.

Pigs of all ages have the ability to secrete large amounts of pancreatic lipase

therefore fat absorption is very efficient in the pig.

At birth intact protein will be absorbed, but following the absorption of alpha

globulins the gut closes and intact proteins will not be absorbed anymore.

Following gut closure dietary proteins must be hydrolyzed before absorption.

The efficiency of protein absorption depends on the source of protein. E.g. milk

protein is absorbed at a higher rate (92 – 95%) than soya bean protein (89%).

####################END#################

Determining the number of pens and stalls required in a pig unit

One objective in planning a pig unit is to balance the accommodation between

the various ages and number of pigs. Ideally, each pen should be fully occupied

at all times, allowing only for a cleaning and sanitation period of about 7 days

between successive groups.

In the following example the number of different pens required in a 14-sow

herd, where 8 week weaning is practised, will be determined.

Determine the farrowing interval and number of farrowings per

year.

Average weaning to conception interval 20 days

Gestation 114 days

Suckling period (7x8 weeks) 56 days

Farrowing interval 190 days

Number of farrowing per sow per year

Determine the number of farrowing pens

The piglets remain in the farrowing pen until 12 weeks of age.

Before farrowing 7 days

Suckling period 56 days

Rearing weaners 28 days

Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days

Occupation per cycle 98 days

Thus one farrowing pen can be used for farrowing per pen.

A 14 sow herd with an average of 1.9 farrowings per sow and year

requires farrowing pens.

Determine the number of servicing / gestation pens.

Average weaning to conception interval 20 days

Gestation period less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days

Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days

Occupancy per cycle 134 days

Thus one place in the servicing / gestation accommodation can be used for:

365/134 = 2.7 farrowings per year

With a total of 27 farrowing a year

27/2.7 = 10 places would be required.

Determining the number of places for replacement stock

Presume the sows on average get 5 litters, then 20 percent of all litters will be

from gilts.

Rearing of breeding stock (12 to 35 weeks) 168 days

Gestation less 7 days in farrowing pen 107 days

Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days

Occupancy per cycle 282 days

About 30% more animals are separated than the required number of gilts thus

the required number of places in the 14 sow herd will be

Determining the number of places in the growing / finishing

accommodation:

One stage finishing

Fattening of pigs 12 to 27 weeks of age (25 – 90kg) 105 days

Extra period for last pig in the pen to reach marketable weight 21 days

Cleaning and sanitation of pen 7 days

Occupancy per cycle 133 days

Assuming that 8 pigs per litter will survive to 12 weeks of age the number of

places required in the finishing accommodation will be:

That is 8 pens with 10 pigs in each or 10 pens if each litter should be kept

together.

Two stage growing / finishing unit:

Growing pigs 12 to 20 weeks of age will occupy a growing pen for 63 days

including 7 days for cleaning.

places are required in the unit.

Finishing pigs 20 to 27 weeks of age will occupy a finishing pen for 70 days

including 14 days emptying period and 7 days cleaning ( the emptying period

will be shorter if the pigs are sorted for size while being transferred from the

growing to the finishing pens)

places are required in the unit.

From the above example it will be appreciated that the number of pens of

various kinds required in a pig unit is based on a number of factors. It is,

therefore not possible to lay down hard and fast rules about the relative number

of pens in herds with average or good management and performance in tropical

conditions is given.

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Management systems in intensive commercial pig production

There is no standard or system of housing for pigs. Instead, accommodation

and equipment are chosen to suit the type of management system adopted.

However, there are certain similar principles and practices in most systems.

These originate from the fact that most pig units will contain pigs of different

classes.

Furrowing – suckling pens

In small and medium scale intensive pig production units a combined farrowing,

suckling and rearing pen is normally used. The sow is brought to this pen one

week before farrowing and stays there together with her litter for 5 to 8 weeks

when the piglets are weaned by removing the sow. The sow is often confined in

a farrowing crate a few days before, and up to a week after birth to reduce

piglet mortality caused by overlaying or trampling.

Early weaning after a suckling period of 5 to 6 weeks or even less can only be

recommended where management and housing is of good standard.

The piglets remain in the farrowing pen after weaning and until they are 12 to

14 weeks of age or weigh 25 to 30 kg.

Group keeping of farrowing-suckling sows that have given birth within a 2 to 3

weeks interval is possible, but is unusual in intensive production. However,

there a few acceptance problems and the litter cross-suckle and mix freely. The

pen should have at least 6m2 deep litter bedding per sow, with an additional

creep area of 1m2

In a large scale unit, which has separate farrowing house, sometimes either of

the following two alternative systems is practiced instead of the system

described above.

The first alternative is similar to the system described above but the piglets are

moved two weeks after weaning to a weaner pen where they remain either until

they are 12 to 14 weeks of age (25 to 30kg) or until 18 to 20 weeks (45 to

60kg). Note that the piglet should always remain in the farrowing / suckling pen

for a further 1 to 2 weeks after the sow has been removed so that they are not

subjected to any new environmental or disease stress at the same time as they

are weaned. The weaning pens can contain one litter or up to 30 to 40 pigs. The

pigs are often fed ad libitum.

In the second alternative the sow is placed in a farrowing crate in a small pen

one week prior to birth. Two weeks after farrowing the sow and litter are moved

to a larger suckling pen until 12 to 14 weeks of age or be transferred to weaner

accommodation two weeks after weaning.

Dry sow pens

After weaning a sow will normally come to heat within 5 to 7 days and then at 3

weeks interval until successful mating. The average weaning to conception

interval can vary between 8 – 20 days depending on management. In the

period until pregnancy has been ascertained the sow is best kept in a pen or

stall in close proximity to the boar pen.

Gestating sows are kept in yards or pens in groups of up to 10 to 12 sows that

will farrow within 2 to 3 weeks interval. They can also be kept in individual pens

confined in stalls or tethered in stalls.

Weaner and fattening pens

The weaners, whether they come from a farrowing pen or a weaner pen, will at

12 to 14 weeks of age be sufficiently hardened to go to a growing / finishing

pen. Finishing can be accomplished either in one stage in a growing / finishing

pen from 25 to 90kg or in two stages so that the pigs are kept in a small

growing pen until they weigh 50 to 60kg and are then moved to a larger

finishing pen where they remain until they reach marketable weight.

Although finishing pens are sometimes kept in groups of 30 or more, pigs in a

group of 9 to 12, or even less, show better growth performance in intensive

systems. An alternative, where growing and finishing are carried out in the

same facility, is to start about 12 pigs in the pen and later, during the finishing

period, reduce the number to 9 by taking out the biggest or smallest pigs from

each pen.

Replacement pens

In intensive systems a sow will, on average, produce 3 to 6 litters before she is

culled of infertility, low productivity or age. Yung breeding stock should be

separated from the rest of the litter at about 3 months of age, since they should

be less intensively fed than the fattening pigs. Gilts are first covered when they

are 7 to 9 months of age or weigh 105 to 120kg. After mating they can either

be kept in the same pen up to 1 week before farrowing, or kept in the gestating

sow accommodation, but in a separate group.

Boars are usually quiet if run with other boars or with pregnant sows, but may

develop vicious habits if shut up alone.

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How to improve production of scavenging pigs

Pig farming in Kenya can yield a rapid rate of return on capital employed if only

pig farmers make little attempt to obtain maximum productivity. Often pig

farmers let pigs to roam freely scavenging for their food and occasionally

supplementing them with kitchen waste or farm by-products. Local breeds are

kept where shelter or veterinary arrangements are rarely considered.

To help improve the productivity and health of these scavenging pigs, simple

management practices can be employed.

Feeding

Make sure that the available feedstuff is properly distributed. The best of the

feedstuff should be given to the pregnant and the nursing sows who supply your

future breeding stock, and also to the piglets that have just been weaned so

that they get off to a good start in life. You can also raise the quality of the feed

by adding feed supplements to the basic ration.

Enclosing the animals

Keep the pigs in fenced paddocks with shade to protect them from direct sun,

which can cause sunburn, and sometimes sunstroke particularly with white

skinned pig. Provide adequate supply of fresh drinking water in the paddock and

supplementary feed secure from neighboring pigs. This makes it possible to

control disease and parasites thereby reducing the often very high mortality

rate. It also improves the poor reproductive and growth performance and

inferior quality of meat. The paddock can be sub-divided into 4 – 6 smaller

areas so that pigs can be moved from one enclosure to another at two week

intervals.

You can make further improvements by sorting out the pigs into the different

classes. Because rapid growth is important, enclose all the fatteners while the

breeding stock can be left outside. Pregnant sows should be separated from the

others just before farrowing and brought inside to deliver. With proper housing

a greater number of piglets can be produced.

Provide wallows

Provide wallowing or sprinklers to alleviate heat stress. Being unable to sweat

sufficiently pigs have a natural instinct to wallow to increase the evaporative

cooling from the skin.

Breed selected sows to selected sires

Choose the right boars to breed the right sows. Select the stronger piglets for

breeding. The remaining piglets can be fattened for sale or for slaughter.

Separating out the best sows for breeding and providing good housing and

proper attention will improve the performance of the herd. It is worthwhile to

invest in a good boar to produce strong healthy litters. Buying a boar is a

serious investment, and is a project that a group of farmers may wish to

undertake together. It is also very useful to exchange boars with other farmers

in order to avoid the problems of inbreeding.

Worm control

Pigs kept outside will always be infested with worms. The problem of worm

infestation in outdoor pigs can be reduced by regularly changing the grazing

area. Give the animals a fresh piece of ground about every 14 days. In dry

periods the animals can stay longer in the same field because the worms do not

develop so quickly.

After a period of grazing the field should be left empty for a while to allow the

larvae to die. In the wet season it is better to leave a field for about 2.5 to 3

months before re-using it; in the dry season when the larvae and eggs die more

quickly, the field can be used again after 2 months. With this system, changing

the enclosure every two weeks requires at least four different fields, which is

expensive. If there is a shortage of land, in some areas a simple pigsty can be

made to keep the pigs in during the wet season. By letting the pigs out in the

dry season only, less land will be required.

To prevent young piglets from being infected directly after birth, the breeding

sows should be dewormed about 1 week before delivery. After deworming, the

sows should be washed to ensure that there are no worm eggs clinging to them.

They should then be kept inside for delivery. To prevent re-contamination, the

pen should be properly cleaned every day. All this being done, the young piglets

stand a good chance of being born into a worm-free environment.

Part confinement

You can keep only part of the herd in confinement. The order of priority of

confinement for the different classes of pig should be:

Growing/finishing pigs (25 – 90kg or more liveweight) for higher daily gain,

better feed conversion and parasite control.

Farrowing and lactating sows, to reduce pre-weaning mortality and for higher

quality weaners

Gestating sows, to allow individual feeding and better control of stock

You can construct simple semi-covered pens of rough timber with a thatch roof

and floor of concrete. An earth floor can be used, but is more difficult to keep

clean and sanitary. Several pens in a row can be arranged as required although

cleaning can be very difficult in this arrangement.

While such improvements have the advantage of low investment in buildings

they should only be regarded as first steps in raising the general level of pig

production in your farm. The raising of pigs in confinement is usually advisable

in circumstances where

Good management is available

High quality pigs are introduced

Farrowing occur at regular intervals throughout the year

Land is scarce or not accessible all the year

Balanced rations are available

Labour is expensive

Parasite and disease control is necessary

The target is commercial production

Herd size is reasonably large

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Routine husbandry practices when raising pigs

Feeding pigs

Feed all animals twice a day with a restricted amount of dry concentrates and

free access to fresh water. Restricted access is used for the following reasons:

It gives maximal feed conversion efficiency (FCE). FCE is the most important

factor in the economy of feeding of pigs as the cost of feeds account for

about 70% of the total costs in pig production.

Restricted feeding gives animals meat quality. The most important factors in

grading of pigs meat in Kenya are carcass weight, back-fat thickness and

age. A too high level of feeding will produce a carcass with too much fat and

subsequent low grading.

Recording of feed consumption makes it possible to calculate FCE for various

groups.

Alternative feeding systems are adlib and semi adlib feeding.

The feeding standards used are available at the National Research Council and

Kenya Bureau of Standards.

Feed mixtures

Feeds for pigs must be energy rich, low in crude fibres and contain all nutrients

required by pigs. Various age groups have different nutrient requirements.

Commercial feed mixtures commonly used are.

Sow and weaner meal is used for all breeding animals and growing pigs from

weaning to about 50kg liveweight.

Pig finishing meal is used for finishing pigs from 50kg liveweight to

marketing.

Creep pellets are used from 2 weeks to weaning.

Other available commercial feed mixtures for pigs are cereal balancers used to

mix with home grown cereals, and skim balancer used together with skim milk.

Home made mixtures

No simple feedstuffs contain all nutrients pigs need in the correct proportion. A

feed mixture will principally be composed of

Energy rich feeds (cereals)

Protein feeds (plant or animal origin)

Mineral feeds (salts)

Vitamin premix

Cleaning

Routine daily cleaning – Remove the manure from all pens twice per day.

Clean empty pens to reduce transfer of diseases. Thoroughly and mechanically

clean by scrubbing with water and brush all pens which are emptied when either

the pigs are sent to slaughter or transferred to other pens.

Prepare farrowing pens because newborns are more susceptible to all diseases

than older pigs. One of the most important steps in reduction of mortality in

pigs is to provide the newborn pigs with an optimal environment. About one

week before the expected time for farrowing the sow is brought into the

farrowing pen. Before this clean and disinfect the pen and wash the sow then

treat for external and internal parasites. Equip the creep area when farrowing is

expected to ensure an environment with optimal temperature and humidity free

from draught.

Weighing

Suckling pigs

The weight at birth, 2,3,4,6 and 8 weeks indicate milk production in the sow

and mothering abilities.

Growing pigs

Weigh growing pigs once per fortnight and when approaching market weight

once per week. This is useful for

Allocation of amounts of feeds

Calculation of growth rate and FCE

Checking performance

Estimate the most economic time for slaughter.

Method for estimation of liveweight

Suckling pigs can easily be weighed by an ordinary scale. Older pigs (20 kg

upwards), however, can only be weighed in special scale designed for weighing

animals. Heavier animals are cumbersome to handle.

The liveweights can roughly be estimated from the heart girth. The weight can

then either be estimated directly from the weigh band or from tables. Such

tables vary according to type of pigs, breeds and level of feeding.

Castration

Castrate all male pigs to avoid the “Boar taste” which develops in boars

approaching sexual maturity. Castration is easily done at 3 weeks of age. Avoid

castration of sick pigs and check for malformations such as cryptochidism,

hernia and intersex.

Parasite control

Spray against external parasites such as lice and mange. Spray sows once or

twice leaving a three weeks interval. Then spray the last time one week before

farrowing.

Piglets at weaning

Spray growing pigs and boars when necessary. Don’t spray during the last week

before slaughter.

Deworming should be done at the same time as spraying.

Identification

Although ear tattooing is cheap and can be used on new born, it can be difficult

on older pigs. Ear notching is also cheap but one must know the system to be

able to interpret the numbers. Notched ears can be damaged during fighting or

ear biting and cannot be used on new born. Ear tags are easy to read but

expensive and can be lost.

Practically all newborn pigs are tattooed and ear notched at weaning. Breeding

animals are ear tagged

Selection of breeding animals

Factors to consider when selecting breeding animals ranked according to

importance.

Feed conversion efficiency

Backfat thickness (lean to fat ratio)

Fertility, litter size

Growth rate

Conformation

Type

Body length

Weight gain in piglets

Heat detection and mating

Gilts have their first heat at 5 – 6 months age. They should not be served

before 8 months and 100 kg liveweight.

Sows come on heat 2 – 5 days after weaning, depending on length of suckling

period

The length of heat is between 40 – 43 hours and ovulation takes place in the

beginning of the half of the estrus period.

Signs of heat include swelling and reddening of vulva and discharge of mucous,

changed behavior, restless, loss of appetite, and riding on others.

Gestation period takes 113 to 115 days.

Record keeping

Keep the following records:

Breeding animals

Service record

Litter size (dead, living)

Liveweight of piglets

Baconers

Liveweight

Feed consumption

Grading

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Feeding pigs

The daily nutrients required by pigs for maintenance, growth and reproduction

depend on the size and physiological state of the pig.

Pregnancy

During this stage the pig requires nutrients for maintenance and the growing

fetus. Requirements during pregnancy are above the maintenance because

nutrients are necessary for increased size and vascularity of the uterus as well

as the mammary glands in preparation for lactation. Fat addition to pregnancy

diets of pigs increases the blood glucose content of the piglets to be furrowed.

Lactation

In addition to energy required by the sow for maintenance, energy is also

required for milk production. The DE for maintenance for lactating sows is about

110 Kcal/kg live weight. Energy requirements for milk production are about

2000 Kcal per kg milk produced.

Pre-weaning stage

This is the period between birth and weaning of the piglet. Given that the new

pig is immature in terms of digestive development it is hardly worthwhile to

offer the new born a diet comprising cereals and other common ingredients until

the period between 21 and 28 days.

Growers and finishers

This is the period between weaning and marketing of pigs. Finishing stage

begins after 60kg live weight. During the growing phase pigs are fed a diet

slightly higher in protein. Finishing stage requires less protein. In both stages

diets can be offered based on cereals and plant proteins.

A diet for young piglets should include at leas 5% milk protein.

Pig feeds

In Kenya there three types of feeds in the market.

Creep feed – usually in pellets. Should not be less than 18% protein content

(CP). The feed is introduced to the sow 10 days before and after furrowing.

Creep feed is also fed to piglets until weaning or until they are 20 kg live

weight.

Sow and weaner – usually in mash form. This is normally for the breeding

stock. Feeding depend on the finishing type of pig and can be fed either

Adlib – fed up to 50 – 60 kg live weight for growers

Restricted – fed at 1.2 to 1.5 kg feed 20 to 30 kg live weight

The advantage of feeding adlib is in low feed: gain ratio and therefore

economical as compared to restricted feeding.

Finisher ration – fed to pigs of over 60 kg live weight. The ration is above 14%

CP and is fed on a restricted basis. This is good because the pig will not put on

too much fat.

If the feeding program is followed then the pigs will be marketed at 95 to 110

kg live weight usually within 200 days. This gives an average daily gain of 0.5

kg per day.Castrated boars are fed the same way.

Breeding gilts are fed on sow and weaner at 3kg per day until the time they

about to be serviced. Then 14 days prior to service feed is increased by 0.5 kg

per day. 14 days to the next estrus they are given 3.5 kg per day and after

serving feeding revert back to 3.0 kg per day.

A common practice around furrowing time is to temporarily restrict feed intake

in order to avoid overconsumption and problems related to constipation. Wheat

bran is fed ¼ to ½ in the sow and weaner meal to increase the rate of passage.

In the absence of wheat bran, maize bran, sawdust or any suitable filler

material can be used. Sows appetite is depressed following parturition therefore

feed restriction is warranted to avoid feed wastage.

Underfeeding of sows with substantial appetite shortly after furrowing should

however be avoided. As a compromise feed the newly furrowed sow at least 2

times a day and offer an amount of feed that can be cleared within 20 minutes.

Feed more frequently. Underfeeding shortly after furrowing will result in a

decrease of milk production and consequently piglet losses.

Feeding during lactation

A sow’s performance during lactation is affected by her feeding program during

the gestation period. Hence maximum yield during lactation is ensured by

proper feeding.

Sows can adjust to inadequate energy and protein intake during lactation in the

short term by utilizing body fat stores resulting in loss of body weight. A good

feeding program during lactation should not result in sows in good condition

during furrowing losing more than 10 kg. In practice lactating sows are given

feed at 3kg + additional 0.25kg per piglet. In some places it is recommended at

2.5 + 0.4kg per piglet – this is a situation where feeds are of high quality.

Should problems be encountered with sows losing body condition because of

poor appetite the following factors should be considered to improve feed intake.

Feed intake during pregnancy – sows overfed during pregnancy usually have

low feed intake during lactation

Environmental temperature of furrow house – feed intake can be lowered by

high temperatures. The ideal temperatures is 18 – 20oC

Energy level of feed – if there is low intake then increase energy density of

diet. This can be done by addition of tallow or sunflower oil at 6% of diet.

Increase frequency of feeding to increase feed intake. Also instead of dry

feeding, wet feeding will increase feed intake.

Form of feed – pelleted diet increase feed intake.

Weaning to breeding

There is a relationship between body fat and reproductive fitness of sows.

Slightly give the sow some additional feed according its condition after weaning.

Weaning to breeding time is about 5 to 7 days.

Guidelines to evaluate sow feeding program

Gilts weigh between 120 to 130 kg at first furrowing

Gilts should not lose more than 10 kg in the first lactation

Sows should have a net gain of 10 to 15 kg for each successive reproductive

cycle. This happens up to 4th to 5th lactation.

Live weight should stabilize at 160 to 170 kg

Total feed requirements per sow per year should be about 1000kg

Feeding boars

This follows the same scheme as for growing pigs until the boars are 60kg. After

60kg boars are fed on sow and weaner continuously – not pig finisher – until

they are ready for service. Mature boars are given 2.5 kg feed per day.

However depending on the condition of boar, ½ kg more or less feed is given.

Nutrients required by pigs and other farm animals

Water

Water is required to balance water losses, produce milk and form new tissue

during growth or pregnancy. The minimum daily requirements depend on age:-

Age in weeks Kg of water

16 – 18 7

Non pregnant gilts 11.5

Sows up to 20

The practical recommendation is to allow free access of water.

Energy

This is usually provided by carbohydrates. The amount of energy provided or

required is expressed in Kcal/kg or MJ/kg of feed. Energy required by pigs is

usually described in terms of Digestible Energy (DE) because DE is precisely

defined in pigs.

Protein and amino acids

Protein may not be required as such but is a necessary source of essential

amino acids and nitrogen for the synthesis of non essential amino acids.

Required amino acids include lysine, methionine, tryptophan, arginine and

histidine.

Cereal grains can provide 30 – 70% of the total protein required hence other

sources of protein like legumes must be provided to ensure adequate amounts

of essential amino acids.

The required amounts of protein and amino acids are expressed as percent of

diet.

Minerals

The required minerals include calcium, phosphorous, iron, and copper. The

required quantities are expressed as percent in diet or milligrams per kilogram

for trace elements.

Vitamins

These are required in very small quantities. There are two types

Fat soluble vitamins for example vitamins A,D,E, and K

Water soluble vitamins e.g. the B complex, niacin, and pyridoxine

Fats

They enhance the absorption of fat soluble vitamins and are required for certain

essential fatty acids. Requirements are expressed as percent of diet.

Feed sources for pigs

A well balanced feed ration should contain the necessary amount of energy,

protein, minerals and vitamins. Swine feed can be categorized into energy,

protein, vitamin or mineral sources.

Energy sources

Cereal grains

Cereal grains are considered to be the first class of energy feeds. For example

maize is an excellent source of energy. It has a (Digestible Energy) DE content

of 3525 Kcal/kg. Usually the energy value of maize is used as a standard in

which other energy sources are compared. Crude Protein (CP) is 8.5%. Maize

can be used up to 85% in the diet of pigs. However maize is low in lysine and

tryptophan therefore cannot be used as a sole source of feed.

Wheat is high in energy and its feeding value is equal to or slightly inferior to

maize. It is low in lysine and threonine. If it is to be included in pig diet it should

not be too fine.

Barley has 90% feeding value of maize. It should be ground but not too fine.

Has high lysine content to meet the needs of growing pigs. Only small amounts

of other protein sources are required to supply sufficient lysine and threonine.

Sorghum has 95% feeding value of maize. Grower/finisher ration may contain

up to 95% sorghum. Major limitation is tannin content especially the red

sorghum. Tannin depresses growth rate, nutrient digestibility and utilization and

palatability.

Dry cassava has practically a feeding value as maize. Inclusion of 50% cassava

depresses weight gain and feed efficiency. This effect can be counteracted by

addition of methionine in swine diet.

Cereal by-products

Wheat bran has 67% feeding value of maize but due to its high fiber content

should be restricted to diets of growing and finishing pigs and dry sows.

Maize bran has 86% feeding value of maize. High levels in pig diet however can

cause gastric ulcers.

Wheat pollard (middling) is high in energy and protein. It can be used as sole

source of protein and energy to finisher diet. However the feed efficiency and

dressing percentage decreases with increasing amounts of wheat pollard.

As a general guideline the cereal by-products are included in pig diet in

combination with other sources of energy mainly the cereal grains.

Protein feed sources

Usually the animal protein sources are superior because they have better amino

acid profile.

Fish meal is an excellent protein source. There are various types/sources of fish

meal. The various sources determine the quality of the feed. Fish meal also

provides adequate quantities of essential amino acids. The recommended

inclusion rates of fish meal in diet are 2 – 10%. Fishmeal should not be included

in diets of finisher ration because pork will be tainted and protein requirements

of finisher pig are low.

Soya bean meal is of plant origin. It is one of the most important plant protein

in livestock feeding. Protein amount varies depending on method of extraction.

The amino acid profile is not large but will meet requirements. Soya bean meal

can be used as sole protein source.

Cotton seed cake major limitation is gossypol content which is toxic. Effect of

gossypol can be counteracted by adding iron sulphate. Iron precipitates

gossypol but is not absorbed and also interacts with other minerals preventing

their absorption. Lysine is partially available. Cotton seed cake should be limited

to less than 10% of diet. Free gossypol content of diet should be less than

0.01%

Mineral and vitamin sources

The largest proportion of a ration is made of energy and protein sources. Most

of these will contain some vitamins and minerals but not adequate such that it

is necessary to supplement with pure sources. Among the necessary minerals is

sodium chloride or common salt. Common salt is routinely added to all swine

diets because almost all feedstuff are deficient in sodium and chloride. It is

commonly added at a level of 0.25 to 0.5 % of diet. Excess salt can be toxic. A

level of 2% for example is toxic to swine and in the absence of sufficient water

1% can be toxic. As a guideline common salt should not exceed 0.9%. Swill

should not have excess salt.

Calcium – almost all feedstuff contain some calcium but contents vary widely.

For example cereals have 0.02 to 0.1%. Plant protein supplements vary in

calcium content usually from 0.17% to 0.66% therefore specific supplements

high in calcium are almost always required in formulating swine diet. Good

sources for swine diet are limestone and oyster shell. Sources which contain

both calcium and phosphorous can also be used e.g. dicalcium phosphate and

deflourinated phosphates.

Phosphorous is present in variable amounts in almost all feedstuff but only a

fraction is available because non ruminants like pigs lack the necessary

enzymes to digest them in the guts. Inorganic sources of phosphorous are

therefore used.

Zinc can be lacking especially when calcium is excess. Zinc is added to pig diet

predominantly as zinc oxide.

Vitamin sources

The vitamins supplied by energy and protein sources are inadequate to meet

metabolic needs. Some of the vitamin most likely to be low in natural diet are

niacin, B12, vitamin A and D. In practice a commercial preparation is added at

the rate of 0.1 to 0.5%. Similarly trace mineralized salts are added, premixed

then incorporated in diet.

Feed additives

Feed additives include antibiotics and growth promoting materials. They are

good in terms of growth rate, feed conversion efficiency and reduced mortality.

Among the antibiotics approved by FDA are tetracyclines and lincomycin

normally added at sub-therapeutic levels. Other feed additives are probiotics

like fungi and bacteria which promote beneficial microorganism and suppress

harmful ones.

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How to make your own pig feed on the farm

A bag of pig feed costs more than KSh 3,000 in the market. Feeds take up to 80 per cent of pig

production costs. Farmers can make their own feeds and sell surplus feed to other farmers. What

they need is to know the rations of mixing the different ingredients.

Pig rearing is once again becoming popular due to increased pork consumption in most of Kenya’s

urban areas. More farmers are venturing into the business to diversify their farming activities and

take advantage of the good prices offered by processing companies due to the shortage of pigs in

the country. However, feeding of pigs is a major challenge for most of the pig farmers. Pig feeds are

expensive, taking up to 80 per cent of a farmer’s production costs. A bag of pig feed now sells at an

average of KSh 3400.

Pig feed should be of high quality to ensure the pigs grow to the desired weight for the market. Due

to the huge demand for information on pig feeding TOF provides farmers with information they would

require on pig feeding and give more feed formulations that can help them cut the cost of pig

production:

Piglets

Young pigs do not take much in terms of solid feed because they get all their nutritional needs from

their mothers' milk. To ensure piglets get enough milk from suckling during the early stages of

growth, farmers should give the sows adequate and balanced feed to ensure they produce adequate

milk for the piglets. At three weeks after farrowing (birth), the farmer should castrate all male piglets

and start to train them to eat solid feeds. Suckling piglets should also have their sharp teeth clipped,

three days after farrowing to prevent them causing injury to their mother during suckling.

Assuming a farmer has 10 piglets to feed, they can isolate a creep area (housing for young ones)

where their mother cannot reach and put in 50g of feed per piglet per day. Observe the feeding daily;

if you see the feed reducing, add another 50g for each into their feeding trough to make it 1kg. At 5

weeks (35 to 42 days) add another 50g per piglet to make it 150g. The piglets should always have

access to their mother in case they want to suckle. They should also have access to clean water at

all times.

Weaners

At 6 weeks, each piglet should be getting 200g of feed per week. If they finish the feed, keep on

adding an extra 50g per piglet daily. During the feeding process, the farmer should weigh the pigs

weekly (a healthy pig at this stage should add at least 900g per day). If there is an increase in weight

at this rate, it means that the pigs are growing well. Weaners should be given dry feed at all times to

prevent scouring or diarrhoea. Give adequate clean water at all times.

Porkers

At 14 weeks, the pigs will require additional feed; the farmer can give 1.4kg of extra feed per pig per

day. In addition, the farmer should continue giving the 50g of feed as they were doing before. Divide

the pig feed into three equal portions:

A wet ration in the morning at 7 am (feed mixed with water), a dry feed at noon (feed with no water)

and a final wet feed (feed mixed with water) at 4 pm. A well-fed porker pig should add an extra 300g

of weight per day (weigh them regularly and record their weight to monitor their growth).

Baconers

At 22 weeks, the pigs (now called baconers) require a higher feed ration as they are about to attain

the market liveweight of between 80-90kg. At this stage the farmer should give them 2.5 – 2.75kg of

feed per pig per day. From 23 weeks, the feed should be increased to 3kg (1kg of wet feed in the

morning, 1kg of dry feed at noon and 1kg of wet feed at 4pm). If well managed at this stage pigs can

attain up to 100kg in 5 months.

At this stage the farmers can now do selection of the pigs to determine those that can go to the

abbattoir for slaughter, young female pigs (gilts) can be served and sold to interested farmers while

others can be retained for breeding as sows. The boars (male pigs) can also be sold or retained for

breeding purposes (be careful to ensure the pig does not serve its daughters or related pigs to avoid

inbreeding). A well-managed baconer should add an extra 900g to 1000g (1 kg) per day.

Sows

Sows need special attention in feeding. A sow’s yield can be as high as 16-17 litres of milk per day.

To produce this amount of milk, a sow has to be well fed, both for body maintenance and milk

production. A sow with piglets that are suckling requires 6 kilogrammes of feed every day or an

amount of feed that is equal to 25 % of her body weight.

The feeding should be divided into 3 rations (2kg of wet feed in the morning, 2kg of dry feed at noon

and 2kg of wet feed at 4pm). Like other pigs, sows should be given adequate and clean water at all

times.

Gilts

A female pig that is not yet served (gilts) should be given at least 3kg of feed per day. The farmer

can supplement this with any other available feed in addition to this ration to keep them in good

shape in terms of health and reproduction.

Boars

Male pigs (boars) should not be given a lot of feed. If given more feed, they tend to put more weight

and this compromises their fertility. A boar should be given 3 to 4 kg of feed per day. Some farmers

give less or even starve them in order to reduce fattening. Give them clean water at all times.

Pig feed formulation

Feed formulation is not easy especially for small-scale farmers due to lack of raw materials and the

technical knowledge on how to prepare their own feeds. For farmers keeping a few pigs, we would

advise that they buy feeds from reputable companies who are known to make quality feeds.

However, such farmers can reduce their feed costs considerably if they can formulate

supplementary feeds like sweet potato vines.

However, for farmers who want to keep many pigs, say, between 500 to 1000 pigs, it makes

economic sense to make their own feeds as long as they can get the right raw materials for feed

formulation. Below, we give farmers two methods they can use to make pig feed in order to reduce

their feed costs:

Feed formula 1: Making silage from sweet potato vines

Sweet potato vines are very nutritious pig feed if well prepared and preserved. Here is how to

prepare them:

• Cut 60-100kg of sweet potato vines and spread them dry in the sun for about 30 minutes.

• Chop the vines into tiny pieces and mix them with 10 kg of maize germ or pig growers mash.

• Sprinkle ½ kg of mineral salt and mix thoroughly.

• Put the mixture into an airtight 250-litre plastic tank. Compress the vines firmly to remove any air

spaces as you do when preparing silage.

• Add some little EM1 solution to improve the quality of the silage.

• Cover the tank airtight. Let it stay for 14 days (two weeks).

• Open the tank to check if the silage is ready- if the silage has a sweet smell and has turned yellow

in colour, then it is ready feeding.

• You can feed the sweet potato silage to pigs from four months of age, sows, gilts and boars at any

time before or after feeding their usual daily rations.

Pig farmers who incorporate sweet potato silage into the pig diet can cut their feed costs by up to 30

per cent. In addition, the sweet potato tubers can be eaten or sold in the market, a kilogramme of

sweet potato tuber retails for between KSh 60 to KSh 80.

Other supplementary feeds suitable for pigs include sukumawiki (kales), vegetables, cabbages,

lucerne, amaranth (terere), avocadoes, pawpaws or even bananas. Hotel leftovers (also called

sweal) can be given to pigs but farmers must be very careful because food leftovers may be

contaminated; the food can be reboiled (cooked again) to ensure all disease-causing organisms are

destroyed before the leftover are given to pigs.

Feed formula 2

48kg of maize germ

12kg of pollard

12.5kg of soya cake

7.5kg of fishmeal

0.75kg of lime

1kg of bonemeal

125g of salt

150g of lysine

150g of feed premix

300g of zinc

This pig feed ration has a Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) content of 22.3% and can be given to pigs

at all stages of growth. Put all the ingredients in a feed mixer and mix thoroughly to ensure they are

evenly distributed. In Nakuru, Nairobi and Thika, there are many feed raw material suppliers. Feed

premix, lysine, bonemeal and lime are also available from selected agrovet shops in most towns.

Feed formula 3

How to prepare 7 bags of pig feed

60kg of whole maize

210kg of maize germ

140kg of pollard

50kg of soya cake

27kg of fishmeal (or first grade omena)

4kg of bone meal

7kg of lime

1kg of salt

1kg of Premix (grower or sow

and weaner)

1kg of lysine

2kg of zinc

Important: Farmers should use clean maize, not rotten one (maozo). If using omena, the quality

should be high. The above formula has the following percentages of nutrients:

Protein- 16.83%

Fat – 5.05%

Fibre-4.43%

Lysine-0.89%.

Major raw material suppliers are:

1. Tarime Suppliers Tel. 0729 099550, Nairobi.

2. Essential Drugs Ltd, E.D.L House, Mombasa Rd, Tel. 020 263 2701/02, 0721 386 604

email: info@essential-drugs.com

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