Upload
mirlan-chekirov
View
586
Download
4
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
CONTENT:
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 1. HISTORICAL GRADATION OF THE PHRASAL VERBS,
TYPES OF PHRASAL VERBS AND THEIR SEMANTIC STRUCTURE.....6
1.1. History of phrasal verbs..................................................................................6
1.2. Types of Phrasal verbs and the Phrasal verbs development..........................12
1.4. Semantic nuances of phrasal verbs in Modern English.................................39
1.5. Ways of Translating English Phrasal Verbs..................................................42
CHAPTER II. 2. PECULARITIES OF PHRASAL VERBS IN
TRANSLATING INTO KYRGYZ......................................................................49
2.1. The difficulties of translating English phrasal verbs into Kyrgyz language on
the basis of Ch .Aitmatovs’ work “Jamilya..........................................................49
CONCLUSION......................................................................................................60
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................65
2
INTRODUCTION
English has already become international and global language. As we can
see, phrasal verbs are widely spread in English literature. Phrasal verbs are a
specific kind of verb. The term derives from "phrase" which in traditional
linguistic theory refers to the minimum unit of syntax. They differ from normal
verbs in that they are constituted by two or three elements instead of just one.
Usually, phrasal verbs are combinations of ordinary verbs like put, take,
come, and go and particles like in, out, on, and off. They are a very important part
of everyday English.
Translating phrasal verbs one can have difficulties because of difference in
the meaning given in a dictionary and contextual meaning. That’s why we use all
sources to gain urgent information.
In order to analyze phrasal verbs and their possible equivalents in original
text, we should discuss some difficulties the translator faces during his work
(especially translating idiomatic expressions) and explain what may cause the
difficulties. This is done with the purpose to help the translator avoid many
mistakes in his work. Then we talk about the basic ways of translation of phrasal
verbs. We examine recommendations for translation of phrasal verbs
The knowledge of foreign languages let to read original books, but not
everybody can understand full meaning if does not know phrasal verbs which are
very popular in English language.
The research paper is devoted to the basic issues of difficulties of translation
English phrasal verbs into Kyrgyz.
This master thesis is devoted to a very current theme about the place of
phrasal verbs in the English language.
The aim of this research is to illustrate and find out the translation
peculiarities of English phrasal verbs into the Kyrgyz language and investigate
possible equivalents in native language. For experimental issue it is used Ch.
Aitmatov’s work “Jamilya”.
3
The objectives of this research are:
to review historical development of phrasal verbs in order to retrace their
modification;
to show how knowing English phrasal verbs characteristics help to solve the
problems of their translation;
analyze the way English phrasal verbs are translated into Kyrgyz
The actuality of the work is determined by the urgent need for direct
translation from the English language into the Kyrgyz language without a mediator
language.
Theoretical importance of this work is that it contributes to the common
linguistic basis of translation process, that is shows which peculiarities of linguistic
systems and regularities of the language operation constitute the basis of the
translating process, making this process possible and determining its character and
borders.
Practical value: the materials of this research can be used while teaching
the theory and practice of translation, comparative typology of the English and
Kyrgyz languages; it can serve as a source of materials for course and diploma
papers.
Working hypothesis: Due to semantic, lexical and grammatical difficulties
it is impossible to find the full equivalent of the English phrasal verbs in the
Kyrgyz language, so some translation transformations should be worked out.
General statements for defense: English phrasal verbs are translated into the
Kyrgyz language as simple and compound verb name the actions.
The paper is based on the analysis of extensive empirical materials from
different resources such as dictionaries, theoretical books, and articles and mainly
“Jamilya” by Ch. Aitmaov.
The structure of the work: this master thesis consists of the introduction,
two chapters, the conclusion and the appendix.
4
The first chapter will focus on classification of phrasal verbs in the English
language, examine the development of phrasal verbs through the evolution of the
English language, give an account of semantic peculiarities of phrasal verbs in
modern English
The second chapter, in fact, is the main part of the paper. We analyze some
phrasal verbs examples found in the text involved. We discuss some difficulties the
translator faces during his work (especially translating idiomatic expressions) and
explain what may cause the difficulties. This is done for purpose to help the
translator avoid many mistakes in his work.
Then we talk about the basic ways of translation of phrasal verbs. We
examine recommendations for translation of phrasal verbs.
Particular attention is given to such issues as the competence of the
translator and the help of dictionaries. It is necessary to be reminded of the
translator's competence since the adequacy of translation depends on it.
Dictionaries represent a huge and valuable source of information and help to
the translator. They play an important role in successful translation. They make the
work of translators easier. In this paper, we’ve analyzed several dictionaries as
well as their basic features and their significance;
The conclusion is the summary of the paper. The author's ideas as results of
the research and the conclusions from the whole paper are present.
The bibliography concludes the paper. In the bibliography, the sources of
information and actual material are listed.
5
CHAPTER 1. Historical gradation of the phrasal verbs, types of phrasal verbs
and their semantic structure.
1.1. History of phrasal verbs.
Although the phrasal verb has been present in English for many centuries, it
has only recently been described in detail. Citations in the OED date from Middle
English: for example, turn about 1300; gone down 1388. The incidence of phrasal
verbs exploded in Early Modern English. Shakespeare himself applied the form
widely throughout the plays. They are common in Shakespeare: ‘So long, that
nineteen Zodiacs hue gone round’ (Measure for Measure, 1603). Such verbs have
often been used to translate Latin verbs (to puttee downer … Calare, deepener:
Catholicon Anglicism, 1483 and to define verbs of Latin origin in English
(abrogate… take away: Cawdrey, Table Alphabetical, 1604)1. The 18c
lexicographer Samuel JOHNSON was among the first to consider such formations
seriously.
There is another kind of composition more frequent in our language than
perhaps in any other, from which arises to foreigners the greatest difficulty. We
modify the signification of many words by a particle subjoined; as to come off, to
escape by a fetch; to fall on, to attack; to fall off, to apostatize; to break off, to stop
abruptly … These I have noted with great care (Preface, Dictionary of the English
Language, 1755). 2
Hiltunen cites a study by Castillo, in which 57443 phrasal verbs have been
identified within the body of the plays. Nevalainen (423)4 also notes Spasov’s
study, which analyzed 46 plays from the Renaissance to Present-Day English,
finding that phrasal verbs remained “below ten per cent of the total of all verbs
1 Cawdrey, Table Alphabetical, 1604)2 (Preface, Dictionary of the English Language, 1755.3 Hiltunen, Risto. “Verbal Phrases and Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English.”19754 Nevalainen, T. “The Process of Adverb Derivation in Late Middle and Early Modern (1995)
6
from his four Early Modern English sub periods, but does exceed the five per cent
level from about 1600 onwards.” Hiltunen5 explains that phrasal verbs were used
extensively in Early Modern English dramatic texts because of their variable
shades of meaning and productive capacity “ to be expanded to form new idioms”
Akimoto notes also that “phrasal verbs occur more frequently in letters and dramas
than in essays or academic writing” in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries .
This confirms that phrasal verbs occupied a lower social position in Early Modern
English than, perhaps, single Latinate verbs that could fill their semantic fields,
which gives rise, incidentally, to a syntactic test for phrasal verbs. However,
phrasal verbs continued to become entrenched. Stage-three compound nouns arose,
such as “breakdown” and “comeback”. The stress on the particle in the verbal form
(we say, “I have to break down these boxes) moved from the particle to the verbal
component when the compound acted as a noun. Phrasal verbs in Early Modern
English also could be formed with a noun + particle, such as “to louse up”. It was
also in this period that pronominal objects were firmly established before particles
(“She put it on” not She put on it) as a standard practice, while nominal objects
retained movement before and after the particle (She put the dress on / She put on
the dress).
A phrasal verb, in Present-Day English, is a verb that takes a complementary
particle, in other words, an adverb resembling a preposition necessary to complete
a sentence. A common example is the verb “to fix up”: “He fixed up the car.” The
word “up” here is a particle, not a preposition, because “up” can move: “He fixed
the car up.” These movements of the particle “up” quickly distinguishes it from the
preposition “up”. Because the forms of the particle and the preposition are
themselves identical, it is easy to confuse phrasal verbs with a very similar-looking
type of verb: the prepositional verb. A prepositional verb takes a complementary
prepositional phrase. Movement verbs are readily identifiable examples. For
example, the verb “to go” is intransitive, and without the benefit of context, it
cannot operate in a complete sentence only accompanied by a subject. One cannot
5 Hiltunen, Risto. “Verbal Phrases and Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern English.”19757
say, “I went,” and expect to satisfy a listener without including a prepositional
phrase of place, such as “I went to the store.” Prepositional verbs are immediately
distinguishable from phrasal verbs in terms of movement, as prepositions cannot
move after their objects. It is not possible to say, “I went the store to,” and so
“went” is a prepositional verb. There are, in fact, several syntactic tests to
distinguish phrasal from prepositional verbs, and these will be discussed in detail
in the final section. It is also necessary to understand that the term “verb phrase”
refers not to phrasal verbs, but more generally to a sentence verb, its complements,
and matters of tense, aspect, mood, voice and so on.
As for the ancestors of phrasal verbs in Old English, the English language of
this period generally did not possess phrasal verbs as they are found in Present-
Day English. They did exist, although they were rare. Much more common in Old
English was the inseparable-prefix verb, a form in which the particle was attached
to the beginning of the verb. These Old English prefixed verbs are directly
comparable to current phrasal forms. For example, in Present-Day English, there is
the mono transitive verb “to burn” and then the phrasal mono transitive “to burn
up.” Old English had “barman” (to burn) and “forborne” (to burn up). The prefix
“for-” remained affixed to the verb and could not move as modern particles can.
Such Old English compound verbs were also highly idiomatic, in that the meaning
of the compound form did not necessarily reflect the meaning of the root. Denison
provides “Brendan” as an example because it meant “to dispossess”, while its root
verb, “radian”, meant “to advise”.6 The phenomenon still survives today in the
participle “forlorn”, as well as the verb “understand an”, which does not in Present-
Day English mean “to stand underneath (something)”, but idiomatically “to
comprehend”. Akimoto suggests that Old English prefixes often remained before
the verb because Old English had strong object-before-verb (OV) tendencies,
whereas Present-Day English is largely a Verb Object language, which has made it
possible for particles to travel to post-verbal positions. Some Old English verbs did
function as modern phrasal verbs do. Denison (English 36)7 points out that 6Akimoto, Minoji. “Collocations and Idioms in Late Modern English.”7 Denison, David. “The Origins of Completive ‘up’ in (English.”36)
8
Koopmans finds and analyses examples of Old English phrasal verbs with post-
verbal particles. In the Chronicles of England, the speaker says, “ac he teaches for
his Aldan wrenches’” (but he drew forth his old tricks). Hence, there was in Old
English the rare incidence of phrasal verbs with post-verbal particles. However,
Denison notes about such examples that the meaning of post-verbal particles in this
period was still often very directional, in close relationship with a prepositional
meaning. Therefore, applications of the particle “up” in Old English conveyed a
sense of direction upward, as in “to grow up (ward)”, rather than the completive
sense, as in “to break up (completely
The formation of prefixed verbs in Old English was no longer productive in
English, and the loss of productivity was already evident in Old English, in which
certain authors added a post-verbal particle to prefixed verbs, possibly because the
prefix was losing meaning (Denison, “Origins’, 47).8 Stress patterns also likely
account for a shift, as prefixes in Old English compound verbs were unstressed,
while post-verbal particles carried stress, making them stronger and thus
preserving their lexical value. Middle English was also subject to the powerful
forces of French and Anglo-Norman, as well to some influence from Old Norse.
Several authors on the subject claim that Old Norse, which already had a fairly
robust incidence of phrasal verbs, must have incited the production of English
phrasal verbs with post-verbal particles, although the degree to which Old Norse is
responsible for this is unclear (Smith 140, Fischer 386).9The rapid borrowing of
French verbs into Middle English likely slowed the development of phrasal verbs
because of competition in semantic fields, as French brought in Romance verbs
that could fill the semantic fields of the Old English prefixed verbs. For example,
the French borrowing “destroy” could accommodate the meaning of Old English
“forereach” (break up).French forms also likely hindered phrasal verbs because of
lexical register. French was the language of status in England after the Norman
Conquest, and phrasal verbs, while common by the fourteenth century (Mill ward
8 Denison, David. “The Origins of Completive ‘up’ in (English.”36)9 Smith, Jeremy. A Historical Study of English. London and New York: 1996
9
179), 10were considered informal (Tanabe 123,)11. Nonetheless, phrasal verbs
regained strong productivity by the fifteenth century (Fischer 386).12 Tanabe notes
the occurrence of 162 phrasal verbs in The Pastor Letters, despite the formal
quality of those letters, and the incidence of “to give up” in the Peterborough
Chronicle. Middle English underwent a shift in syntax from many instances of
SOV to SVO as it lost many synthetic inflections (and consequently possible word
orders) from Old English, becoming a much more analytic, or word-order based
language. A phrasal verb in Present-Day English is a verb that takes a
complementary particle, in other words, an adverb resembling a preposition,
necessary to complete a sentence. A common example is the verb “to fix up”: “He
fixed up the car.” The word “up” here is a particle, not a preposition, because “up”
can move: “He fixed the car up.” These movements of the particle “up” quickly
distinguishes it from the preposition “up”. Because the forms of the particle and
the preposition are themselves identical, it is easy to confuse phrasal verbs with a
very similar-looking type of verb: the prepositional verb. A prepositional verb
takes a complementary prepositional phrase. Movement verbs are readily
identifiable examples. For example, the verb “to go” is intransitive, and without
the benefit of context, it cannot operate in a complete sentence only accompanied
by a subject. One cannot say, “I went,” and expect to satisfy a listener without
including a prepositional phrase of place, such as “I went to the store.”
Prepositional verbs are immediately distinguishable from phrasal verbs in terms of
movement, as prepositions cannot move after their objects. It is not possible to say,
“I went the store to,” and so “went” is a prepositional verb. There are, in fact,
several syntactic tests to distinguish phrasal from prepositional verbs, and these
will be discussed in detail in the final section. It is also necessary to understand
that the term “verb phrase” refers not to phrasal verbs, but more generally to a
sentence verb, its complements, and matters of tense, aspect, mood, voice and so
on. 10 Millward, C. M. A Biography of the English Language. 2nd ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1996.11 Tanabe, Harumi. “Composite Predicates and Phrasal Verbs in The Paston Letters.” Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects of Composite Predicates in the History of English. 1999.12 Fischer, Olga. “Syntax.” The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol 2. Ed. 1992.
10
To conclude in Modern English also could be formed with a noun +
particle, such as “to louse up”. It was also in this period that pronominal objects
were firmly established before particles (“She put it on” not She put on it) as a
standard practice, while nominal objects retained movement before and after the
particle (She put the dress on / She put on the dress).
11
1.2. Types of Phrasal verbs and the Phrasal verbs development
A phrasal verb is a type of verb in English that operates more like a phrase
than a word. Tom McArthur in the Oxford Companion to the English Language
notes that these verbs are also referred to by many other names such verb phrase,
discontinuous verb, compound verb, verb-adverb combination, verb-particle
construction (VPC), AmE two-part word/verb and three-part word/verb. David
Crystal in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language calls this
linguistic phenomenon a "multi-word verb" that is best described as a lexeme, a
unit of meaning that may be greater than a single word.
Phrasal verbs may be intransitive: The party broke up when we turned in, or
transitive: She put the heckler down, She put down the heckler. In the case of an
object (noun) receiving the action of the verb, the object may come before or after
the particle.
If the object is a pronoun, it comes between the verb and particle: She put
him down, not * She put down him.
Some grammarians, such as Martha Koln in “Understanding English
Grammar,” 13take the view that phrasal verbs define only those combinations that
form an idiom, a phrase whose meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of
its parts. This is the holistic or semantic view, which focuses mainly on the
meaning of the verb combination.
For example, Koln would say that go up in this sentence is not an example
of a phrasal verb: The balloon went up into the sky because the sentence can be
rephrased as up the balloon went into the sky. Koln would designate up as an
adverb modifying went.
Koln also applies the test of meaning to phrasal verbs as in these examples:
give in can be replaced by surrender; pull through, by recover, and come by, by
acquire, and break up, by end. Each phrasal verb could be replaced by a single verb
with the same general meaning.
13 Martha Koln in “Understanding English Grammar,”12
However, McArthur in his treatment of the phrasal verb states that phrasal
verbs14 cover both the literal and figurative/idiomatic usage. Grammarians who
take this position classify phrasal verbs based on their use in sentence patterns
(syntactical properties) and as new word formations (morphological properties), as
well as by the overall meaning of these verb combinations (semantic properties).
The examples below illustrate the same phrasal verb having both a literal and
figurative meaning.
She put down the book. (Literal)
The army put down the rebellion. (figurative/idiomatic)
In addition to a single literal and/or figurative meaning, some phrasal verbs
can have a multitude of different meanings depending on the context. For example,
here are some of the many ways in which the phrasal verb pick up is currently
used:
Pick up that book. (to take up by hand)
Please, pick up your room. (to tidy up)
The airport van picked up its passengers. (to take on)
I picked up this ring on sale. (to acquire casually)
He picks up foreign languages fairly easily. (to acquire knowledge or
learning)
He picked up his package at the post office. (to claim)
She picked up some milk on her way home. (To buy)
Her boss picked up the tab for lunch. (to pay a bill)
He picked up a virus on his trip. (to come down with a disease)
The home team picked up eight yards on the play. (to gain)
He picked up a date at the singles bar. (to make casual acquaintance)
The police picked up the bank robber. (to take into custody)
The dog picked up the scent of the kidnapper. (to come upon and follow)
Retail sales always pick up around the holidays. (to improve)
She just picked up and left town. (to pack one’s belongings)
14 McArthur English phrasal verbs 199813
To get a feel for how students studying English as a second language have to
struggle with the idiomatic aspect of phrasal verbs.15 A native speaker of English
should have no difficulty.
Prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs. Many English verbs consist of two
parts: a base verb (like bring, take, and come) and another small word (like up,
down, off, away). The small word is either a preposition or an adverb particle.
In some cases, the meaning of a two-part verb is simply a combination of the
meanings of the two words. Examples are come in, run away, walk across, and sit
on.
In some cases, the first word keeps its meaning, but the second has a special
intensifying sense. It means something like completely or thoroughly. Examples:
break up, tire out.
In other cases, the new two-part verb has quite a different meaning from the
two separate parts: give up means surrender, and blow up means explode.
Prepositional verbs. There are a very large number of combinations of verb
preposition. Prepositions always have objects:
Please look after the children. I've fallen for you in a big way.
In English, the preposition does not always come before its object; in certain
kinds of sentence, it can come at the end of the clause: What are you talking about?
Prepositional verbs are those which accept the passive and/or the pronominal
question, but not the adverbial question form.
Phrasal verbs.
When a verb is used with an adverb particle the combination is called a
phrasal verb. There are a very large number of these in English. The meaning of a
phrasal verb is often very different from the meanings of the two words taken
separately. In order to understand the meaning of a phrasal verb, you may have to
refer to the dictionary. Phrasal verbs can be intransitive (not followed by a direct
object) or transitive (followed by a direct object).
15 http://googleads.g.doubleclick.net
14
Examples.
Break down (transitive)
Get up (transitive) sit down (transitive) turn up (transitive)
Intransitives:
Bring something up (=mention it)
Kick somebody out (=expel him)
Put something off (=postpone it)
Throw something away (=accommodate him)
Turn something down (=refuse it).
When a phrasal verb has a direct object, the two parts of the verb can usually
be separated: the adverb particle can be put before or after the object.
We'll have to put off the party/put the party off.
Why don't you throw away that stupid hat/throw that stupid hat away?
Could you put up my sister/put my sister up for three nights?
However, when the object is a pronoun, the adverb particle can only go after
the object:
We'll have to put it off. Could you put her up?
Phrasal and prepositional verbs display certain phonological and syntactic
differences.
Phonological differences are that the particle in phrasal verbs is normally
stressed and, in final position, bears the nuclear tone, whereas the particle of a
prepositional verb is normally unstressed and has the "tail" of the nuclear tone on
the lexical verb: 16
He called 'up the man. The man was called ÙP. He 'called on the man. The
man was CÀLLED on.
Syntactic differences. A syntactic difference is that the particle of a phrasal
verb can often stand either before or after the noun, whereas it can only stand after
personal pronouns as it can be stated above.
Phrasal Prepositional verbs.
16 View on phrasal verbs Bolinger’s Harvard Press 1987.15
There are a few verbs which consist of three parts: a base verb, an adverb
particle and a preposition: to get on with, to put up with, and to check up on. These
look complicated, but in fact, they are used in the same way as any other
prepositional verb. For example, to get on with.
Prepositional and Phrasal verbs follows the same rules as to go with.
Compare:
I get on well with Jill. I often go to the theatre with Jill. He's difficult to put
up with. He's difficult to work with.
The semantic unity in phrasal and prepositional verbs can often be
manifested by substitution with single-word verbs, for example: visit for call on,
summon for call up, omit for leave out, see for look at, etc.
Furthermore, phrasal and prepositional verbs often have composite meanings
which are not normally deducible from their parts, for example, make out
(understand), take in (deceive), come by (obtain). The terms phrasal and
prepositional verbs are not, however, restricted to such idiomatic combinations.
We can distinguish three subclasses:17
a. The verb and the particle keep their individual lexical meanings, as in look
over (inspect), set up (organize). The individuality of the components appears in
possible contrastive substitutions: bring in/out, take in/out, turn on/off, and switch
on/off.
b. The verb alone keeps its basic lexical meaning and the particle has an
intensifying function: find out (discover). Sweep (up) the crumbs, spread (out) the
rug.
c. The verb and the particle are fused into a new idiomatic combination, the
meaning of which is not deducible from its parts, for example, bring up (educate),
come by (obtain), put off (postpone), turn up (appear), come in for (receive). In
such combinations there is no possibility of contrastive substitution: there are no
pairs such as bring up/down, put off/on, give up/down, and give in/out, etc for this
17 Brinton, Laurel J. The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000.
16
subclass. The adverbial, lexical values of the particles have been lost, and the
entire verb-particle combination has acquired a new meaning.
I'll put MY TROUSERS on.
The pronoun (object) must be placed between the verb and the particle.
I'll put THEM on.
Prepositional verbs. We say that a verb is prepositional when the particle is
not an adverb but preposition.18
Prepositional verbs can be distinguished from the phrasal verbs for the
following reasons:
1. The accent is on the verb, not on the particle. I'll 'LOOK after the
children.
2. If the object (substantive) is substituted by a pronoun, it must be placed
after the particle. I'll look after THEM.
3. It is grammatically acceptable to include an adverb between the verb and
the particle. I'll look CAREFULLY after the children.
4. The particle can be placed before a relative pronoun.
These are the children AFTER WHOM I looked.
Phrasal verbs can be summarized as follows:
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition, a verb and an
adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition, any of which are part of
the syntax of the sentence, and so is a complete semantic unit. Sentences, however,
may contain direct and indirect objects in addition to the phrasal verb. Phrasal
verbs are particularly frequent in the English language. A phrasal verb often has a
meaning which is different from the original verb.
1. A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a
meaning different from the original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
18 Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Leech, G. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken (2002).
17
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME
2. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be
followed by an object.
Example:
He suddenly showed up. "SHOW UP" CANNOT TAKE AN OBJECT
3. Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an
object.
Example:
I made up the story. "STORY" IS THE OBJECT OF "MAKE UP"
4. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition. In this Phrasal Verb Dictionary,19 separable phrasal
verbs are marked by placing a between the verb and the preposition / adverb.
Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car.
She looked the phone number up.
5. Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after
the preposition. In this Phrasal Verb Dictionary,20 inseparable phrasal verbs are
marked by placing a + after the preposition / adverb.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday.
They are looking into the problem.
6. Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places. In this
Phrasal Verb Dictionary, such phrasal verbs are marked with both
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.
7. Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must
put the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun.
19 “Phrasal Verbs and collocations”200020 “Phrasal Verbs and collocations”2000
18
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT
The Grammar of Phrasal verbs21
Grammarians have adopted two main positions with regard to the nature and
use of phrasal verbs:
(1) That the literal uses of a form like go up is not a phrasal verb as such, but
a verb operating with a particle: The balloon went up into the air. The term phrasal
verb should properly be reserved for figurative and idiomatic uses: The balloon
went up (= the crisis finally happened). Here, it is the holistic and semantic aspect
of go up which is considered to identify the type, not syntax or morphology.
(2) That the term covers both the literal and figurative/idiomatic uses and
therefore includes syntax, morphology, and semantics: that is, both senses of go
up, as above. This is the position adopted in the following review, which begins
with a consideration of the grammatical aspects of phrasal verbs under three
headings: transitivity and word order; particles functioning as adverbs and/or
prepositions; and the position of adverbs. 22
Transitivity and word order.
Phrasal verbs may be intransitive (When they went away, she got up and
went out) or transitive (She put the book down, and then picked it up again). If the
verb is transitive, the object can go before or after the particle without affecting
meaning: She put the book down, she put down the book. If, however, the object is
a pronoun, it comes between verb and particle: She put it down, not she put down
it. However, young children and occasionally adults for emphasis have been
known to place the pronoun last: Put down IT!
21 Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartnik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London and New York: Longman, 1985.22 The Phrasal Verb in English. Bolinger, D. Cambridge, Harvard University (1971).
19
Adverbial and prepositional particles.
A sentence containing a verb followed by a prepositional phrase can usually
(but not always) is shortened so as to turn preposition into adverb: He carried the
box up the stairs. He carried the box up. (stairs- understood) If a further
prepositional phrase is added, two particles (the first adverbial, the second
prepositional) may occur in sequence: He carried the box up to his room. The
syntactic relationships in such sentences can be shown by bracketing: (He carried
the chair up) (to his room). Usage may appear inconsistent with regard to
compound forms: into; out of; Br E on to, Am E onto; off of, non-standard in Br E,
often standard in Am E. However, in terms of phrasal verbs, such usage is
straightforward: the sentences She took the books into the room, She took the
books out of the room, She lifted the books on to/onto the table, and She lifted the
books off (of) the table all reduce to She took the books in/out and She lifted the
books on/off. The particle out is followed in England by of in such sentences as
They looked out of the window, but in Am E, Can E, Sco E the form is generally
They looked out the window.
The position of adverbs.Adverbs often appear alongside the particles of phrasal verbs. With
intransitive usages, the adverb can take any of the positions in: He happily ran
away, He ran happily away, He ran away happily, the last probably commonest.
With transitive usages, the adverb goes either before the verb or after the object or
particle, whichever is last: She eagerly picked the letter up, She picked up the letter
eagerly, She picked the letter up eagerly, She picked it up eagerly, no usage
predominating, but in most contexts there are no such forms as .She picked the
letter/it eagerly up. (Notes such relatively are rare possibilities as- He pushed the
letters clumsily through).
Adverbial particles
20
The particles commonly used are: aback, about, ahead, along, apart, aside,
around, away, back, beyond, down, forth, in, off, on, out, over, past, round,
through, up . The commonest are down, in, off, on, out, up. Br E favors about
(running about), Am E (a) round (running around). A verb-particle combination
may have: any of the meanings of the verb plus any of the meanings of the particle,
and any meanings that emerge jointly in particular contexts, including a distinct
figurative and often holistic meaning. For example:23
(1) The phrasal verb get up may be intransitive (They got up) or transitive
(Get them up), may mean ‘move from lower to higher’ (He got the child up on to
the wall), ‘move from far to near’ (One of the other runners got up to him and
passed him), ‘gather, accumulate’ (The engine got up steam), ‘organize, make’ (He
can get up the plot of a new film in no time at all), and something like ‘put on
special clothes’ (They got themselves up as pirates).
(2) The particle up can mean upward direction (The smoke rose up),
approaching direction (He swam up to the boat), completion in the sense that
nothing is left (They used up all the oil), completion in the sense that something is
done as fully as possible (They tidied the room up), and emphasis (Hurry up!). It
may also have several nuances, as with Drink up! Both completive and emphatic.
The use of phrasal verbsSuch verbs are often informal, emotive, and slangy, and may contrast with
Latinate verbs, as in They used up/consumed all the fuel; they gathered
together/assembled/congregated in the hall; the soldiers moved forward/advanced.
Putting off a meeting parallels postponing it; driving back enemy forces repels
them; putting out a fire extinguishers it; bringing back the death penalty restores it.
However, such pairing often depends on context and collocation. In some cases,
one phrasal verb may match several Latinate verbs: bring back = restore (the death
penalty), return (money to someone),24 and retrieve (a shot bird or animal from
where it has fallen). In other cases, one Latinate verb may match several phrasal
23 Translation Journal and the Author Send your comments to the Webmaster URL: http://accurapid.com/journal/09russ.htm Last Updated: Copyright 199824 Longman phrasal verbs dictionary.2000
21
verbs: demolish matching knock down, tear down, and blow up as variants in
destructive style. It is sometimes possible to match the elements of phrasal verbs
and Latinate verbs: climb up with a-up/scend, climb down with de-down/scend.
Literal and figurative usages
The verb bring in is used literally in the milkman brought in the milk,
figuratively in the prime minister brought in a new policy. Only in the second
sense can bring in be matched with introduce (itself originally metaphorical in
Latin): not the milkman introduced the milk, unless a joke is intended. Jokes and
cartoons are often based on a deliberate confusion of phrasal-verb meanings: as
when someone says, ‘Put the kettle on’ (taken to mean heat some water in a kettle
for tea), then notes with appreciation, ‘Mmm, it suits you’ (crossing over to putting
on clothes and leaving the listener to imagine someone wearing a kettle). An artist
might build a cartoon round the literal/figurative contrast in Where did you pick up
that idea?, with someone searching through garbage for inspiration, and the
headline Oil Will Run Out Soon might be supported by a picture of barrels with
legs leaving a room.
Derived phrasal verbs
In addition to the traditional combination of verb of movement plus
directional particle, phrasal verbs are commonly created from adjectives, nouns,
and Latinate verbs:
(1) From adjectives. Basically, with -en verbs: brighten/brighten up, flatten
down/out, freshen up, harden off, loosen off/up, slacken off/up, smarten up, soften
up, tighten up, toughen up. Where verbs in -en cannot be formed (that is, from
adjectives ending in n, ng, m, l, r, th, or a spoken vowel), the particle is added
directly: calm down to become/make calm, cool off become/make cool, even out to
become/make even, tidy up to make tidy.
(2) From nouns. By telescoping an expression containing a phrasal verb and
a special noun: hammer out encapsulating beat out with a hammer; channel off
telescoping carry or run off by means of a channel; brick up meaning close up
with bricks. Many phrasal verbs emerge in this way: bed down, board up, book
22
out, button up, dish out, fog up, gang up, hose down, iron out, jack up, mist up,
saddle up, sponge down, wall in. 25
(3) From Latinate verbs. Particles are added, usually as completive and
intensives, to two- and three-syllable verbs of Latin origin: contract out, divide
off/up, level off, measure off/out, select out, separate off/out. Such usages are
sometimes described as barbarous and pleonastic, but such criticism does not affect
their widespread use.
Nouns from phrasal verbs
Two kinds of noun are formed from such verbs:
(1) the major pattern. In speech, the level stress of break down changes to
the compound stress of breakdown. In writing and print, nouns like this are either
solid (breakdown) or hyphenated (round-up). The solid form is common when a
usage is well established and is favored in Am E. Hyphenation is common for
newer usages and is favored in Br E, in which a solid form may seem confusing or
odd, especially when vowels come together: cave-in as cave-in, make up as
makeup. Typical nouns are: blackout, breakout, breakup, build-up, getaway, get-
together, hold-up, mix-up, sit-in, take-off, and white-out.
(2) The minor pattern. By a process of inversion: when a disease breaks out,
there is an outbreak of that disease. Again, compound stress occurs: outbreak. In
writing and print, the presentation is usually solid. Typical nouns are: input,
onrush, outflow, output, overflow, overspill, throughput, upkeep, upsurge, and
uptake. The contrasting patterns sometimes prompt different forms with different
meanings: a breakout usually of people, an outbreak usually of disease and trouble;
a layout in design and decoration, an outlay of money and goods; a lookout posted
to observe, an outlook usually relating to weather, attitude, and prospects. Most
phrasal nouns relate to situations. The few which relate to things and people tend
to be dialectal, idiomatic, and slangy: Br E lay about someone who lays/lies idly
about; Am E dropout someone who drops out of society or education; write-off a
car so badly damaged that it is written off the books of an insurance company;
25 Concise Oxford Companion to the English language 199823
blow-up a photograph blown up like a balloon. As with the verb forms, phrasal
nouns can run parallel with Latinate nouns that tend to be elevated, technical, and
formal where the phrasal nouns are colloquial, informal, and slangy:
break-up/disintegration, checkup/examination, letdown/disappointment,
let-up/relaxation, sellout/betrayal, shake-up/reorganization .
Compounds and attributives
Phrasal nouns can occur in compound and attributive formations:
(1) With the phrasal noun first: blackout regulations, breakdown service,
check-up period, getaway car, input time, overflow pipe, round-up time.
(2) With the phrasal noun second: aero plane take-off/airplane takeoff,
traffic holdup, cholera outbreak, enemy build-up, population overspill, student sit-
in.
(3) With the phrasal noun between other nouns: cattle round-up time, truck
break-down service, population overspill problem.
Phrasal-verb idiomsIdiomatic usages are usually colloquial and informal, more or less obvious
figurative extensions of ordinary uses. Expressions used to gloss them are often
more formal, less direct, and less emotive, as with: bring down or defeat (a
government), bring in or introduce (a new law), bring off or clinch (a deal), bring
on or encourage and train (a student), bring out or publish (a book), bring up or
raise (a child); be carried away or overwhelmed (by one's emotions), carry off or
win (a prize), carry on or continue (one's work), carry out or perform (one's duty),
carry through or sustain (a project, to the end); a machine coming apart or
disintegrating, a deal coming off or succeeding, work coming on or improving,
soldiers coming through or surviving, something coming up or happening; cutting
back or economizing (on expenses), cutting down or reducing (one's expenses),
cutting in on or interrupting (a conversation), cutting people off or isolating them,
cutting something out or excising or eliminating it; getting down or alighting (from
a train), getting all the information in or collecting it, getting on or succeeding (in
24
life), getting off or disembarking, or being allowed to go free, after an offence,
getting out of or escaping from (a prison), and getting out or producing and
publishing (a magazine), getting up or increasing (pressure), and getting up or
rising from one's bed in the morning. Similar lists can be made for such other
everyday verbs as be, do, go, keep, make, pass, pull, put, run, set, take, turn.26
3. Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as let the cat out of the
bag. These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order
Courtney then cites among many other examples in the dictionary such
phrases as "to add insult to injury", "to add fuel to the flames", "to leave someone
in the lurch", "to scare someone out of their wits", etc.
"To get over an examination" is not the correct application of the phrasal
verb "to get over." The author wants to imply, "to finish," the phrasal verb in this
case is "to get over with." To get over the examination means put it in your
emotional past.
Phrasal verbs and prepositions
There is a continuum between the phrasal verb as described above and verbs
followed by phrases in which the preposition may or may not be part of the phrase.
A phrasal verb can be formed elliptically from a verb plus prepositional phrase
(like He took the box up from He took the box up the stairs). A transitive usage
may not be separable (like pick up the book/pick the book up), but may have
distinct meanings depending on where the particle is placed (get round someone,
get someone round). Particles may not be clearly either adverbial or prepositional,
as with off in Br E get off the bus (compare widespread Am E get off of the bus).
Some prepositions may be attached to verbs preceding them, usually for figurative
reasons: where the sentence .He came across the street is analyzable as (He came)
(across the street), the sentence He came across an old friend makes more sense as
26 Bolinger, D. The Phrasal Verb in English. Cambridge, Harvard University (1971).
25
a phrasal form: (He came across) (an old friend), come across glossed as meet by
chance. Some grammarians and lexicologists call a usage like come across a
prepositional verb, because the particle is not adverbial but prepositional.27 Such a
terminology, if extended, should turn phrasal verbs proper into ‘adverbial verbs’,
but has not yet done so. Other commentators call the usage a fused or non-
separable phrasal verb, because the preposition has been ‘stolen’ from its own
phrase and fused with the preceding verb in an idiom. Others still neither consider
some particles so equivocal that they are neither adverb as such nor prepositions as
such, but ‘adpreps’. Usages include: act for represent, bargain for expect, call for
demand, come by obtain, get at imply, go for attack. The issue is further
complicated by occasions when the fusion occurs between a phrasal verb proper
and a following preposition, as with look down on hold in contempt, check up on
investigate, go along with accept, face up to confront, look back on recall, look
forward to have good expectations of, look up to admire, meet up with encounter
StressIn normal speech, if no special emphasis is employed, the adverbial particle
in a phrasal verb proper is stressed: to pick up a book/pick a book up. The
preposition in a two-part fused (prepositional) verb is not usually so stressed: They
didn’t bargain for that. In a three-part fusion, the stresses combine the patterns: to
look UP to someone, look down on someone.
Productivity.
Phrasal verbs have always been common, but have increased in number
since the mid-19c and even more so since the mid-20c, especially in Am E. As a
result, a number of dictionaries of phrasal verbs have been published since 1974
and increasingly dictionaries for both native and foreign users have given phrasal
verbs main-entry or high secondary status. They are increasingly the subject of
special attention in courses for foreign learners of English, and it was in this area
that the category came of age as a distinct aspect of grammar, word-formation, and
usage. 27 Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. The Grammar Book. Boston: (1999).
26
The term ‘phrasal verb’ was first used by Logan Pearsall Smith, in “Words
and Idioms”, in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested the
term to him.
Alternative terms for phrasal verb are ‘compound verb’,’ verb-adverb
combination’, ‘verb-particle construction (VPC)’ AmE ‘two-part word/verb’ and
‘three-part word/verb’ (depending on the number of particles), and multi-word
verb (MWV).
'Preposition' and 'adverb' as used in a phrasal verb are also called 'particle' in
that they do not alter their form through inflections (are therefore uninflected, they
do not accept affixes, etc.).28
Phrasal verbs in informal speech
Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in everyday speech as opposed to
the more formal Latinate verbs, such as “to get together” rather than “to
congregate”, “to put off” rather than “to postpone”, or “to get out” rather than “to
exit”.
Literal usageMany verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a preposition, and
readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a literal sense with
a preposition:
"He walked across the square."
Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood when used
literally:
"She opened the shutters and looked outside."
"When he heard the crash, he looked up."
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the subject to the verb.
Idiomatic usage
28 Fraser Bruce The verb - particle combination. New York Academic press, 1986
27
It is, however, the figurative or idiomatic application in everyday speech
which makes phrasal verbs so important:
"I hope you will get over your operation quickly."
"Work hard, and get your examination over with."
The literal meaning of “to get over”, in the sense of “to climb over
something to get to the other side”, no longer applies to explain the subject's
enduring an operation or the stress of an examination which they have to
overcome. It is when the combined meaning of verb plus adverb, or verb plus
preposition is totally different from each its component parts, that the semantic
content of the phrasal verb cannot be predicted by its constituent parts and so
becomes much more difficult for a student learning English to recognize.
Other idiomatic usages of phrasal verbs show a verb + direct object +
preposition/adverb + indirect object construction:
In her introduction to "Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs,29 What this
dictionary contains", Rosemary Courtney includes as a third category.
Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as let the cat out of the
bag. These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order.
Courtney then cites among many other examples in the dictionary such
phrases as "to add insult to injury", "to add fuel to the flames", "to leave someone
in the lurch", "to scare someone out of their wits", etc.
"To get over an examination" is not the correct application of the phrasal
verb "to get over." The author wants to imply, "to finish," the phrasal verb in this
case is "to get over with." To get over the examination means put it in your
emotional past.
Phrasal verb patterns
A phrasal verb contains either a preposition or an adverb (or both), and may
also combine with one or more nouns or pronouns.
29 Longman phrasal verbs dictionary.200028
Particle verbs
Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called "particle verbs", and
are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages. There are two main
patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle verb does not have an
object:
“When I entered the room he looked up.”
A transitive particle verb has a nominal object in addition to the adverb. If
the object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side of the adverb,
although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb:
Switch off the light.
Switch the light off.
Switch off the lights in the hallway next to the bedroom the president is
sleeping in.
With some transitive particle verbs, however, the noun object must come
after the adverb. Such examples are said to involve "inseparable" phrasal verbs:
The gas gave off fumes. (not The gas gave fumes off.)
Still other transitive particle verbs require the object to precede the adverb:
They let the man through. (not They let through the man.)
With all transitive particle verbs, if the object is a pronoun, it must normally
precede the adverb:
Switch it off. (not Switch off it.)
The smell put them off. (not put off them)
They let him through. (not they let through him)
Prepositional verbs
Prepositional verbs are phrasal verbs that contain a preposition, which is
always followed by its nominal object. They are different from inseparable
transitive particle verbs, because the object still follows the preposition if it is a
pronoun:
On Fridays, we look after our grandchildren.
We look after them. (not look them after)
29
The verb can have its own object, which usually precedes the preposition:
She helped the boy to an extra portion of potatoes.
with pronouns: She helped him to some.
Prepositional verbs with two prepositions are possible:
We talked to the minister about the crisis.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
A phrasal verb can contain an adverb and a preposition at the same time.
Again, the verb itself can have a direct object:
No direct object: The driver got off to a flying start. Direct object: Onlookers
put the accident down to the driver’s loss of concentrate
Phrasal verbs and modifying adverbs
When modifying adverbs are used alongside particle adverbs intransitively
(as particle adverbs usually are), the adverbs can appear in any verb/particle/adverb
positions:
• “He unhappily looked round.”
• “He looked unhappily round.”
• “He looked round unhappily.”
The particle adverb here is "round" and the modifying adverb is "unhappily"
("Round" is a particle because it is not inflected — does not take affixes and alter
its form. "Unhappily" is a modifying adverb because it modifies the verb "look").
With a transitive particle verb, the adverb goes either before the verb or after
the object or particle, whichever is last:
• “He cheerfully picked the book up.”
• “He picked up the book cheerfully.”(not picked cheerfully up the
book)
• “He picked the book up cheerfully.”
Prepositional verbs are different from transitive particle verbs, because they
allow adverbs to appear between the verb and the preposition:
• “He cheerfully looked after the children.
• “He looked after the children cheerfully.
30
• “He looked cheerfully after the children.
Phrasal verbs combined with special verb forms and clauses
Rosemary Courtney also includes special verb forms and clauses in phrasal
verb constructions.
Phrasal verbs combined with -clauses and that-clauses
Sentences which include verb + particle + object(s) + wh-clauses
• “The teacher tried to dictate to his class what is the right thing to do”
= transitive verb + preposition (dictate to) + direct object (his class) + wh-
clause (what is the right thing to do).30
• “My friends called for me when the time came”
= transitive verb + preposition (called for) + pronoun (me) + wh-clause
(when the time came).
• “Watch out that you don’t hit your head on the low beam”
= intransitive verb + adverb (watch out) + that-clause (that you don’t hit
your head on the low beam).
Phrasal verbs combined with verb-ing forms
• “You can’t prevent me from seeing her”
= transitive verb + pronoun (prevent me) + preposition (from) + verb-ing
form (seeing) + pronoun (her).
Idiomatic usage
It is, however, the figurative or idiomatic application in everyday speech
which makes phrasal verbs so important:
• "I hope you will get over your operation quickly."
• "Work hard, and get your examination over with."
The literal meaning of “to get over”, in the sense of “to climb over
something to get to the other side”, no longer applies to explain the subject's
enduring an operation or the stress of an examination which they have to
overcome. It is when the combined meaning of verb plus adverb, or verb plus
preposition is totally different from each its component parts, that the semantic
30 Denison, David. “The Origins of Completive ‘up’ in English.”31
content of the phrasal verb cannot be predicted by its constituent parts and so
becomes much more difficult for a student learning English to recognize.
Other idiomatic usages of phrasal verbs show a verb + direct object +
preposition/adverb + indirect object construction:
In her introduction to "Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs,31 What this
dictionary contains", Rosemary Courtney includes as a third category
3. Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs,32 such as let the cat out of
the bag. These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order.
Courtney then cites among many other examples in the dictionary such
phrases as "to add insult to injury", "to add fuel to the flames", "to leave someone
in the lurch", "to scare someone out of their wits", etc.
"To get over an examination" is not the correct application of the phrasal
verb "to get over." The author wants to imply, "to finish," the phrasal verb in this
case is "to get over with." To get over the examination means put it in your
emotional past.
To sum up the first chapter we point out the following types of English
phrasal verbs:
These types of phrasal verbs are characteristic only to English and they cannot be
found in Russian and Kyrgyz languages.
Thus, many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a
preposition, and readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a
literal sense with a preposition. Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be
understood when used literally.
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.
Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called "particle verbs", and
are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages. There are two main 31 Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs,32 ”Words and Idioms” 1925
32
patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle verb does not have an
object:
A transitive particle verb has a nominal object in addition to the adverb. If
the object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side of the adverb,
although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb.
33
1.3. The role and classification of phrasal verbs in the English
language
Phrasal verbs are a specific kind of verb. The term derives from "phrase"
which in traditional linguistic theory refers to the minimum unit of syntax. They
differ from normal verbs in that they are constituted by two or three elements
instead of just one.
Usually, phrasal verbs are combinations of ordinary verbs like put, take,
come, and go and particles like in, out, on, and off. They are a very important part
of everyday English.
The importance of mechanics is the reason for the emphasis on the
prepositions required when some phrasal verbs are used transitively and for the
inclusion of reviews of points of grammar not specific to phrasal verbs.
Prepositions are the glue that holds English together, but many learners falter when
using newly learned verbs because they do not know that a preposition is also
required, or if they do, which one. This aspect of English is not given the attention
it deserves because it is difficult to teach — there are no rules that govern when a
preposition, or which preposition, is required, as the only one rule that really
means is just to remember.
Phrasal verbs can be said to possess some degree of idiomaticity in the
assembly of the verb plus preposition (cry over something), or verb plus separable
particle (run up the flag, run the flag up), verb plus inseparable particle (run up a
debt), or the double assembly of verb plus particle and preposition (face up to
problems).Crucial in the differentiation of phrasal verbs is the special
“constructional” contribution of the original preposition or particle to the whole.
Hence any study of phrasal verbs must also come to grips with the semantics of
prepositions and particles.
The main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of reality in
the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary" verbs do,
but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This ability to
describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is determined by
34
the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with these elements,
verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic multiplication
of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent structural
representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional aspective
meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges with the particle down
into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a lexical modification to its
fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial elements denote the general spatial
direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative characteristics, like
beginning (set out), duration (bum along), completion (think out), intensity (hurry
up), and so on.
Nowadays there are many both explanatory and bilingual dictionaries of
phrasal verbs, for example, Cambridge, Collins Cobuild; Oxford, Longman;
Macmillan dictionaries.33
Phrasal verbs show different characteristics which will be analyzed below. 1) Very
often a phrasal verb has the same meaning as a basic verb. In that case, we prefer
to use the phrasal instead of the basic verb to express something informally.
Basic verb: to compensate - phrasal verb: to make up formally: He tried to
compensate for the damage. Informally: He tried to make up for the damage.
2) A phrasal verb can be transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb is
followed by object, but an intransitive verb is not followed by an object.
Transitive verb: to make up - She made up the gossip.
(Object: the gossip)
Intransitive verb: to turn up - They turned up very late. (no object)
3) Phrasal verbs can be divided into several groups, due to the features they
possess. They may be either separable or no separable. Unfortunately, there is no
rule that can help to look at a phrasal verb and always know whether it is separable
or no separable.
33 Collins Cobuild; Oxford, Longman; Macmillan dictionaries 198735
Separable phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be separated by their
object. When the object is a noun, it is usually entirely optional whether the object
is placed between the verb and the particle or placed after the particle.
For instance:
get smb. down – to gradually make someone feel unhappy and tired
All these waiting and delay is really getting her down.
put on – to put a piece of clothes on your body
I put my dress on.
I put on my dress.
Both variants are correct as when a pronoun is used instead of a noun, the
pronoun must be placed between the verb and the particle:
Phrasal verbs in informal speech Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in
everyday speech as opposed to the more formal Latinate verbs, such as “to get
together” rather than “to congregate”, “to put off” rather than “to postpone”, or “to
get out” rather than “to exit”.
Literal usage Many verbs in English can be combined with an adverb or a
preposition, and readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a
literal sense with a preposition:
"He walked across the square."
Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood when used
literally: "She opened the shutters and looked outside." "When he heard the crash,
he looked up."
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.
Idiomatic usage
It is, however, the figurative or idiomatic application in everyday speech
which makes phrasal verbs so important:
"I hope you will get over your operation quickly."
"Work hard, and get your examination over with."
36
The literal meaning of “to get over”, in the sense of “to climb over
something to get to the other side”, no longer applies to explain the subject's
enduring an operation or the stress of an examination which they have to
overcome. It is when the combined meaning of verb plus adverb, or verb plus
preposition is totally different from each of its component parts, that the semantic
content of the phrasal verb cannot be predicted by its constituent parts and so
becomes much more difficult for a student learning English to recognize.
Other idiomatic usages of phrasal verbs show a verb + direct object +
preposition/adverb + indirect object construction:
In her introduction to "Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, What this
dictionary contains", Rosemary Courtney34 includes as a third category
3. Idioms which are formed from phrasal verbs, such as let the cat out of the
bag. These idioms are printed in heavy type. Idioms have a meaning which is
different from the meaning of the single words, and usually have a fixed word
order.
Courtney then cites among many other examples in the dictionary such
phrases as "to add insult to injury", "to add fuel to the flames", "to leave someone
in the lurch", "to scare someone out of their wits", etc.
To sum up, English phrasal verbs are classified into several statements:
idiomaticity in the assembly of the verb plus preposition, or verb plus separable
particle (run up the flag, run the flag up), verb plus inseparable particle (run up a
debt), or the double assembly of verb plus particle and preposition (face up to
problems).
Separable phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be separated by their
object.
Phrasal verb patterns
A phrasal verb contains either a preposition or an adverb (or both), and may
also combine with one or more nouns or pronouns.
34”Words and Idioms” 1925
37
Particle verbs: Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called
"particle verbs", and are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages.
There are two main patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle
verb does not have an object:
Phrasal verbs play an important role both in spoken and written English at
all levels, and everyone who wants to master the language should try not only just
to learn them by heart but also to understand the situation they are to be used in.
From our point of view knowledge and understanding of phrasal verbs
allows communicating with the native speakers on their mother tongue. If your
speech is rich in correct and relevant phrasal verbs, you are considered to be at the
advanced level of knowing the foreign language.
38
1.4. Semantic nuances of phrasal verbs in Modern English
By “phrasal verb” we mean a combination of an “ordinary” (one-word) verb
(e.g. come, give, put) and an adverbial or prepositional particle (e.g. in, off, up), or
sometimes both, which constitutes a single semantic and syntactic unit. Examples
are come in, (=enter) and give up (=stop doing), where the particle is adverbial;
come across (=find by chance) and look after (=take care of), where the particle is
prepositional and put up with (=tolerate), where the first is adverbial and the
second is prepositional. Most writers confine the use of “phrasal verb” to the first
type (with an adverbial particle).using the terms “prepositional verb” for
combinations with a prepositional particle and “phrasal-prepositional verb” for
those with two particles. However, in view of the obvious similarities, it seems
justified in a practical book such as this to follow the example of some English
writers and lexicographers and for convenience use “phrasal verb” in an extended
sense to cover not only phrasal verbs proper but also prepositional and phrasal-
prepositional verbs. This does not imply that the distinctions between the three
types of combination are unimportant, but simply indicates that they have enough
in common to be treated together in certain general statements. The use of the word
“particle” to include not only those of adverbial but also of prepositional character
is a parallel simplification considered to be justified for practical purposes in view
of the absence of a universally accepted term for the second (and third) element of
these combinations. Besides, there is a certain overlap between the two types;
some of these words, for example on, off, up and down, can be used either as
adverbial or prepositional particles (prepositions). Our extended use of “particle”,
like that of “phrasal verb”, is intended to reflect the similarity between the two
types but not to minimize their differences, which receive detailed treatment .
It generally recognized that the role of English phrasal verbs has increased
dramatically in recent years. This is reflected in the spate of dictionaries and
practice books devoted to them which have appeared in Britain for foreign
students. Not only have these verbs become more numerous (and their number is
constantly increasing) but they are used more and more widely, not only in
39
colloquial English but also, for example, in academic writing, in official reports, in
fiction, and the mass media. Some of them are pushing more traditional, one-word,
verbs into second place. It is therefore essential that students of English should not
only understand them when reading or listening to English but also use them
themselves, in spite of the difficulties involved. The main difficulties are as
follows: the sheer number and variety of phrasal verbs, the idiomatic nature of
many meanings, the mobility of the particle, and variations of in stress.
It is common knowledge that in order to provide an adequate translation, the
translator must be able to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-
language and target-language texts. English phrasal verbs (e.g. give up, break in,
fall out) are of great interest to me in this respect because they possess quite a
number of semantic, grammatical and stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making
their accurate translation into Kyrgyz difficult. Of course, in dealing with the
translation of such lexical units into his or her native language, the translator can
consult the appropriate bilingual dictionary, but what about the profound
comprehension of why this or that phrasal verb is translated only this and not any
other way?
To get a good idea of English phrasal verbs' semantic nuances, let us first
look at their conceptual features. In theory, phrasal verbs are generally considered
to be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle.
The exact status of the latter is still being debated, scholars being divided on
whether it is an adverb, prepositional adverb, postpositional prefix, special part of
speech, etc. However, here we are interested only in the features of adverbial
particles.
In general, the main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of
reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary"
verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This
ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is
determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with
these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic
40
multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent
structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional
inspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges with the
particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a lexical
modification to its fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial elements denote
the general spatial direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative
characteristics, like beginning set out), duration (bum along), completion (think
out), intensity (hurry up), and so on.
Strictly speaking, proper translation of English phrasal verbs to a high
degree depends on the context in which they are used, which suggests the
appropriate interpretation of the described action. Having stated the specific
characteristics of the action denoted by a certain phrasal verb, one can seek a
counterpart prefix, which is the closest in rendering the same idea and meets the
lexical and grammatical requirements of translation into the target language.
41
1.5. Ways of Translating English Phrasal Verbs.
It is common knowledge that in order to provide an adequate translation, the
translator must be able to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-
language and target-language texts. English phrasal verbs (e.g. give up, break in,
fall out) are of great interest to me, because they possess quite a number of
semantic, grammatical and stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making their accurate
translation into other languages difficult.
Of course, in dealing with the translation of such lexical units into his or her
native language, the translator can consult the appropriate bilingual dictionary, but
what about the profound comprehension of why this or that phrasal verb is
translated only this and not any other way?
To get a good idea of English phrasal verbs' semantic nuances, let us first
look at their conceptual features. In theory, phrasal verbs are generally considered
to be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle. The exact status
of the latter is still being debated, scholars being divided on whether it is an
adverb, prepositional adverb, postpositional prefix, special part of speech, etc.
However, here we are interested only in the features of adverbial particles.
In general, the main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of
reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary"
verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This
ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is
determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with
these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic
multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent
structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional
aspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges with the
particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a lexical
modification to its fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial elements denote
the general spatial direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative
42
characteristics, like beginning (set out), duration (bum along), completion (think
out), intensity (hurry up), and so on.
Obviously, such semantic peculiarities of English phrasal verbs must
influence the process of their translation into other languages, which has a highly
developed system of verbal prefixes.
When dealing with translation of English phrasal verbs or pre-analysis of
their adverbial elements' meaning, one should always keep in mind their
astounding polysemy, which sometimes borders on homonymy. Compare the
following: take in (to receive sb in one's home with welcome, as a guest) and take
in (to deceive sb) (Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs).35 According to the
Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, in the above context the phrasal verb hold
up has the following meaning: to delay (sth or sb). The sentences "There was a
little fire there. Nancy built it up, when it was already hot inside" (W. Faulkner).
The adverbial particle up in the phrasal verb build up imparts the idea of increasing
the size of the fire and shows the intensification of the action.
English phrasal verbs can be highly idiomatic, their meanings being
unpredictable from the sum of their constituents' meanings (e.g. take in (to
deceive), lay down (to build), let on (to tell a secret). In such cases, where the
context or professional experiences fail to reveal the sense of a phrasal verb, a
good explanatory or bilingual dictionary can be of great help to the translator. For
example, for a person who is not a native speaker of English, in the sentence "He
liked to break in his assistants slowly" neither the context, nor the adverbial
element of the phrasal verb hint at the real meaning of the combination break in.
According to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, the phrasal verb break in
has the following "unexpected" meaning: to help (smb) to become accustomed (to
work, etc.) . The Russian edition of this very dictionary (Английские фразовые
глаголы. Англо-русский словарь, Russkiy Yazyk Publishers, Moscow, 1997)
treats this meaning in the same way: . вводить (кого-л.) в курс (новой работы и
т.п.). 36 35 Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs20036 Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь, Russkiy Yazyk Publishers, Moscow, 1997
43
In this sentence we can understand the meaning of some analysis of
translations, like get on and go ahead (used like this) there was no literal
translation and the native speaker supplied a completely different word to convey
the same meaning. For instance, means finish it and for go ahead the native
speaker could not supply any word that meant the same.
As a result, learners of English find phrasal verbs very confusing and have
great difficulty in this area. As literal translations and native speaker
misunderstood and supplied a completely different word to address the same
meaning. For example, in first sentences the native speaker could not supply any
word that meant the same. It is difficult for them because coming from an English
language background; and affixes language and they cannot accept that the
addition of a particle can totally change the meaning of a verb. The fact that the
verb can be separated from the particle by its object causes the most frequent error
in speech and writing. These examples point to literal meaning. Sometimes we can
observe simple word by word interpretation. In whole I agree with given
translation contrary to polysemy and number of synonyms.
The plane touched clearly does not have the same meaning as the plane
touched down and therefore this verb touched needs the particle down in order to
have the same meaning. According to this definition, touched down then, is a
phrasal verb. The effect of not having much reference to a corpora when teaching
phrasal verbs may result in the unnecessary teaching of phrasal verbs that are too
difficult for a certain level of students, or perhaps the phrasal verbs being taught
are not difficult, but not common either. Work on frequency in corpora could allow
teachers to know which phrasal verbs to focus on and make a better use of class
time for everyone. Later in this paper we will discuss a textbook comparison that
illustrates this point.
By giving students lists of phrasal verbs, whether they are grouped by the
verb or by the particle, and asking them to learn the meaning and memorize them,
teachers are not necessarily promoting use. Perhaps the student will be able to
match up a phrasal verb with its Latinate word on paper, but when it comes to
44
speech, something else needs to be done to encourage and enable use. Students
need to be aware that using phrasal verbs does not make their speech less academic
and that using a longer word does not necessarily make them seem more fluent.
Many times an overuse of Latinate words can make speech sound unnatural. In
fact, Cornell says “using phrasal verbs in speech is a true test of fluency.”
I think that a thorough study and consequent understanding of semantic
correspondences in the English and Kyrgyz verbal systems can be quite a powerful
tool in the translator's arsenal. Then we talk about the basic ways of translation of
phrasal verbs. We examine recommendations for translation of phrasal verbs.
Particular attention is given to such issues as the competence of the
translator and the help of dictionaries. It is necessary to be reminded of the
translator's competence since the adequacy of translation depends on it.
Dictionaries represent a huge and valuable source of information and help to
the translator. They play an important role in successful translation. They make the
work of translators easier.37 In this paper, we discuss several dictionaries as well as
their basic features and their significance.
Translation is the transformation of the message of the source language to
the message of the translating language. The exact translation is impossible
because of a great number of languages differences in the grammar and the number
of words, besides, the distinction of the cultures can influence the way of
translating and its results. It makes the unknown known. The translator has the
fever and craft to recognize, recreate and reveal the works of the other artist.
To determine the translation as the subject of the linguistic research shows
its difference from the other kinds of linguistic mediation.
Some translators tried to define the row of demands of which the good
translators should be. The French humanist E. Dolet (1509 – 1546) considered that
a translator should keep the following five basic principles of translation:
1. To understand the content of the translating text and the intention of the
author perfectly;
37 Concise Oxford Companion to the English language 199845
2. To know the language he translates from and the language he translates
on perfectly;
3. To avoid the tendency to translate word for word, because it
misrepresents the original content and spoils the beauty of its form;
4. To use the translation the speech forms in general use;
5. To reproduce the general impression in corresponding key, produced by
the original, by choosing and placing words correctly.
In 1790 the Englishman A. Tayler formed the following requests to the
translation in his book “The principles of the translation”:38
1. The translation should transfer the ideas of the original completely;
2. The style and way of the exposition should be the same as in the
original;
3. The translation should be read with the same easiness as the original
works.
The translation is the multifaceted phenomenon and some aspects of it can
be the subjects of the research of different sciences. In the frames of the science of
translation psychological, literature critical, ethnographical and other points of
translation as well as the history of translation in one or other country are being
studied.
The main place in the modern translation belongs to linguistic translation,
which studies the translation as linguistic phenomenon.
English phrasal verbs can be highly idiomatic, their meanings being
unpredictable from the sum of their constituents' meanings (e.g. take in (to
deceive), lay down (to build), let on (to tell a secret). In such cases, where the
context or professional experience fails to reveal the sense of a phrasal verb, a
good explanatory or bilingual dictionary can be of great help to the translator. For
example, for a person who is not a native speaker of English, in the sentence "He
liked to break in his assistants slowly" in ‘Jamilya’ neither the context, nor the
adverbial element of the phrasal verb hint at the real meaning of the combination
38 Classification. TESOL Quarterly. Vol.33, No. 1, 1999.46
break in. According to the Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, the phrasal verb
break in has the following "unexpected" meaning: to help (smb) to become
accustomed (to work, etc.) The Russian edition of this very dictionary
(Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь, Russia Yazyk
Publishers, Moscow, 1997) 39 treats this meaning in the same way.
According to the subject of research we use the knowledge of the
psychology of translation, the theory of art and literary translation, ethnographical
science of translation, historical science of translation and so on.
In order to analyze phrasal verbs which are used in “Jamilya” and their
possible equivalents in original text, we should discuss some difficulties the
translator faces during his work (especially translating idiomatic expressions) and
explain what may cause the difficulties. This is done with the purpose to help the
translator avoid many mistakes in his work
The different kinds of translation complement each other and strive to
detailed description of the activity of the translation.40
It is common knowledge that in order to provide an adequate translation, the
translator must be able to sense nuances in the semantics of both the source-
language and target-language texts.
English phrasal verbs (e.g. give up, break in, fall out) are of great interest in
this respect because they possess quite a number of semantic, grammatical and
stylistic peculiarities, sometimes making their accurate translation into Kyrgyz
difficult.
Of course, in dealing with the translation of such lexical units into his or her
native language, the translator can consult the appropriate bilingual dictionary, but
what about the profound comprehension of why this or that phrasal verb is
translated only this and not any other way?
To get a good idea of English phrasal verbs' semantic nuances, first of all
one need to look at their conceptual features. In theory, phrasal verbs are generally
considered to be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle. The 39 Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь, Russia Yazyk Publishers, Moscow, 199740 Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald
47
exact status of the latter is still being debated, scholars being divided on whether it
is an adverb, prepositional adverb, postpositional prefix, special part of speech, etc.
However, here we are interested only in the features of adverbial particles.
In general, the main function of phrasal verbs is conceptual categorization of
reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary"
verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This
ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is
determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with
these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic
multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent
structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional
aspective meaning to the base verb (e.g. the durative verb sit merges with the
particle down into the terminative phrasal verb sit down) or introduce a lexical
modification to its fundamental semantics.
In most cases adverbial elements denote the general spatial direction of the
action or express its qualitative or quantitative characteristics, like beginning (set
out), duration (bum along), completion (think out), intensity (hurry up), and so on.
CHAPTER II. 2. PECULARITIES OF PHRASAL VERBS IN
TRANSLATING INTO KYRGYZ.
2.1. The difficulties of translating English phrasal verbs into Kyrgyz
language on the basis of Ch .Aitmatovs’ work “Jamilya.
This part of this master thesis is devoted to usage of phrasal verbs on
“Jamilya” by Ch.Aitmatov.
48
Although there are no phrasal verbs in the Kyrgyz language, we have
analyzed morphological and syntactical ways of conveying the same meaning as
English phrasal verbs have. The verb has morphological and syntactic features. We
analyzed each verbal category by examining two forms or two sets of forms
differing from each other according to that category only. In the Kyrgyz language
the verb has the wide predicative.
At first, I have defined all phrasal verbs patterns used in English text and
after that, their interpretation into Kyrgyz. Along with extracts from original work
“Jamilya ” I attach general meanings of given phrasal verbs. In my opinion it can
help us to analyze given examples thoroughly. Considering the original text I have
detected the following list of phrasal verbs. Also we can observe the frequency of
their usage in brackets.
Analyzing phrasal verb in English translation and in original text of this
passage, I had some difficulties because of difference in the meaning given in a
dictionary and the contextual meaning. For example, the verb “to reach up” is
translated like “колун өйдө көтөрүү”, but this meaning isn’t suitable for the
context. The sentence would sound like “ал жерден челекти алыш үчүн колун
өйдө көтөрдү ” and it isn’t correct for the Kyrgyz language, because she didn’t
stretch her arms.
The next phrasal verb is “to push off”. It is translated in the dictionary like
“түртүү” and this meaning isn’t suitable for the word “челек” in Kyrgyz
completely.41 In this paper, we will compare some frequently occurring English
phrasal verbs with their translation\equivalents in Kyrgyz, both in terms of
morphological syntactic structures and semantic properties. According to
Longman’s Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber at al. 1999), phrasal
verbs are multi-word units consisting of a verb followed by an adverbial particle
with a spatial or locative meaning (e.g. find out, run away, catch up, etc.).When
combined together, they represent single semantic units with extended meanings
that cannot be derived from the individual meanings of the parts.
41 Жапаров А. Синтаксический строй кыргызского языка Бишкек 1991г
49
Our study focuses on the comparison between lists of English phrasal verbs,
which share frequently occurring. Morphological and syntactic structures in the
form of part-of-speech (POS) patterns, and their equivalent expressions in Kyrgyz.
Further narrow our focus on the phrasal verbs in which other word(s) can be
embedded, such as scare (somebody/something) off.
In the sentence “Tomorrow morning I leave for the village, and I gaze long
and intently at the canvas, as if it can give me a word of advise for the journey
ahead, the interpreter gave: Мына эртен да айылга жөнөймүн. Сүрөттү карап
мен андан жолума ак тилек бата алып жаткан өндүү мен аны көпкө көз
айрыбай тиктейм. The phrasal verb “leave for” is translating –га жөнөймүн. the
ending-мүн combining with the simple verb nameing the action, for example:
жөнөймүн, present form of the verb жөнөө- is formed with help of ending for
first person singular–мүн. The preposition –for which shows direction to
somewhere is translated with the help of ending –га which shows also direction.
The transitive verb to give smth ahead was rendered with the help of past
continuous tense алып жаткан өңдүү which has quite opposite meaning. To give
smth ahead is translated as берип жиберүү, but according to the context it has
backward process, not canvas gives but from the canvas as Сүрөттү карап мен
андан жолума ак тилек бата алып жаткан өңдүү. In the sentence: The
footprints of two travelers follow a washed- out dirt road, the phrasal verb ‘a
washed out’ in the position of noun is translated as : тоборсуп карайган жолдо,
катарлаш баскан эки жолоочунун изи Чет-четтен чийлер ыкталышып, жаан-
чачындан кийин топурагы борпоң, тигинден бери чубайт. Here we can observe
that the translator was weak to transfer the meaning of Чет-четтен чийлер
ыкталышып, жаан-чачындан кийин топурагы борпон, тоборсуп карайган,
and just used a phrasal verb ‘washed out’ which make the sentence meaningless.
Жолдон салт арабамды кайрыдым is rendered as I decided to stop off at
home. Though stop off is translated as токтоо, according to the content кайрылуу
is the most suitable variant. The translator replaced direct meaning, but these
50
definitions are completely different. If we make back up translation, the real
meaning will be distorted.
In, I carry on a little business on the side;42 the interpreter gave “, баштоо” to
“carry on” for making sense. But I think we can use literal meaning as well, and I
would give different translation: мен дагы бир чакан иштин үстүндөмүн.
She laughed again, as if he said something very witty, and held my hand for
a moment, looking up into my face, promising that there was no one in the world
she so much wanted to see. Look up is used here in its literal meaning – to raise
one’s head upward in order to see something. The Kyrgyz prefix өйдө- was used
here in its meaning as a derivational unit forming the verb with the meaning: to
perform an activity described by the verbs following the prefix, deflecting from the
main direction for some time. (Словообразовательная единица, образующая
глаголы совершенного вида со значением: совершить действие, названное
словами, от которых соответствующие глаголы образованы, ненадолго
отклонившись при этом от основного направления)43
Evidently it surprised her as much as it did me, for she yawned and with a
series of rapid, deft movements stood up into the room.
In this case the verb stood up wasn’t translated as өйдө турду with the help
of the (direction) өйдө- as a derivational unit forming the verb with the meaning:
an activity with an upward direction (Словообразовательная единица,
выделяющаяся в глаголах совершенного вида со значением направленного
вверх - на предмет - действия, названного словами, от которых
соответствующие глаголы образованы). Another way of translation was used
here: бутуна турду.
The translator used a descriptive approach of translation, and described the result of the performed activity.
They knew that presently dinner would be over and a little later the evening
too would be over and casually put away.
42 Jamilya by Ch .Aitmatov43 LingvoUniversal (En-Ru) (к версии ABBYY Lingvo x3) Англо-русский словарь общей лексики. © ABBYY, 2008.
51
Here put away ‘to put something in the place where you usually keep it’ was
translated with the help of серпип шыпыруу - a derivational unit forming the verb
with the meaning to move something off / away (Словообразовательная
единица, образующая глаголы совершенного вида со значением: удалить или
удалиться откуда-либо посредством действия, названного мотивирующим
словом).44 The elements in English phrasal verbs denote the general spatial
direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative characteristics, such
as beginning, duration, completion, intensity, etc. and can indicate various qualities
of actions and states, thus closely resembling the semantic functions of the
elements in English phrasal verbs. The Kyrgyz phrase серпип шыпыруу - as a
derivational unit forming the verb with the meaning: an activity with an backward
direction.
In Kyrgyz language –серпип шыпыруу, the endings oo-yy combining with
the simple and compound verb name the actions for example: башкаруу, present
form of the verb башкар is formed with help of ending yy. And the present form
of the compound verb «серп- шыпыр» шыпыр is formed with the help of
endings- ип and yy.
Jamilya sat back up on the couch.
In this case, sat back meaning: to relax in a chair so that your back is
against the back of the chair was translated with the help of the verb жолоно-
meaning aside, or a derivational unit forming the verb with the meaning: to
uncompleted activity. (Словообразовательная единица, образующая глаголы
совершенного вида со значением завершить действие, названное словами, от
которых соответствующие глаголы образованы).45
Daniar took a step forward and held out her hand.
Here, the phrasal verb held out meaning to move your hand or an object in
your hand towards someone and step forward was translated with the help of the
Kyrgyz compound verb колун кармай алдыга басты a derivational unit forming
52
the verb with the meaning: to move forward (преодолеть какое-то расстояние,
продвинуть или продвинуться вперед с помощью действия, названного
мотивирующим словом).
For ex: Жакын дегеним, ортобуздан эки-үч ата өтсө да, алар менен
башынан малыбыз жаныбыз бир. Тээ чон аталарыбыз бирге көчүп бирге
көнүп, өтө ынтымактуу турушкан экен ошолордун салты менен биз дагы
арабызды алыстатпай, кол үзгөн жокпуз.
-but I call them close relatives because we lived as one family. It had been so
since the time our people had been nomads, when our great grandfathers used to
break camp and round up their cattle together.
In the above mentioned sentence it is difficult to find direct equivalent of the
phrasal verb ‘round up’. It can be translated as мал айдоо, but in the sentence it
was translated as малыбыз жаныбыз бир with the help of noun and adjective, as
мал айдоо in kyrgyz denotes the action which happens only once.
The same situation in the following sentence; илгертен калган адат боюнча
агайын туугандар арбак кудайга тууралап менин атама никелештирип
коюшат.
The sentence was translated : According to the old customs of tribal law which
was still adhered to in the village at the time, it was forbidden to let a widow to
leave tribe who had sons , and it was therefore agreed that my father should marry
her. Neither the context, nor the adverbial element of the phrasal verb hint at the
real meaning of the combination
In the original text it is really difficult to find the proper translation or
equivalent of the phrasal verb to be adhered to smth which is translated as бир
нерсени катуу кармоо, which has quite strong meaning. But in the sentence there
is another expression арбак кудайга тууралап which would be really impossible
to understand for foreign readers if to render direct meaning. That’s why the
translator referred to the phrasal verb to be adhered to.
My young mother was kind, complacent and mild tempered; she kept up with
the younger women in everything.
53
Кичи апам, ээ бир дүйнө табылбаган карапайым, сонун киши эле. Түк
бир бригаттар менен жаакташпай, берки жаш келиндер менен тең катары
эле арык чаап, кетмен колунан түшпөйт.
The phrasal verb to keep up with which has the meaning ‘to manage to do
smth’ and is translated as жетишүү was replaced with the phrase
(not with the help of verb but with the adjective) менен тен катары.which can
also be proper variant. Obviously, such semantic peculiarities of English phrasal
verbs must influence the process of their translation into Kyrgyz language, which
is characterized absency of verbs.
Osmon, our distant relative, began to get fresh with Jamilya.
Биздин тууган сөрөй, Осмон Жамилага тийише бергендиктен…
In English variant, syntactical role of verb in the sentence-predicate. In the
Kyrgyz language the verb is the main clauses part and will be coordinated with a
subject. Basically the verb is the predicate in a sentence, but it can act in a role of
any sentence part, as a verb, and minor. Due to a certain order of words the
structure of the sentence and the coordination of all words are quite clear. In the
Kyrgyz sentence the verb is the last word, as it is the most important element in the
sentence and carries out a predicate role. In the sentence verbs have a great
influence, if there is no verb in the sentence, the narration will be substantive, and
the sentence will be incomplete. Therefore the verb is the main functional part of
the sentence.
In the Kyrgyz language the verb has two special forms: participle and
adverbial participle which have the pragmatically signs.
Бизге тийиштүү кандай гана иш болбосун апамдан чечилет.
At home mother was in charge of every thing.
In the above sentence the verb чечилет is the last word, as it is the most
important element in the sentence and carries out a predicate role. In the sentence
verbs have a great influence, if there is no verb in the sentence, the narration will
be substantive, and the sentence will be incomplete. Therefore the verb is the main
functional part of the sentence.
54
Well then, I pulled my trap up in the shade of the willow…
Мен арабамды чарбактын четине, көлөкөгө айдап келсем, биздин
бригадир Орозмат …
Syntactical role of verb in this sentence: Мен арабамды чарбактын
четине, көлөкөгө айдап келсем, биздин бригадир Орозмат …-predicate, but it
denotes incomplete action, when in English language the predicate I pulled my trap
up (transitive phrasal verb) is in the beginning of the sentence and shows complete
action. In the English language the verb is the main clauses part and will be
coordinated with a subject.
You don’t want to let your daughter-in –law go, but I can not get the farm
chairman off my neck. The soldiers need bread, and we are disturbing the plan.
…макул деген келинди сиз тыйып салсаңыз, план толбойт, фронтун
эгинин токтоосуз деп, тыяктан чоңдор үстөлдү муштагылап жемелесе ..
English phrasal verbs can be highly idiomatic, their meanings being
unpredictable from the sum of their constituents' meanings. Phrasal prepositional
verb not get the farm chairman off my neck is generally considered to be idiomatic
combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle. But in the Kyrgyz sentence the
тыяктан чоңдор үстөлдү муштагылап жемелесе has also idiomatic meaning.
I came up to them, dragging my whip along the ground.
Нары жактан шапалак камчыны сүйрөй баскан …
Grammatical category in this English and Kyrgyz sentences are quite different.
In English I came up to them is in the past tense, and completed action. In Kyrgyz
сүйрөй баскан is in past continuous and the action is not completed.
My mother did not hear him out.
Апам мени көрө салып, бригадирдин сөзүн бөлүп жалынды.
In English, phrasal verb indicates the intensification of action. Because did
not hear him out can be rendered as сөзүн болдү and if one notices, there is no
predicate in English sentence which gives the meaning жалынды which is the
most important element in the Kyrgyz sentence. Obviously, such semantic
peculiarities of English phrasal verbs must influence the process, sometimes it can
55
intensify the meaning and refers to additional information, but sometimes they may
loose the sense of the sentence.
I will send Daniar along with them.
Андан калса жанагы Жаны тууган Даниярды кошуп берейин.
And casually spitting through my teeth like a regular driver, I sauntered off
with an air importance.
Тиги чоң арабакечтерди туурап, чырт тукуруп камчыны сүйрөй,
жайбаракат теңселип бастым.
The verb and the particle are fused into a new idiomatic combination, the
meaning of which is not deducible from its parts. In such combinations there is no
possibility of contrastive substitution: there are no pairs. The adverbial, lexical
values of the particles have been lost, and the entire verb-particle combination has
acquired a new meaning.
I was now beyond earshot, mothers following words were lost on me.
Андан аркысын мен уккан жокмун.
Phrasal verbs was now beyond earshot, were lost on me are generally
considered to be idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverbial particle. While
translating, the interpreter used two idiomatic phrasal verbs: was now beyond
earshot, were lost on me just to render the phrase уккан жокмун. Here the author
took into consideration emotional condition of the character and tried to describe it
more deeply.
My mother looked off into the distance and over the tree tops, as if her clouded
gaze would come upon her sons there.
…кылгырган тумандуу көз караш менен тээ алыска- алыска кабарсыз
балдары көрүнө калчуудай тиктейт.
Here the main function of phrasal verb is conceptual categorization of
reality in the speaker's mind. They denote not only actions or states as "ordinary"
verbs do, but also specify their spatial, temporal or other characteristics. This
ability to describe actions or states more precisely, vividly and emotionally is
determined by the adverbial components of phrasal verbs. By combining with
56
these elements, verbs of broader meaning are subjected to a regular and systematic
multiplication of their semantic functions. While the English verb has no consistent
structural representation of aspect, adverbial particles either impart an additional
aspective meaning to the base verb or introduce a lexical modification to its
fundamental semantics. In most cases adverbial elements denote the general spatial
direction of the action or express its qualitative or quantitative characteristics.
Then the war broke out and Sadyk was called out.
Анан Садыкты аскерге алып кеткен. Neither the context, nor the adverbial
element of the phrasal verb hint at the real meaning of the combination Then the
war broke out. Here the translator gave additional information in order to give
vivid picture of the story.
She got along well with the other women but if they criticized her
undeservedly, she would never let them get the better of her.
Анан өзү да бирөөгө жемин жегизбеген өжөр, айтышканда айтышып,
тилдешкен менен тилдешип кетер жери бар.
In the sentence verb has been combined with an adverb or a preposition, and
readers or listeners will easily understand a phrasal verb used in a colloquial sense
with a preposition. Verb and adverb constructions can also easily be understood
when used literally.
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.
Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called "particle verbs", and
are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages.
A transitive particle verb get the better of her has a nominal object in addition
to the adverb. If the object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side
of the adverb, although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb.
Having seen four sons off to war, they found consolation in Jamilya..
Өстүрүп чоңойткон төрт уулду аскерге жөнөтүп, жалгыз келиндин
көзүн карашабы…
57
In the above sentence the verb and the particle keep their individual lexical
meanings, as having seen four sons off. The individuality of the components
appears in possible contrastive substitutions.
She would suddenly burst out laughing loudly and happily for no reason.
Although there are no phrasal verbs in the Kyrgyz language, we have
analyzed morphological and syntactical ways of conveying the same meaning as
English phrasal verbs have. The verb шаңкылдап каткырып жиберет
has morphological and syntactic features. We analyzed each verbal category by
examining two forms or two sets of forms differing from each other according to
that category only. In the Kyrgyz language the verb has the wide predicative.
Баса энелерди чочуткан бир нерсе бар эле. Жамийла өтө эле
сайырсымак, бала кыялдуу, ал эч бир себепсиз эле шаңкылдап каткырып
жиберет.
But both mothers-in-law consoled themselves by saying that Jamila settle
down in time.
Энелер мунун мүнөзүн кеп кылып, анан кайра ’Бала да , бара-бара
салмак тартар’-деп коюшчу.
In the sentence phrasal and prepositional verb settle down has composite
meanings which are not normally deducible from their parts, the terms phrasal and
prepositional verbs are not, however, restricted to such idiomatic combinations.
The verb alone keeps its basic lexical meaning and the particle has an
intensifying function: find out (discover). Sweep (up) the crumbs, spread (out) the
rug.
The stress on the particle in the verbal form (we say, “I have to break down
these boxes) moved from the particle to the verbal component when the compound
acted as a noun.
Some grammarians, such as Martha Koln in “Understanding English
Grammar,”44 take the view that phrasal verbs define only those combinations that
form an idiom, a phrase whose meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of
44 Martha Koln in “Understanding English Grammar,”58
its parts. This is the holistic or semantic view, which focuses mainly on the
meaning of the verb combination.
According to the definition given in the Oxford Russian Dictionary, the most
appropriate phrasal verbs indicate the intensification of action. Obviously, such
semantic peculiarities of English phrasal verbs must influence the process, which
has a highly developed system of verbal prefixes. In addition to their function that
is analogous to that of English prefixes, English verbal prefixes resemble Kyrgyz
adjectives, nouns and adverbial particles in their semantic functions, also
indicating various qualities of actions and states. Like adverbial particles in
English, prefixes are lexically strong.
Thus, in translation from Kyrgyz into English, the meaning of the Kyrgyz
adverbial component of the phrasal verb is mostly conveyed by using the English
prefix that reflects the character of the described action or state most accurately. To
a greater degree, this refers rather to nuances of semantics than grammar
as there is a proper semantic correspondence between the adverbial element through in the phrasal verb going through and the, both denoting exhaustive action.
59
CONCLUSION
Discerned translating problems and difficulties don’t exhaust the all variety
of complications in translation. They reflect only the fundamental, the most typical
situations. Translating of English phrasal verbs is very important part of the
science of translation because it couldn’t be a real good correct translation without
correct translating of the phrasal verbs. Every translator should pay attention to the
translation of the phrasal verbs and work hard with each phrasal verb. In order to
translate them in proper way a translator should be aware of types and
classification of phrasal verbs.
An adverb in a literal phrasal verb modifies the verb it is attached to, and a
preposition links the verb to the object.
Phrasal verbs that contain adverbs are sometimes called "particle verbs", and
are related to separable verbs in other Germanic languages. There are two main
patterns: intransitive and transitive. An intransitive particle verb does not have an
object:
A transitive particle verb has a nominal object in addition to the adverb. If
the object is an ordinary noun, it can usually appear on either side of the adverb,
although very long noun phrases tend to come after the adverb.
Prepositions can be distinguished because they cannot move, they are
unstressed, and adverbs can intervene between the verb and the prepositional
phrase.
The Old English ancestors of modern phrasal verbs were generally
inseparable-prefix verbs, although some separable forms did exist. The influences
of the Norman Conquest and Old Norse on ME eroded Old English OV syntax,
and this catalyzed the production of separable adverbial particles and the phrasal
verb in Middle English. In Early Modern English, phrasal verbs grew rapidly in
dramatic and less formal texts, while new nominal-derivative compounds and rules
about pronominal-object placement arose. In Present-Day English, phrasal verbs
60
are identifiable by particle movement (when transitive), stressed particles,
incapacity for adverb intervention in the verb phrase, translation, and passivization.
To conclude in Modern English also could be formed with a noun + particle,
such as “to louse up”. It was also in this period that pronominal objects were firmly
established before particles (“She put it on” not She put on it) as a standard
practice, while nominal objects retained movement before and after the particle
(She put the dress on / She put on the dress).
Phrasal verbs play an important role both in spoken and written English at
all levels, and everyone who wants to master the language should try not only just
to learn them by heart but also to understand the situation they are to be used in.
From our point of view knowledge and understanding of phrasal verbs
allows communicating with the native speakers on their mother tongue. If your
speech is rich in correct and relevant phrasal verbs, you are considered to be at the
advanced level of knowing the foreign language.
English and Russian lexical systems are so different that they demand the
special approach to translating of each verb according to its contextual meaning.
That is why it seems almost impossible to create a consistent rigid system of
lexical correspondences between English adverbial particles and Russian prefixes,
without encountering numerous debatable problems.
Strictly speaking, proper translation of English phrasal verbs to a high
degree depends on the context in which they are used, which suggests the
appropriate interpretation of the described action. Having stated the specific
characteristics of the action denoted by a certain phrasal verb, one can seek a
Russian counterpart prefix, which is the closest in rendering the same idea and
meets the lexical and grammatical requirements of translation into the target
language.
I think that a thorough study and consequent understanding of semantic
correspondences in the English and Kyrgyz verbal systems can be quite a different
tool in the translator's arsenal
61
While doing the research I faced the questions, especially interesting to me,
because they are very close to my profession – to learn historical development of
phrasal verbs in order to retrace their modification (alteration); to find out ways to
solve the problem of phrasal verbs translation from one language to another; to
define ways of translation in order to classify them into separate groups. Having
elucidated these themes of my work I decided to have a closer look at gradual
development of phrasal verbs. At the beginning of research I have defined the
general meaning and its structural peculiarities. It helped me to understand the
essence of phrasal verbs.
For analyzing I have chosen “ Jamilya” by Ch. Aitmatov. I concentrated
my attention on the colloquial language he used in his works. I have discovered
many examples of phrasal verbs used. After that I have detected their equivalents.
Then I systemized the information I got after my observations. All examples were
divided into three categories of translation:
While writing my thesis paper I’ve used different research methods, such as
descriptive and statistic methods, I’ve observed different facts, connected with
indirect category of translation, sometimes direct meaning is possible but it does
not suit the context. At this point the interpreter must be knowledgeable in both
languages, mainly target language. The translation performed by E. Kalashnikova
is correct and entirely reflects the sense of the context.
Dealing with translation of English phrasal verbs or pre-analysis of their
adverbial elements' meaning, one should always keep in mind their astounding
polysemy, which sometimes borders on homonymy. Semantic peculiarities of
English phrasal verbs must influence the process of their translation into the
Russian language, which has a highly developed system of verbal prefixes.
And as I have already mentioned, I’m convinced that the theme of my thesis
paper is very actual nowadays and I think that the research will be useful for
many people. My work is intended for the audience interested in the linguistics in
whole and correct interpretation.
62
As we can see, phrasal verbs are widely spread in English literature.
Analyzing phrasal verbs of this passage I had some difficulties because of
difference in the meaning given in a dictionary and the contextual meaning.
We have observed that the Kyrgyz equivalents of the English phrasal verbs
following the pattern tend to show a distinctly different structure from English
morpho-syntactic structure. In Russian, the elements in this type of English phrasal
verbs are generally expressed by means of verbal prefixes. For instance, English
phrasal verbs with RP- prepositional adverb, elements, which on their own would
be function words such as in, on, out, up, down, etc., are usually to illustrate,
the Russian equivalent for wipe out is literally. On the other hand, English phrasal
verbs with RL elements that independently may act as content words, such as
forward, ahead, behind, apart, together, etc., are often expressed as verb + adverb
in Kyrgyz . However, this should be regarded more as a tendency rather than a
rule, as some phrasal verbs in the second group can be translated by means of
prefixation. While some others allow both meanings. For example, move ahead
can be translated into Kyrgyz as either (verb with prefix) or (MWE) multi-word
expressions. In addition, there are cases when an English phrasal verb of morpho-
syntactic structure with multiple senses can be translated into different Kyrgyz
verbs for different meanings.
Although there are no phrasal verbs in the Kyrgyz language, we have
analyzed morphological and syntactical ways of conveying the same meaning as
English phrasal verbs have. The verb has morphological and syntactic features. We
analyzed each verbal category by examining two forms or two sets of forms
differing from each other according to that category only. In the Kyrgyz language
the verb has the wide predicative.
Thus we get three divisions:
The present,
The Past
The future
63
Syntactical role of verb in the sentence-predicate. In the Kyrgyz language
the verb is the main clauses part and will be coordinated with a subject. Basically
the verb is the predicate in a sentence, but it can act in a role of any sentence part,
as a verb, and minor. Due to a certain order of words the structure of the sentence
and the coordination of all words are quite clear. In the Kyrgyz sentence the verb is
always the last word, as it is the most important element in the sentence and carries
out a predicate role. In the sentence verbs have a great influence, if there is no verb
in the sentence, the narration will be substantive, and the sentence will be
incomplete. Therefore the verb is the main functional part of the sentence.
In the Kyrgyz language the verb has two special forms: participle and adverbial
participle which have the pragmatically signs.
1. Conjugation
2. Active passive voice
3. Change on cases
4. (the present and прошедшее) Present and Past
Investigated verbs in English language have the internal forms close to signs
to participles. The participle designates a subject sign on its action, has
conjugation, changes on sorts gender, numbers and to cases, and times.
64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Akimoto, Minoji. “Collocations and Idioms in Late Modern English.”
Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects of Composite Predicates in the
History of English. Eds. Laurel J. Brinton and Minoji Akimoto.
Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999
2. Bolinger’s view on phrasal verbs (Harvard Press) 1987.
3. Brinton, Laurel J. The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic
Introduction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000.
4. Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Leech, G. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken
(2002).
5. Biber D., S. Johansson, G. Leech, S. Conrad & E. Finegan Longman
grammar of spoken and written English. Harlow: Pearson Education
Limited. (1999).
6. Bolinger, D. The Phrasal Verb in English. Cambridge, Harvard
University (1971).
7. Concise Oxford Companion to the English language 1998
8. Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. The Grammar Book. Boston:
(1999).
9. Denison, David. “The Origins of Completive ‘up’ in English.”
10. Denison, David. English Historical Syntax: Verbal Constructions.
London and New York: Longman, 1993.
11. Darwin, C. & Gray, L. Going after the Phrasal Verb: An Alternative
Approach (1999).
12. Fraser Bruce The verb - particle combination. New York Academic press,
1986
13. Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald
14. Hiltunen, Risto. “Verbal Phrases and Phrasal Verbs in Early Modern
English.” Collocation and Idiomatic Aspects of Composite Predicates
65
15. History of English. Eds. Laurel J. Brinton and Minoji Akimoto.
Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1999.
16. Longman phrasal verbs dictionary Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
(2000).
17. Makkai A. Idiom structure in English The Hague1987
18. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartnik.
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London and New
York: Longman, 1985
19. Rissanen, Matti. “Syntax.” The Cambridge History of the English
Language. Cambridge U P, 1992.
20. Richard F Spears American idioms Dictionary Lincolnwood, Illinois
USA 1991
21. Sroka, Kazimierz A. The Syntax of English Phrasal Verbs. The Hague
and Paris: Mouton, 1972
22. Samuel Johnson , Dictionary of the English Language,
23. Sroka, Kazimierz A. The Syntax of English Phrasal Verbs. The Hague
and Paris: Mouton, 1972
24. Translation Journal and the Author Send your comments to the
Webmaster URL: http://accurapid.com/journal/09russ.htm Last Updated:
Copyright 1998
25. Tanabe, Harumi. “Composite Predicates and Phrasal Verbs in “The
Paston Letters.” Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects of Composite
Predicates in the History of English. 1999
26. Ed. Roger Lass, Gen Ed. Richard Hogg. Cambridge: Cambridge U P,
1992.
27. Yatskovich I. Some ways of translating English phrasal verbs into
Russian.Tanslation Journal http://accurapid.com
28. Амосова П.Н.Основы английской фразеологии. 1963 г.
29. Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь Moscow:
30. Английские фразовые глаголы. Англо-русский словарь 1997
66
31. Алехина А.И. Фразеологическая единица и слово, Минск 1991
32. Аничков И.Е. Труды по языкознанию. Санкт Петербург. Наука 1997
33. Виноградов В.С. Введение в переводоведение. М.2001
34. Дозорец Ж.А. фразеологический русско-английский словарь
М.1995г
35. Жуков В.П. Семантика фразеологических оборотов. М.1990г
36. Захарова М.А Стратегия речевого использования образных
фразеологизмов английского языка М.1999г
37. Кунин А.В.Курс фразеологии современного английского языка
М.1996г.
38. Кунин А.В. англо русский фразеологический словарь в 2х томах М.
1967г
39. Кортни М. Английские фразовые глаголы Англо русский словарь
2001г
40. Комиссаров В.Н.Современное переводоведение М.2001г
41. Литвинов П., П. Англо - Русский фразеологический словарь М:
ВАКО 2005
42. Литвинов П.П. Фразеология М.2001г
43. Савицкий В.М.Английская фразеология проблемы моделирования.
Самара 1993г
44. Смит Л.П. фразеология английского языка.М.1998г
45. Чиченова Л.А.Английская фразеология в языке и речи.М.1986г
46. К.К. Юдахин Русско-Кыргызский словарь. Москва 1957г
47. Кыргыз адабий тилинин грамматиасы 4 болък Фрунзе 1980г
48. Жапаров А. Синтаксический строй кыргызского языка Бишкек
1991г
49. Жакыпов Ы.Азыркы кыргыз тилинин синтаксиси Фрунзе 1975г
50. Ч.С. Кудайбергенов кыргыз тилиндеги этиштин ыщгай
категориясы Фрунзе 1959
67
68