Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi Human Socialities: Socialization, Social Interaction, and Social Mobility

Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi

Human Socialities: Socialization, Social Interaction, and Social

Mobility

McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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SOCIOLOGYRichard T. Schaefer

Socialization


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Socialization

• The Role of Socialization • The Self and Socialization• Socialization and the Life Course• Agents of Socialization • Social Policy and Socialization


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The Role of Socialization

– Interaction of heredity and environment shape human development• The Case of Isabelle• Primate Studies

• Social Environment:The Impact of Isolation


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The Role of Socialization

• The Influence of Heredity– Studies of Identical Twins

• Intelligence tests show:

Similar scores when twins are reared apart in roughly similar social settings

Quite different scores when twins are reared apart in dramatically different social settings


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The Self and Socialization

– Self: distinct identity that sets us apart from others

– Cooley: Looking-Glass Self• We learn who we are by interacting with

others• Our view of ourselves comes from

contemplation of personal qualities and our impressions of how others perceive us

• The self is the product of our social interactions with other people

• Sociological Approaches to the Self


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Continued...

• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Mead: Stages of the Self

Play Stage: children develop skill in communicating through symbols and role taking occurs

Game Stage: children of about 8 or 9 consider several actual tasks and relationships simultaneously

Preparatory Stage: children imitate people around them.


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Symbols: gestures, objects, and language that form basis of human communication

Role Taking: process of mentally assuming the perspective of another

Generalized Others: attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that child takes into account


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• As person matures, the self changes and begins to reflect greater concern about reactions of others


• Self begins as privileged, central position in a person’s world

Significant Others: Individuals most important in the development of the self


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Goffman’s view sometimes called Dramaturgical Approach: people resemble performers in actionFace-work: Need to maintain proper image of self to continue social interaction


• Sociological Approaches to the Self– Goffman: Presentation of the Self

• Impression Management: individual learns to slant the presentation of self to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences


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– Freud• Self is a social product, however, natural

impulsive instincts in constant conflict with societal constraints

• Personality influenced by others (especially one’s parents

• Psychological Approaches to the Self


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• Piaget emphasized the stages humans progress through as the self develops.

• Cognitive theory of development identified 4 stages in development of children’s thought processes

• Social interaction key to development

• Psychological Approaches to the Self– Piaget


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Socialization and the Life Course

• Ceremonies mark stages of development in life course

• The Life Course– Rites of Passage: Means of dramatizing

and validating changes in a person’s status

Life-course Approach: Looks closely at social factors that influence people throughout their lives


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• The Life Course– We encounter some

of the most difficult socialization challenges in later years


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Table 4-1. Theoretical Approaches to Development of the Self


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Table 4-2. Milestones in the Transition to Adulthood

Source: T. Smith 2003


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– Anticipatory Socialization: processes of socialization in which person “rehearses” future occupations and social relationships

– Resocialization: process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as transition in one’s life

• Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization


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Degradation Ceremony: ritual where individual becomes secondary and rather invisible in overbearing social environment


• Anticipatory Socialization and Resocialization– Total Institution: institution—prison,

military, mental hospital, or convent—that regulates all aspects of a person’s life under a single authority


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Agents of Socialization

– Role of family in socializing a child cannot be overestimated

– Cultural Influences

– The Impact of Race and Gender

• Family

Gender Roles: expectation regarding proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females


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– Teach children values and customs of the larger society

– Traditionally socialized children into conventional gender roles

• Peer Group– As children grow older, peer groups

increasingly assume the role of Mead’s significant others

• School


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Table 4-3. High School Popularity

Source: Suitor et al. 2001:445


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– Technology socializes families into multitasking as the social norm

• Mass Media and Technology

47% of parents reported at least one child has a TV in his/her bedroom


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Figure 4-1. InternetUsage, Ages 10—17

Source: Kaiser Family Foundation/San Jose Mercury News 2003


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– Learning to behave appropriately within occupational setting is fundamental aspect of human socialization

• Socialization in workplace involves four phases:– Career choice– Anticipatory socialization– Conditioning– Continuous commitment

• Workplace


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– Government and organized religion impacted life course by reinstituting some rites of passage

• Religion and State


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Social Policy and Socialization

• In 2002, 55% of women who had given birth the previous year were back in the labor force

• 35% of all preschoolers with employed mothers attend group child care programs

• Child Care Around the World– The Issue


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• Finding the right kind of day care challenges parents and pocketbook

• Researchers found high-quality child care centers do not adversely affect socialization of children

• Child Care Around the World– The Setting


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• Studies assessing quality of child care outside of home reflect micro-level of analysis favored by interactionists

• Functionalists study child care from perspective of macro-level analysis of the family as a social institution

• Child Care Around the World– Sociological Insights


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• Feminist perspective raises questions about the low status and wages of day care workers

• Child Care Around the World– Sociological Insights

• Conflict perspective notes child care costs are an especially serious burden for lower-class families


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• Policies regarding child care outside of the home vary throughout the world

• When policymakers decide that child care is desirable, they must determine degree to which taxpayers should subsidize it

• Child Care Around the World– Policy Initiatives


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Social Interactionand Reality

SOCIOLOGY Richard T. Schaefer


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Social Interaction and Reality

• Social Interaction and Reality • Elements of Social Structure • Social Structure in Global Perspective • Social Policy and Social Structure


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• The ability to define social reality reflects a group’s power within society

• Our response to someone’s behavior is based on meaning we attach to his or her actions

Members of subordinate groups challenge traditional definitions and begin to perceive and experience reality in a new way


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Figure 5-1. Social Statuses


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Elements of Social Structure

• Statuses– Status: Refers to any of the socially

defined positions within a large group or society

A person holds more than one status simultaneously


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•Ascribed Status: status one is born with

•Achieved Status: status one earns– Master Status

• Status that dominates others and determines person’s general position in society

• Statuses– Ascribed and Achieved

Status

Societies deal with inconsistencies by agreeing that certain statuses are more important than others


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– Sets of expectations for people who occupy a given status• Significant component of social structure

– Role Conflict• Occurs when incompatible expectations

arise from two or more social positions held by the same person.

• Social Roles



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• Social Roles


– Role Strain• Difficulties that arise when the same

social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations

– Role Exit• Process of disengagement from a role

that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role


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• Groups– Any number of

people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with each other on a regular basis.


Every society composed of many groups in which daily social interaction takes place


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– Social network: series of social relationships that links person directly to others, and indirectly links him or her to still more people

– Networking: involvement in social network; valuable skill when job-hunting

• Social Networks and Technology

We can now maintain social networks electronically with advances in technology


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– Organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs

• Social Institutions


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• Functionalist View– Five major tasks (functional

prerequisites) a society or major group must accomplish


1. Replacing personnel2. Teaching new recruits3. Producing and distributing goods and services4. Preserving order5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose


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– Social institutions have inherently conservative nature

– Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments


• Conflict View– Major institutions help maintain

privileges of most powerful individuals and groups within society


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– Social behavior conditioned by roles and statuses


• Interactionist View– Social institutions affect our everyday

behavior


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Social Structure in Global Perspective

– Mechanical solidarity: refers to collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, implying that all individuals perform the same tasks

– Organic solidarity: refers to collective consciousness that hinges on need a society’s members have for one another

• Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity


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– Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft): small community in which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences

– Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft): large community in which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents

• Tönnie’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


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Table 5-1. Comparison of the Gemeinshaft and Gesellschaft


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– Views human societies as undergoing change according to a dominant pattern—sociocultural evolution

• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach

“Process of change and development in human societies resulting from growth in their stores of cultural information” (Lenski et al. 2004:366)


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• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Society’s level of technology critical to

way it is organized

Technology: “Cultural information about how to use the material resources of the environment to satisfy human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2004:366)


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•Hunting-and-Gathering Society: people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available

– Horticultural Societies– Agrarian Societies: primarily

engaged in production of food

• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Preindustrial Societies

Use technological innovations like the plow for dramatic increases in food production


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• Depend on mechanization to produce their goods and services

– Rely on inventions and energy sources

– Change the function of the family as a self-sufficient unit.

• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Industrial Societies


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•Postindustrial Society: economic system is engaged primarily in the processing and control of information

•Postmodern Society: technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images

Continued...

• Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach– Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies


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Table 5-2. Stages of Sociocultural Evolution


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Social Policy and Social Structure

• While there are encouraging new therapies developed to treat AIDS, there is currently no way to eradicate AIDS by medical means.

• What is the role of social institutions in preventing the spread of AIDS?

• The AIDS Crisis– The Issue


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• Estimated 39.4 million people infectedwith AIDS

• Not evenly distributed

• The AIDS Crisis– The Setting

Developing nations of sub-Saharan Africa face greatest challenge


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• AIDS epidemic likely to bring about certain transformations in a society’s social structure

• Functionalist perspective: established social institutions cannot meet a crucial need, new social networks are likely to emerge to fill that function

• The AIDS Crisis– Sociological Insights


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• Conflict Perspective: Policymakers slow to respond to the AIDS crisis because those in high-risk groups—gays and IV drug users—were comparatively powerless.

• Interactionists: forecast AIDS could lead to more conservative sexual climate

• The AIDS Crisis– Sociological Insights


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•AIDS struck all societies– Not all nations can respond in the

same manner– High cost of drug treatment generated

intensive worldwide pressure on major pharmaceutical companies to lower prices

• The AIDS Crisis– Policy Initiatives


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Figure 5-2. People Living with HIV/AIDS, 2004

Source: UNAIDS 2004:5


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SOCIOLOGYRichard T. Schaefer

Stratification and Social Mobility

in the United States


Slide 62Stratification and Social Mobility in the United

States• Understanding Stratification• Stratification by Social Class • Social Mobility • Social Policy and Stratification


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Understanding Stratification

• Systems of Stratification– Ascribed Status: social position

assigned to person without regard for that person’s unique characteristics or talents

– Achieved Status: social position attained by person largely through his or her own effort


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• Systems of Stratification– Slavery: most extreme form of

legalized social inequality

– Castes: hereditary systems of rank, usually religiously dictated, that tend to be fixed and immobile

– Estate System: associated with feudal societies in the Middle Ages


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•Class System: social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility

• Rossides (1997) uses five-class model to describe U.S. class system:

• Systems of Stratification– Social Classes

• Upper class • Working class • Upper-middle class • Lower class• Lower-middle class


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Figure 9-1. Household Income in the United States, 2001

Source: DeNavas-Walt and Cleveland 2002:15


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Proletariat: working class


• Perspectives on Stratification– Karl Marx’s View of Class

Differentiation• Social relations depend on who controls

the primary mode of productionBourgeoisie: capitalist class; owns the means of productionCapitalism: economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits


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• Perspectives on Stratification– Karl Marx’s View of Class

Differentiation•Class Consciousness: subjective

awareness of common vested interests and the need for collective political action to bring about change

•False Consciousness: attitude held by members of class that does not accurately reflect their objective position


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• Perspectives on Stratification– Max Weber’s View of Stratification

• No single characteristic totally defines a person’s position with the stratification system

Power: ability to exercise one’s will over others

Class: group of people who have similar level of wealth and income

Status Group: people who have the same prestige or lifestyle


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• Perspectives on Stratification– Interactionist View

• Interested in the importance of social class in shaping a person’s lifestyle


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• Is Stratification Universal?– Inequality exists in all societies—

even the simplest•Functionalist View

Social inequity necessary so people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions.

Does not explain the wide disparity between the rich and the poor


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• Is Stratification Universal?– Conflict View

• Human beings prone to conflict over scarce resources such as wealth, status, and power

• Stratification major sourceof societal tension andconflict that will inevitablylead to instability and social change

Dominant Ideology: set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests


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• Is Stratification Universal?– Lenski’s Viewpoint

• As a society advances technologically, it becomes capable of producing a considerable surplus of goods

• Emergence of surplus resources greatly expands possibilities for inequality in status, influence, and power

• Allocation of surplus goods and services reinforces social inequality


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Figure 9-2. Around the World: What’s a CEO Worth?

Source: Towers Perin Bryant 1999:Section 4, p. 1


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Table 9-1. Major Perspectives on Social Stratification


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Stratification by Social Class

• Measuring Social Class– Objective Method

• Class largely viewed as a statistical category based on

– Occupation– Education– Income– Place of residence

Prestige: respect and admiration an occupation holds in society

Esteem: reputation specific person has earned within an occupation


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– Gender and Occupational Prestige– Multiple Measures

• Wealth and Income– Income in U.S. distributed unevenly

• In 2001, richest fifth of the population held 84.5% of nation’s wealth


.

• Measuring Social Class


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Table 9-2. PrestigeRankings of Occupations

Source: J. Davis et al. 2003


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Figure 9-3. U.S. IncomePyramid, 2003

Source: Developed by author based on data from DeNavas-Walt et al. 2004; HINC-01 and the Internal Revenue Service

(2004)


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Figure 9-4. Distribution of Wealth in the United States, 2001

Source: Wolff:2002


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Figure 9-5. U.S. Minimum Wage Adjusted for Inflation, 1950—2005

Source: Author’s estimate and Bureau of the Census 2003a:425


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• Poverty– Absolute poverty: minimum level

of subsistence that no family should live below

– Relative poverty: floating standard by which people at the bottom of a society are judged as being disadvantaged in comparison to the nation as a whole


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• Poverty– Who Are the Poor?

• Not a static social class

– Explaining Poverty• In Gans’s view, poverty and poor satisfy

positive functions for many non poor groups

Life Chances: opportunities to provide material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experience


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Figure 9-6. Absolute Poverty in Selected Industrial Countries

Source: Smeeding et al. 2001:51


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Table 9-3. Who Are thePoor in the United Sates?

Source: DeNavas-Walt et al. 2004:10


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Social Mobility

– Indicate social mobility in a society•Open System: position of each

individual influenced by the person’s achieved position

•Closed System: allows little or no possibility of moving up

• Open versus Closed Stratification Systems

Social Mobility: Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society’s stratification system to another


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Social Mobility

• Types of Social Mobility– Horizontal Mobility: movement

within same range of prestige– Vertical Mobility: movement from

one position to another of a different rank

– Intragenerational Mobility: social position changes within person’s adult life


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Social Mobility

• Social Mobility in the United States– Occupational Mobility– The Impact of Education– The Impact of Race and Ethnicity– The Impact of Gender


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Social Policy and Stratification

• Government and Poverty– The Issue

• Governments searching for right solution to welfare

– How much subsidy?– How much responsibility should poor assume?


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• Government and Poverty– The Setting

• Shifts in U.S. welfare program in 1996• Most countries devote higher proportions

of expenditures to– Housing– Social security– Welfare– Health care– Unemployment compensation


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• Government and Poverty– Sociological Insights

• Many sociologists view debate over welfare reform from conflict perspective

•Corporate Welfare: tax breaks, direct payments, and grants the government makes to corporations


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• Government and Poverty– Policy Initiatives

• Prospect for hard-core jobless faded• In North America and Europe, people

beginning to turn to private means to support themselves

• People seeing gap between themselves and the affluent grow with fewer government programs to assist them

Documents

Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi Human Socialities: Socialization, Social Interaction, and Social Mobility