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Sample Study Material

Legal GK Part-I

Legal Aptitude

In the CLAT paper one of the major sections is of LAT (Legal Aptitude test). Unlike other sections

such as General Knowledge and English where preparation can only help limitedly, the LAT section is

largely dependent on understanding legal principles and applying them to the specific problem given

in the question paper. The basic understanding of the concepts and what is the legal standing in a

particular fact will only lead to correct choice of answer.

To every one it seems quite difficult to tune up in new ambiance or field but hard slog, fortitude &

ardor can make even unfeasible thing possible. Just as a child when takes admission to school, he

finds quite difficult to leave home and go to school to be disciplined and a learner, but, subsequently

he adjusts himself in with new peer group, people and become disciplined and ardent learner.

Similarly, when a student starts up with Legal Aptitude section s/he finds law altogether a new area

of learning with having very vague or no knowledge about it. Several questions erupt in student

mind as to; how to begin with it? How difficult is it? And many other questions, these queries are

put to end simply by stating that: Legal Aptitude is mean to attempt the problems that can be

achieved by “reasonable application of mind”. Thus, now it becomes all very easy to learn the legal

skills. Basically the areas of laws which are included in CLAT test are Law of Torts, Contracts,

Constitution and Indian Procedure Code.

There are three modules designed for the legal studies:

Module 1: Law of Torts

Module 2: Law of Contract & Crime

Module 3: Legal G.k.

How to refer the modules?

Each area of law has been explained in such a manner that the student can easily grasp the main

theme. With the help of illustrative examples and ample of exercises it becomes easy for aspirants

to understand. Firstly it is very important that the aspirants read every chapter, understand all legal

aspects by reading and understanding the illustrations after that the aspirant should try to attempt

the exercises given back of the chapters without referring the answer key if required can discuss

with the other aspirant to draw a conclusion. After solving it he can refer the answer key to find out

the correct answer and he should make an effort not to repeat the same mistake in future being

thorough with the ruling.



To be expert in a particular field one requires mental exercise. Constant exercise is required for

mastery (to be expert) in a field. Interesting problems and factual situation along with certain legal

principles will make you think logically and help to tone up your brain cells. The more you solve the

problems, the more you become clear with the concepts and get to know the format. To attain the

question based on legal aptitude.

To achieve skill and expertise in a field requires a lot of commitment and dedication. Legal skills

once perfected, makes you dead sure of your success in entrance.

Now question arises: How to develop legal skills?

While conducting the entrance exams the examiner generally provide principle along with each

factual situation. The students are expected to scrutinize the principle carefully and then to apply it

while attempting the question.

To be more clear refer the following explanations:

PRINCIPLE : It is the legal ruling for that particular question. If there are more than one principles

then all has to applied together.

FACTS: Imaginative incidents are put up to which principle has to be applied.

MULTIPLE CHOICES: Generally 4-5 options are given after each fact the aspirants has to select

the most appropriate answer by carefully applying principle to the fact. At times it seems two or

more answers are correct but you have to be very carefully select best against the rest option i.e.

most appropriate answer.

Note: At times no principle is provided, in such case, the student should apply their

fundamental knowledge of law, referring Legal Aptitude modules.

The person who achieve mastery over these major areas becomes 80 per cent sure of his success

and rest 20 percent of success could be achieved by studying minor areas of law like- Administrative

Law, Civil Procedure, Arbitration Law , Family law etc.

Note: The students are advised not to mug up the definitions and the legal principles but to

understand the concept hidden in each legal principle and then apply them according to the problem

asked. At the same time the exceptions are to be kept in mind.

The following symbols symbolize:

: Note : Recall important points : Question



Certain entities are explained with the help of following table:

Entity Literal Meaning Explanation

CLAT : Common law

entrance test.

It is a competitive exam that testifies the examinee

for aptitude, reasoning, intelligence and creativity

generally in fields of English, Mathematics, General

reasoning, Law & General knowledge.

Quantitative

problem:

Problem based on

NLU entrance test

course content

It represents any situation where student needs to

apply his fundamental knowledge as well as

innovative thought to get the solution. The problem

may be stated explicitly or may have to be inferred

from state of situations and /or its surroundings.

Examiner: A person who puts up

the problem for the

solution

It may represent a teacher, leader, judge, and any

entity that require the problem solver to apply their

mind and reach the correct solution.

Student: A person in pursuit of

knowledge and skills

It represents a person who has certain goals to

achieve by developing his/her personal skills,

knowledge, caliber, intelligence and I.Q.

Time: A non-renewable

resource

It could be understood by famous saying, “Time once

passed, can never be regained”. It is invaluable, and

its right use leads to success and misuse leads to

deterioration.

For any further queries regarding the Legal aptitude section email us at [email protected].

Wishing you all the best and success in your examination and promising you all the

cooperation and help in future.



Law of Torts

Chapter-1

Nature and Definition of Torts

In chapter one firstly the term tort is explained with its origin, definition and illustrations. Further

the definition of tortfeasor, plaintiff, defendant, damages, kinds of damages, need of tort,

comparison between civil and criminal law, role of guilty mind and malice in torts and question like

is law of tort or torts is discussed in comprehensively with elaborated illustrations and examples.

To start with we will first understand the word tort. This is one of the term which you have to be

(must) acquainted with. In Latin term ‘Tortum’, means, “to twist”. It is counterpart to the English

term ‘wrong’. Tort is committed in the form of tortious act.

Tortious act refers to that conduct, which violates the legal rights of other person.

What is Tort

The late English law professor Sir Percy Winfield (1933) defined a tort as 'the breach of a

duty primarily fixed by the law, where the duty is one towards persons generally

and its breach is repressible by an action for damages.'

Tort is a civil wrong; at the same time remember that not every civil wrong is tort such as

a breach of contract and breach of trust etc. “It is a civil wrong i.e. a wrong against an

individual, which is redress by an action for unliquidated damages”

We may define tort as “Tort is a civil wrong, which is not based on contract, and for which

the victim is entitled to compensation from the tortfeasor.”

A tort occurs when someone deliberately or through carelessness causes harm or loss to

another person or his or her property. A tort is a civil law matter; only the interests of the

particular individuals are involved.

For example,

i. Violation of a duty to injure the reputation of someone else results in the tort of defamation,

ii. Violation of a duty not to interfere with the possession of land of another person results in

the tort of trespass to land and

iii. Violation of a duty not to defraud another person results in the tort of deceit.

ILLUSTRATION: -



a) Suppose Diana tripped on a loose carpet in a restaurant and sprained her ankle. Diana may

have suffered a wrong, but the restaurant owner is not a criminal. The restaurant owner;

however, may have to compensate Diana for a civil wrong—the tort of negligence.

The main purpose of tort law is for the wrongdoer to compensate (pay back) the person who

suffered a loss or injury, not to punish the person who is responsible. Much of the process of tort

law involves determining who is at fault and the extent of the damage. The wrongdoer must repay

the injured person. This usually means paying a sum of money.

Tortious acts are informal occurrences that deal with wrongs or injuries inflicted upon one party by

another, outside of the context of a formal relationship or contract. Therefore, the liability does not

come from an agreed upon set of rights and responsibilities such as those defined in a contract, but

rather from the law itself. In torts, the parties involved are strangers according to the law. The only

reason they are brought together is the misfortune, which resulted in the tort action. E.g., I may not

have very much to do with my neighbor until my son puts a rock through her bay window.

Examples of torts could include:

Susan is struck by a reckless driver and suffers a loss of income because she can not attend

work due to injuries.

The State fails to care properly for a public swing set and a child is injured as a result.

Who is Tortfeasor

It is to refer to the person who commits tort i.e. he violates the legal rights of other person. When

we say it is violation of other’s legal right it do means that ‘tort’ is a breach of duty recognized under

the law of torts.

If tort feasor is found to be at fault, he/she would have to pay for any loss or injury. This payment is

called "damages." This would include out-of-pocket expenses such as dental or medical bills, lost

wages or the cost of a new jacket.

Why do we need tort

Tort law comes mainly from the common law (judge-made law). While this law has developed to

protect citizens from loss or injury, they are not paid back automatically. They must first show that

another person’s action caused their loss.

Now imagine that one A announces at a market place that C and his wife D are like a pair of beauty

and beast. Take another example where A’s pet dog bites C.

In both the above cases if we no duty is imposed on people like A there shall be peace or law and

order. Thus under law of tort A had a duty in both the cases to take care, in former case by his

announcement and in the later case by his negligence has injured C.

Thus A being a tortfeasor is liable to pay damages to C for his tortious act.



Who is Plaintiff / Complainant

a) Plaintiff is the person who files the plaint.

b) The plaintiff is the one whose legal rights have been violated.

c) He/she is the person who goes to the court first seeking remedy.

Plaint is the way of instituting a suit in civil cases. To be simpler in civil cases plaint is the

mode by which court is approached and the person who approaches the court is called as

plaintiff. In Criminal cases instead of plaint the term used is complain and the plaintiff is

the complainant.

Who is Defendant

a) He/She is the one against whom the plaint has been brought i.e. the person who is accused

of violating legal rights of plaintiff.

b) The defendant is the person who fails to perform his/her legal duty , which he/she owes

towards plaintiff.

c) He is the one who denies the accusation of the plaintiff.

If defendant is proved to be at fault shall be made liable to pay damages.

Comparing Civil and Criminal:

Civil wrong is the wrong against individual and criminal is one which is against the whole society.

When is a legal problem criminal and when is it civil? What difference does it make

whether it is criminal or civil?

One way of looking at criminal law is that it is dealing with something of public interest. For

example, the public has an interest in seeing that people are protected from being robbed or

assaulted. These are legal problems that fall into the criminal law.

Criminal law involves punishing and rehabilitating offenders, and protecting society. Since the public

has an interest in having criminal law, we give the government the power to put it in place and

enforce it. The police are hired by the government to put the criminal law into effect. Public funds

are used to pay for these services.

If you are the victim of a crime, you report it to the police and they have the responsibility to

investigate. They arrest and charge the suspect. In most cases, if a charge has been properly laid

and if there is evidence supporting it, the State Prosecutor, not the person who complains of the

incident, prosecutes it in the courts. This is called a system of public prosecutions. Long ago the

person who had been wronged prosecuted the case. The power to prosecute privately remains, but



is used rarely now. Even if a person starts a prosecution privately, the Attorney General has the

power to take over the prosecution of the case. As a victim, you do not have to be responsible for

enforcing the law. The police and State Prosecutor do their jobs for the public at large, not for you

personally.

In a criminal case, the State Prosecutor must prove the defendant’s guilt "beyond a reasonable

doubt." This means that at the end of a trial the judge or jury can only find the defendant guilty if

they are left without a reasonable doubt about the defendant’s guilt. In other words, there is no

logical or rational reason to doubt the defendant’s guilt.

This is not the case in civil law. Civil law is about private disputes between individuals or between

individuals and organizations. Civil matters include areas such as contract law, family law, tort law,

property law and labour law. The person suing for a wrong has the burden of proving their case on a

"balance of probabilities." This means that a judge or jury must believe their story and evidence

more than the defendant’s version. They do not need to be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt.

Civil disputes usually involve some harm, loss or injury to one party or their property. Unlike

criminal law; however, civil law is primarily involved with compensating victims. If a civil action is

successful, the defendant will be responsible for the wrongful action. While a defendant in a criminal

case may be found "guilty" or "not guilty," a defendant in a civil case is said to be "liable" or "not

liable" for damages.

If you have a civil law problem, you have to take action yourself if you want to get a legal remedy.

You can hire a private lawyer, and you will have to pay the expenses of pursuing the matter. For

example, if you hire someone to paint your house and they do a poor job, it is a dispute between

you and the painter. The police do not get involved. If you want to sue the painter for breach of

contract, it is your responsibility to do so.

Sometimes criminal law is referred to as part of our public law because it applies to all Citizens and

regulates relationships within our society. Similarly, civil law is sometimes referred to as private law

because it regulates private relationships between individuals in our society.

In brief, the differences between the two terms are as following:-

1) The wrongs, which are comparatively less serious, are considered to be private wrongs and have

been labeled as civil wrongs, whereas more serious wrongs have been considered to be public

wrongs and are known as crimes.

2) In the case of a criminal wrong, the criminal proceedings against the accused are brought by the

state whereas in case of civil proceedings against the wrongdoer are brought by the sufferer

himself.

3) There are various wrongs, which find their place both under criminal law and law of torts. Some

examples of such wrongs are Assault, Defamation. Negligence and Nuisance etc.



4) Generally, when the wrong is a serious one as it affects public at large is termed as crime

whereas civil wrongs is less serious one as it is wrong against private rights. For instance, if a

person causes an obstruction outside a residential building, as the wrong affects only the

residents of the building, it would be considered as a tort of private nuisance. If, however, a

similar obstruction is caused in the middle of a public road it would amount to the offence of

public nuisance stated in Sec. 268, I.P.C.

5) In the case of tort the ends of justice are met by awarding compensation i.e. damages by the

defendant to the injured party i.e. plaintiff. The idea of awarding compensation to the injured

party under civil law is to make good the loss suffered by him whereas In the case of crime the

wrongdoer is punished. This means that the individual, who is the victim of the crime, i.e., the

sufferer is not compensated. Justice is administered by punishing the wrongdoer in such a case.

The punishment under criminal law protects the society by preventing the offender from committing

further offences and deterring him and other potential offenders from committing wrongs.

Meaning of Damages:

Torts are defined as a civil wrong for which damages is the most remedy claimed by plaintiff.

Now what do we mean by term damages

“Damages are compensation payable to the sufferer by the wrongdoer for the injuries he caused to

the plaintiff by violating his legal rights”.

It is usually the most common remedy for torts. After the wrong has been committed, generally it is

the money compensation of the wrong it is generally not possible to undo the harm, which has

already been caused.

If, for example, the reputation of a person has been injured the original position cannot be restored

back.

The only thing, which can be done in such a case, is to see what is the money equivalent to the

harm by way of defamation and the sum so arrived at has to be paid by the defendant to the

plaintiff. There are other remedies also which could be available when the tort is committed.

The amount of money which a plaintiff (the person suing) may be awarded in a lawsuit.

How many kinds of damages can be awarded to injured party?

Damages are divided into a number of categories upon which the recovery may be based, such as:

1. Special damages are such of which the law will not infer from the wrongful act; they must

therefore be specially claimed on pleadings and evidence of them must be given at trial losses

suffered from the date of tort up till date of trial and which can be precisely quantified in

monetary form. It include medical and hospital bills, ambulance charges, loss of wages,



property repair or replacement costs or loss of money due on a contract.

Special Damages which do not arise as a result of the wrongful act or omission itself but arise

due to the circumstances after the loss or harm has occurred. Special damages include out-of-

pocket items that can be documented such as the need to rent replace property (such as a car

rental) or the cost of services (such as the cost to have property valued or appraised).

2. General damages are those which the law will imply in every violation of legal right. They

need not to be proved by evidence for they arise by inference of law, even though no actual

pecuniary loss has been there .They are which presumed to be a result of the other party's

actions, but are subjective both in nature and determination of value of damages. These

include pain and suffering, future problems and crippling effect of an injury, loss of ability to

perform various acts, shortening of life span, mental anguish, loss of companionship, loss of

reputation (in a libel suit, for example), humiliation from scars, loss of anticipated business

and other harm. General Damages which necessarily result from the act or omission - the

amount needed to restore the fair market value of the property to its owner (the injured

party);

3. Exemplary/punitive damages, which combines punishment and the setting of public

example. Punitive Damages can be assessed against the party at fault to punish the wrong-

doer for his/her willful, malicious, or oppressive behavior and to deter others from acting in a

similar manner. Exemplary damages may be awarded when the defendant acted in a

malicious, violent, oppressive, fraudulent, hasty or grossly reckless way in causing damages to

the plaintiff. On occasion punitive damages can be greater than the actual damages, as, for

example, in a sexual harassment case or fraudulent schemes. Although often asked for, they

are seldom awarded. Such damages are awarded in following cases:

a) When damage is caused by oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional action of govt. or its

servant e.g. Bhim singh case.

b) When defendants conduct has been calculated by him to make a profit for himself which

may exceed the compensation payable to plaintiff. E.g. gross defamation cases or Bhopal

leakage case.

c) Malicious prosecution.

d) Seduction of one's daughter, wife etc.

4. Future/ Prospective Damages means compensation for damages which are quite likely to

occur as the result of defendants’ wrongful act but which has not actually resulted at the time

of the decision of court. thus these are those damages which certain to occur in the future as

a result of the loss or harm, are recoverable so long as there is a satisfactory basis for which

the future, anticipated losses or harms can be determined. Without a satisfactory basis, future

damages are provisional and are not subject to recovery.



Like in case of Subhash Chandra v.Ram singh case where plaintiff was hit by the bus

belonging to state caused permanent disability i.e. he could not walk without surgical shoes

and lost employment in certain avenue. He was awarded compensation under heading

“probable future loss by reason of incapacity and diminished capacity of work.”

5. Nominal/substantial damages are those given when the actual harm is trifling and an

award is warranted under the circumstances. Simply, when there has been infringement of

person’s legal right but he has suffered no loss thereby, so the law awards nominal damages

in recognition of his rights. E.g. Ashby v. white case.

The one of the famous case was when Winston Churchill was awarded a shilling (about 25

cents) against author Louis Adamic, who had written that the British Prime Minister had been

drunk at a dinner at the White House.

These are awarded generally in cases of torts which are actionable per se, like bare trespass,

infringement of absolute rights of personal security e.g. assault.

6. Incidental Damages include the reasonable charges, expenses, or other costs which flow

from the loss or harm - such as delivery expenses and the cost of photocopies.

7. Liquidated damages are those pre-set by the parties in a contract to be awarded in case one

party defaults for e.g. in breach of contract.

8. Unliquidated damages mean such compensation the amount or extend of which has not

been predetermined or decided before the wrong was committed. Damages in the case of a

tort are unliquidated. It is this fact, which enables us to distinguish tort from other civil

wrongs, like breach of contract or breach of trust, where the damages may be liquidated.

Generally in claim of torts as it is a civil wrong a plaintiff get remedy in form of unliquidated

damages, as it is not possible to predetermine the amount.

Role of Guilty mind in tort

It strikes in one mind:

Does guilty mind plays important role in wrongs committed in torts

Well answer is “No”. In law of torts there is no general rule that one must have guilty mind while

committing wrongful act to be held liable in law of torts. But certain torts like assault, false

imprisonment, malicious prosecution and conspiracy etc. mental condition is relevant whereas in

torts like trespass, nuisance, defamation etc. mental condition is totally irrelevant. The reason for

this is that law of torts requires that people do their best not to allow their actions to inadvertently

injure other i.e. they do not breach their legal duty which they owe towards the injury.

Role of Malice/ Evil motive in tort

While studying the law of torts a question erupts in mind:



Does malice plays same role in tort law as in crime

Let’s discuss this: -When someone does an act with a feeling of ill feeling or vengeance or evil

intention then the act said to be done maliciously.

In law of torts as a general rule, the presence or absence of malice does not affect the liability of the

defendant. If an act is legal, the mere fact that it was done maliciously will not make it illegal or

tortuous.

For example, if the income tax department raids your house and the department can show that

there was good reason to raid it, then to the fact that the raid was prompted solely by the ill will of

an officer in the raid won't make any difference.

It must be remembered that malice deals with motive for an act rather than whether the act was

intended or not. What's the difference between motive and intention? The difference is that intention

is whether the act was deliberate or not and motive deals with why the intended or unintended act

was done.

For example, consider a situation where you play music very loudly in the house. Your neighbor

takes you to court for causing a nuisance. You intended to play the music so there is intention but

you had no malice. However if you had played the music loudly to disturb your neighbour then it

would have been a case of intention along with malice. In tort law intention makes a difference in

some torts while malice makes a difference in very rare, rare torts.

Malice is essential element in few wrongful acts such as: defamation and malicious prosecution.

Is it Law of Tort or Law of Torts?

Ordinarily, to a layman there is no or a slight difference between these two terms. But for a law

studying person it is necessary to know the difference between them.

In this connection, Salmond had posed the question, "Does the law of Torts consist of

fundamental general principle that it is wrongful to cause harm to other persons in the absence of

some specific ground of justification or excuse, or does it consist of a number of specific rules

prohibiting certain kind of harmful activity, and leaving all the residue outside the sphere of legal

responsibility?"

In other words, the question is:

Is it the Law of Tort, i.e., Is every wrongful act, for which there is no justification or excuse

to be treated as a tort; or

Is it the Law of Torts, consisting only of a number of specific wrongs beyond which the

liability under this branch of law cannot arise?

Winfield, preferred the first of these alternatives and according to him, it is the-“Law of Tort”



According to this theory, if I injure my neighbour, he can sue me in tort whether the wrong happens

to have particular name like assault, battery, deceit, slander, or whether it has no special title at all;

and I shall be liable if I cannot prove lawful justification.

Salmond, on the other hand, preferred the second alternative and for him, there is no Law of Tort,

but there is “Law of Torts.”

The liability under this branch of law arises only when the wrong is covered by anyone or the other-

nominate torts. There is no general principle of liability and if the plaintiff can place his wrong in

anyone of the pigeonholes each containing a labeled tort, he will succeed. Simply, the specific torts

are like pigeonholes and to succeed in his/her case the person must prove that the wrong

committed against him/her falls one of the pigeonholes. This theory is also known as 'Pigeon-hole'

theory. If there is no pigeonhole in which the plaintiffs’ case could fit in his case, the defendant has

not committed any tort.

Classification of Torts

I. Personal wrongs: Torts may relate to:1) Body: i) Assault

ii) Battery iii) False imprisonment

iv) Nervous Shock2) Dignitary /Reputation

i) Libel ii) Slander

iii) Malicious prosecution

II. Property wrongs: Torts may relate to:1) Immovable property: Trespass to land2) Movable property: i) Trespass to goods

ii) Conversion

III. Person and Property wrongs: i) Negligence

ii) Nuisance



Chapter-2

Essentials of a Tort

In chapter two the essentials of a tort which are applicable to all torts in general is discussed. In it

two very important maxim injuria sine damno and damnum sine injuria are explicated with

bounteous case laws and illustrations.

To constitute a tort, it is essential that the following two conditions be satisfied:

1) There must be some act or omission on the part of the defendant; and

2) The act or omission should result in legal damage (injuria) i.e., violation of legal right

vested in the plaintiff.

Torts are the act of omission (failure to do something) or the act of commission (doing something

you should not) that causes harm.

Act or Omission

In order to make a person liable for a wrong he must have done some act which he was not

expected to do, For example, A commits the act of trespass or publishes a statement defaming

another person, or wrongfully detains another person; he can be made liable for

Or, he must have omitted to do something which he was supposed which is illegally made will make

a person liable.

It means, when there is a legal duty to do some act and a person fails to perform that duty he can

be made liable for such omission.

For example, if a corporation, which maintains a public park, fails to put proper fencing to keep the

children away from a poisonous tree and a child plucks and eats the fruits of the poisonous tree and

dies, the corporation would be liable for such omission.



Exercise – 1

Directions: Select the best options provided under each questions after reading the facts

by applying the principle wherever provided. Attempt the descriptive questions by

reasoning out the answer.

1. Principle: No one is responsible for unforeseen circumstances, but liable for not taking due

cares.

Fact: Rahul, aged about 19 years, was playing cricket with his friend in housing society’s

lane where they live. While playing he made a good shot, which hit a window of a new

Maruti car and broke the window. Has Rahul to pay for? (NLU 2004)

i. Rahul is not liable because they have no other place the cricket in the society.

ii. Rahul is liable to pay because from the nature of game it is quite sure that such loss

could be there.

iii. Rahul is not liable to pay because he never intended to hit the car glass.

iv. Rahul is not liable to pay because it was by chance a good short which break the

glass that was not predictable.

2. Fact: There is a warehouse in factory. The owner suffers pilferage every night. On the

advice of the experts, a very high compound wall with 10 feet height is constructed with 4

feet bug wire over the wall on iron angles. The bugged wire is charged with electric current

every night after 10 p.m. One day, Y, a thief tried to enter into the compound and is hit by

the current and fell on the roadside, dead. Is the owner of the factory responsible? (NLU

2002)

i. The owner is not responsible because he holds no responsibility towards the

trespassers.

ii. The owner is liable because he used excess force to defend his property from

pilferages.

iii. The owner is not responsible because he put up the wire with electric current to

defend it from thieves’ further he holds no responsibility of care towards a criminal.

iv. The owner is responsible for his act of defending the property took away the life of a

person.



3. Principle: If a person stores in his premises any object which has a tendency to escape and

which, on escape, is likely to cause harm, shall be strictly liable for any such harm.

Fact: Raman has a ferocious dog which he always keeps under leash. There is notice outside

his house regarding the dog. One day when Raman’s servant was holding the dog in leash,

some children were playing cricket outside the premises. The ball came inside and hit the

dog. The dog became wild, pulled hard, escaped from the hands of servant, ran out and

attacked the children. The parent of a child, so attacked, filed a suit against Raman. Decide

the case. (NLS 1998)

i. Raman is not responsible because he had put up the warning board and also kept

the servant to control the dog.

ii. Raman is responsible because his servants failed to keep proper control over the

dog.

iii. Raman is responsible because the cautions taken by him were not sufficient for the

ferocious dog.

iv. None of the above.

4. Principle: Whoever stores a substance which would cause damage on escape shall be

strictly liable (i.e. liable even when he has exercised necessary care) for any damage caused

by the escape of that substance.

Fact: Cynamide Company was manufacturing acrylonitrile, an extremely toxic chemical. This

chemical is used in manufacturing certain pharmaceuticals, manufactured in another factory,

owned by Cynamide itself. While transporting acrylonitrile stored in a sealed container to the

factory where the pharmaceuticals were manufactured, there was unexpected leakage from

the container and the chemical spilt on the ground. The local municipal authorities

immediately rushed in and decontaminated the place. The container was sealed back within

a short period of time and subsequently it was realised that the contamination was not that

significant and it was not necessary to spend so much resources for decontamination.

The municipal authorities filed a suit against Cynamide Company for whatever cost incurred

in decontamination process. But Cynamide Company argued that it would pay only a small

sum, which could have taken care of contamination in this case. (NLS 2004)

i. Cynamide company would be liable only to the extent of contamination caused ;

ii. The municipal authorities are entitled to recover the entire cost incurred in

performance of their duty of safeguarding public interest;

iii. Cynamide is not liable for unexpected leakage.



5. Facts: You own an electric water pump for the purposes of watering your fields. You are

watering your fields at 2 A.M. Your neighbor gets very disturbed by the noise of the electric

water pump. He files a tort claim against you. Will his claim succeed?

Principle: Damage without the violation of any legal right does not give rise to a tort.

i. His will not succeed because he has sustained no injury.

ii. He will succeed because discomfort was caused at odd hours of day.

iii. He will not succeed because the noise of electric pump is not so to cause discomfort.

iv. He will not succeed because watering field does not interfere with anybody comforts.



Legal GK Part-II

Law of Contract

Chapter-1

Nature of Contract

To begin with law of contract we will study in the first chapter the definition of promise,

agreement and essentials of contract with the aid of the illustrations.

What is contract

A contract has been defined in Section 2(h) as "an agreement enforceable by law."

Now to understand it we need to know: what an agreement is? Indian Contract Act Section 2(e)

defines Agreement as “Every promise and every set of promises forming the consideration for

each other is an agreement”.

In an agreement there is a promise from both sides. For example, A promises to deliver his

watch to B and in return B promises to pay a sum of Rs. 2,000 to A, there is said to be an

agreement between A and B.

A promise is a result of an offer (proposal) by one person and its acceptance by the other.

For example, when A makes a proposal to sell his watch to B Rs. 2,000 and B accepts his

proposal, there results a promise between two persons.

Section 2(b) of the Act defines Promise as under: -

“When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to

be accepted. A proposal, when accepted becomes a promise. Thus, when there is proposal from one

side and the acceptance of that proposal by the other side, it results in a promise. This promise from

the two parties to one another is known as an agreement.”

On analyzing the above definition the following characteristics of an agreement become evident:

Plurality of persons: There must be two or more persons to make an agreement because

one person cannot enter into an agreement with himself.

Consensus-ad-idem: Both the parties to an agreement must agree about the subject

matter of the agreement in the same sense and at the same time.



As stated above, an agreement to become a contract must give rise to a legal obligation i.e., a duty

enforceable by law. If an agreement is incapable of creating a duty enforceable by law, it is not a

contract. Thus an agreement is a wider term than a contract.

"All contracts are agreements but all agreements are not contracts”, because agreements of

moral, religious or social nature e.g., a promise to lunch together at a friend's house or to take a

walk together are not contracts because they are not likely to create a duty enforceable by law for

the simple reason that the parties never intended that they should be attended by legal

consequences.

In business agreements the presumption is usually that the parties intend to create legal relations

for e.g. An agreement to buy certain specific goods at an agreed price e.g., 10 bags of wheat at Rs

500 per bag is a contract because it gives rise to a duty enforceable by law, and in case of default

on the part of either party an action for breach of contract could be enforced through a court

provided other essential elements of a valid contract as laid down in Section 10 are present, namely,

if the contract was made by free consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful

consideration and with a lawful object.

What are the essentials of a contract

According to Section 10, all agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of the

parties, competent to contract, for a lawful consideration, with a lawful object, are not expressly

declared by the Act to be void, and, where necessary, satisfy the requirements of any law as to

writing or attestation or registration. As the details of these essentials form the subject matter of

our subsequent chapters, we propose to discuss them in brief here. The essential elements of a valid

contract are as follows:

(i) Lawful Offer and Acceptance:

There must be a 'lawful offer' and a 'lawful acceptance' of the offer, thus resulting in an agreement.

The adjective 'lawful' implies that the offer and acceptance must satisfy the requirements of the

Contract Act in relation thereto.

(ii) Intention to create legal relations:

There must be an intention among the parties that the agreement should be attached by legal

consequences and create legal obligations. Agreements of a social or domestic nature do not

contemplate legal relations, and as such they do not give rise to a contract.

For e.g.:

(a) An agreement to dine at a friend's house is not an agreement intended to create legal relations

and therefore is not a contract.

(b) Agreements between husband and wife also lack the intention to create legal relationship and

thus do not result in contracts.



ILLUSTRATIONS: -

i. Raja promises his wife Neha to get her a sari if she will sing a song. Neha sang the song

but Raja did not bring the sari for her. Neha cannot bring an action in a Court to enforce

the agreement as it lacked the intention to create legal relations.

A case decided on it is:-

Case 1: Balfour v. Balfour, where the defendant was a civil servant stationed in Ceylon. He and

his wife were enjoying leave in England. When the defendant was due to return to Ceylon, his wife

could not accompany him because of her health. The defendant agreed to send her Rs. 300 a month

as maintenance expenses during the time they were thus forced to live apart. She sued for breach

of this agreement. Her action was dismissed on the ground that no legal relations had been

contemplated and therefore there was no contract

In commercial agreements an intention to create legal relations is presumed. Thus, an agreement to

buy and sell goods intends to create legal relationship, hence is a contract, provided other requisites

of a valid contract are present. But if the parties have expressly declared their resolve that the

agreement is not to create legal obligation, even a business agreement does not amount to a

contract.

(iii) Lawful consideration:

The third essential element of a valid contract is the presence of 'Consideration'. Consideration has

been defined as “the price paid by one party for the promise of the other”. An agreement is legally

enforceable only when each of the parties to it gives something and gets something. The something

given or obtained is the price for the promise and is called 'consideration'. But only those

considerations are valid which ‘lawful’.

According Section 23 “The consideration is unlawful if: -

i. Law forbids it;

ii. It is fraudulent

iii. Involves or implies injury to the person or property of another

iv. It is of such a nature that, if permitted it would defeat the provisions of any law;

v. Is immoral or is opposed to public policy.

(iv) Capacity of parties: -

The parties to an agreement must be competent to contract; otherwise it cannot be enforced by a

court of law. In order to be competent to contract according to Section 11 the parties must be:

i. Of the age of majority

ii. Of sound mind and

iii. Must not be disqualified from contracting by any law to which they are subject.



Thus, if any of the parties to the agreement suffers from minority, lunacy, idiocy, drunkenness, etc.,

the agreement is not enforceable at law, except in some special cases which we shall discuss in

subsequent chapters.

(v) Free consent:

‘Consent' means that the parties must have agreed upon the same thing in the same sense (Sec.

13). Free consent of all the parties to an agreement is another essential element of a valid contract.

There is absence of 'free consent', if the agreement is induced by any of the following factors:

a) Coercion,

b) Undue influence,

c) Fraud,

d) Mis-representation, or

e) Mistake.

If the agreement is vitiated by any of the first four factors, the contract would be voidable and

cannot be enforced by the party guilty of coercion, undue influence etc. The other party (i.e., the

aggrieved party) can either reject the contract or accept it, subject to the rules laid down in the Act.

But, if the agreement were induced by mutual mistake that is material to the agreement, it would be

void.

(vi) Lawful object:

For the formation of a valid contract it is also necessary that the parties to an agreement must

agree for a lawful object.

The object for which the agreement has been entered into must not be fraudulent or illegal or

immoral or opposed to public policy or must not imply injury to the person or property of another

(Sec. 23).

If the object is unlawful for one or the other of the reasons mentioned above the agreement is void.

For e.g., when a landlord knowingly lets a house to a prostitute to carry on prostitution, he cannot

recover the rent through a court of law.

(vii) Oral, Writing and Registration:

According to the Indian Contract Act, a contract may be oral or in writing.

But in certain special cases it lays down that the agreement, to be valid, must be in writing or/and

registered.

For example: under Section 25 of the act - It requires that an agreement to pay a time barred debt

must be in writing and an agreement to make a gift for natural love and affection must be in writing

and registered.



Similarly, certain other Acts also require writing or/and registration to make the agreement

enforceable by law, which must be observed.

ILLUSTRATIONS: -

i. An arbitration agreement must be in writing as per the Arbitration and Conciliation Act,

1996;

ii. An agreement for a sale of immovable property must be in writing and registered under

the Transfer of Property Act, 1882 before they can be legally enforced.

(viii) Certainty:

Section 29 of the Contract Act provides that "Agreements, the meaning of which is not certain or

capable of being made certain, are void."

In order to give rise to a valid contract the terms of the agreement must not be vague or uncertain.

It must be possible to ascertain the meaning of the agreement, for otherwise, it cannot be enforced.

ILLUSTRATION: -

i. Ajeet agrees to sell Bhanupriya "a hundred pieces of soap." There is nothing whatever to

show what kind of soap was intended. The agreement is void for uncertainty i.e.

whether it was bathing soap, toilet soap, cloth or utensils washing bar.

(ix) Possibility of performance:

Another essential feature of a valid contract is that it must be capable of performance.

Section 56 lays down that "An agreement to do an act impossible in itself is void". If the act is

impossible in itself, physically or legally, the agreement cannot be enforced at law.



Law of Crimes

Chapter-1

Introduction

In the first chapter which is introductory various elements of the crime like Intention,

Motive, Knowledge, Innocence, Mistake of fact & law, Mens rea are referred and the

differences between tort and crime and criminal intention and motive are marked out for the

better understanding.

The term Crime has not been defined in the Indian Penal Code. In general a crime is an unlawful act

or default, which is an offence against the public and renders the person guilty of the act or default

liable to legal punishment. While a crime is also an injury to a private person, who has remedy in a

civil action, it is as an act or default contrary to the order.

Criminal law addresses those acts that are classified as offences and have been defined in the IPC

(Indian Penal Code), 1860. The act of offences is punishable to make and ensure coexistence of the

human society. To have general information of the criminal law helps in solving typical problems

present in the law entrance examination. Many of the topics covered in the Torts have been covered

under the IPC like Defamation, Restraint, Nuisance etc, but here a question arises that what is the

fundamental difference between Torts and crime?

How can one distinguish between Tort and Crime

Both the tort and crime are related to each other with a minor difference. Differences between

Crime and Tort are: -

1) Tort is related to personal action whereas Crime is an action by the State. This means that

Crime is prosecuted by the state on behalf of the victim, and in case of Tort the person or the victim

himself prosecutes.

2) Another difference between a Tort and a Crime is their respective composition. A Tort only

requires the particular act classified as a Tort to have been committed (this more often than not, is

the breach of some duty that is imposed on a person). On the other hand, a Crime requires not only

the commission of a specified act. For a Crime to take place mental element is also considered and

plays a major role in differentiating between a Tort and Crime.

3) In case of Tort the only remedy with the plaintiff is Damages i.e. compensation whereas in

case of Crime the defendant is punished or fined.



This module deals with the questions on criminal law with a fundamental approach and thinking.

Every topic has sufficient material to understand it and it then further consists with few examples for

better understanding. The students are advised to kindly go through the subject matter very

carefully before solving the questions given at the end of the module. The pattern of the National

Law University entrance examination deals with both objective as well as subjective. A student

needs to give more emphasis on the writing skills so the reading of the subject matter will help you

to write better, and creating an impact on the examiner. The specific legal terminology should be

used while answering the questions.

What are the Mental Elements of Crime

The mental elements of crime are Intention, Motive, Mens rea, Knowledge, Innocence, Mistake of

fact, Mistake of law, are some of the mental elements that play a significant part in criminal law.

We will take up every element in detail:

(1) Intention: -

“Criminal intention” simply means “the purpose or design of doing an act forbidden

by the criminal law without just cause or excuse”.

The intention of the accused to produce a particular consequence shows his intention to do that act.

An act is intentional if it exists in idea before it exists in fact, the idea realizing itself in the fact

because of the desire by which it is accompanied. The word ‘intent’ does not mean ultimate aim and

object. Nor is it used as a synonym for ‘Motive’. Where the Legislature makes an offence dependent

on proof of intention, the Court must have proof of facts sufficient to justify it in coming to the

conclusion that the intention existed. No doubt one has usually to infer intention from Conduct, and

one matter that has to be taken into account is the probable effect of the conduct.

But that is never conclusive. As a general rule,

“Every sane man is presumed to intend the necessary or the natural and probable consequences of

his acts, and this presumption of law will prevail unless from a consideration of all the evidence the

Court entertains a reasonable doubt whether such intention existed”. This presumption, however, is

not conclusive or alone sufficient to justify a conviction and should be supplemented by other

testimony. An accused must be judged to have the intention that is indicated by his proved acts.

The burden of proving guilty intention lies upon the prosecution where the intent is expressly stated

as part of the definition of the crime.

(2) Motive: -

Motive is not to be confused with intention. If a man knows that a certain consequence will follow

from his act, it must be presumed in law that he intended that consequence to take place although

he may have had some quite different ulterior motive for performing the act. The motive for an act

is not a sufficient test to determine its criminal character.



By Motive is meant “Anything that can contribute to, give birth to, or even to

prevent, any kind of action”. Motive may serve as a clue to the intention; but although

the motive is pure, the act done under it may be criminal. Purity of motive does not

abolish an act of its criminal character.

Motive, though not a sine qua non for bringing the offence home to the accused, is relevant and

important on the question of intention.

Though the prosecution is not bound to prove motive for the crime, absence of any motive

is a factor that may be considered in determining the guilt of the accused. Thus, if there is

really no, motive and the crime is completely motiveless then that circumstance can be taken into

consideration along with the evidence of prior insanity. But if the actual evidence as to the

commission of the crime is believed, then no question of motive remains to be established. It is not

the bounden duty of the prosecution to prove motive with which a certain offence has been

committed. It is sufficient if the prosecution proves by clear and reliable evidence that certain

persons committed the offence, whatever the motives may be which induced them to commit that

offence. For, motive is a fact very often within the special knowledge of the person doing the act and

thus it becomes extremely difficult to ascertain the motive in a given case but that does not mean

that the offence was not committed.

The question of motive is not material where there is direct evidence of the acts of the accused and

the acts themselves are sufficient to disclose the intention of the actor. But in cases of

circumstantial evidence, absence of motive is a factor in favor of the accused.

An act that is unlawful cannot, in law, be excused on the ground that it was committed from a

good motive.

(3) Knowledge: -

Where knowledge of a fact is an essential ingredient of an offence it must be particularly proved.

There are certain offences in the Indian Penal Code where the accused who commits those offences

is punished irrespective of the fact whether he had knowledge or not. Where ‘a particular act is

forbidden then the question of knowledge becomes irrelevant.

(4) Innocence: -

The law presumes “Innocence until guilt is proved”. The onus of proving everything essential to

the establishment of the charge against the accused lies upon the prosecution. Every man is to be

regarded as legally innocent until the contrary be proved. Criminality is therefore never to be

presumed. If there be any reasonable doubt about the guilt of the accused, he is entitled as of right

to be acquitted.

The more heinous and improbable a crime is, the greater is the force of the evidence required to

overcome the presumption of innocence. The presumption of innocence in criminal cases signifies no



more than that if the commission of a crime is directly in issue, it must be proved beyond

reasonable doubt. The proof of guilt must depend on positive affirmation, and cannot be inferred

from mere absence of explanation. The prosecution cannot be permitted to take advantage of the

weakness of the defence case. Suspicion however strong is not proof. In other words, the

persuasion of guilt ought to amount to a moral certainty.

Where facts are as consistent with the prisoner’s innocence as well as with the guilt, innocence must

be presumed; and criminal intent or knowledge is not necessarily imputable to every man who acts

contrary to the provisions of the law.

Culpable possession, knowledge, or motive, may overthrow the presumption of innocence and raise

in its place a presumption of guilt.

(5) Mistake of fact: -

Mistake, means “an erroneous mental condition, conception or conviction induced by ignorance,

misapprehension, or misunderstanding of the truth, and resulting in some act or omission done or

suffered erroneously by one or both of the parties to a transaction, but without its erroneous

character being intended or known at the time”.

It may concern either the law or the facts involved.

A Mistake of fact consists in “An unconsciousness, ignorance, or forgetfulness of a fact, past or

present, material to the transaction, or in the belief of the present existence of a thing material to

the transaction, which does not exist, or in the past existence of a thing which has not existed”.

Under the Indian Penal Code the mistake must be one of fact and not of law. Where, through a

mistake, a man, intending to do a lawful act; does that which is unlawful, the deed and the will act

separately; there is not that conjunction between them, which is necessary to form a criminal act.

But where an act is clearly a wrongful in itself, and a person, under a mistaken impression as to the

facts that render it criminal, commits that act, he will be guilty of a criminal offence. For e.g., a

burglar cannot escape punishment by saying that he entered a wrong house through mistake, nor

can a murderer be heard to say that the deceased was not his intended victim. In either case the

Mistake of fact is no excuse.

(6) Mistake of law: -

A Mistake of law happens when “A party having full knowledge of the facts comes to an

erroneous conclusion as to their legal effect”. Mistake of law ordinarily means ‘mistake as to

the existence or otherwise of any law on a relevant subject as veil as mistake as to what

the law is’.



Mistake in point of law in criminal cases is “No defence”. Ignorance of the law of the State

does not exclude any person of the age of discretion from the penalty for the breach of it, because

every person of the age of discretion is bound to know the law, and is presumed so to do.

If any individual should break the statute law of the country through ignorance or carelessness, he

must abide by the consequences of his error; it is not open to him to claim in a Court that he was

ignorant of the criminal law of the land, and no Court is at liberty to entertain such a plea.

The maxim Ignorantia juris non excusat, (ignorance of law excuses no one), in its application to

criminal offences, admits of no exception, not even in the case of a foreigner who cannot reasonably

be supposed in fact to know the law of the land.

Although a person commits an act that is made an offence for the first time by a statute so recently

passed as to render it impossible that any notice of the passing of the statute could have reached

the place where the offence has been committed, yet his ignorance of the statute will not save the

accused from punishment.

(7) Mens rea: -

Mens rea means “Guilty mind”. It is defined as “the mental element necessary to

constitute criminal liability”.

In making a person criminally liable an inquiry into his mental attitude is made. Criminal intention,

Malice, Negligence, and rashness, etc. all are different kinds of mens rea.

Historically, mens rea had its origin in the idea of blameworthiness of the wrongdoer for the

wrongful act and thus it was an element of crime. In modern times, though it continues to be

necessary condition for criminal liability, standards with respect to its enquiry have challenged. In

different legal systems different values have been attached to this mens rea.



Legal GK Part-III

Chapter 1: Structure of government in India

In general Governance has been used to describe the "proper functioning of

institutions and their acceptance by the public" (legitimacy). And it has been used to

invoke the efficacy of government and the achievement of consensus by democratic

means (participation). Also it is said to be that it is the use of institutions, structures of

authority and even collaboration to allocate resources and coordinate or control activity in

society or the economy.

Governance describes the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions

are implemented (or not implemented). Hereby, public institutions conduct public

affairs, manage public resources, and guarantee the realization of human rights. Good

governance accomplishes this in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and

with due regard for the rule of law.

Structure of government (central) in India

The union government, as India's central government is known, is divided into three

distinct but interrelated branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. As in the British

parliamentary model, the leadership of the executive is drawn from and responsible to the

legislative body. Although Article 50 stipulates the separation of the judiciary from the

executive, the executive controls judicial appointments and many of the conditions of

work. In addition, one of the more dramatic institutional battles in the Indian polity has

been the struggle between elements wanting to assert legislative power to amend the

constitution, and those favoring the judiciary's efforts to preserve the constitution's

basic structure.



Since India has adopted parliamentary democracy, we need to understand how does it

work? Parliamentary democracy functions on three wings namely, legislature,

judiciary, and executives with the bureaucracy constituting the fourth wing.

Structure of government (central) in India

(1) EXECUTIVE President Council of Ministers

(Aid and Advice the President)

Subordinate Officers

(2) PARLIAMENT President

(Legislature)

Lok Sabha Rajya Sabha

Presided over by Speaker Presided by Vice President

Ex-Officio Chairman

Council of Ministers

(3) JUDICIARY

Supreme Court at New Delhi

^

High Courts (21)



1) EXECUTIVES

There is a presence of two executives - the nominal executive and the real executive. The

nominal executive is the President of India. He enjoys all the constitutional powers,

but exercises them only on the advice of the real executive. The real executive that is

the Prime Minister of India and the Cabinet or council of ministers, enjoy all the

real powers and make all the important policy decisions.

All the members of the Council of Ministers as well as the Prime Minister have to be

members of either house of the Parliament. If they are not, they must get elected within a

period of six months from the time they assume their respective office. The Executive, the

Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha, both

individually as well as collectively.

2) PARLIAMENT

In India, the legislature, namely, the Parliament consists of the President, the Lok

Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha. The function of the Parliament is to provide a cabinet,

make laws and to manage and provide funds for various development activities.

Though the president is a part of the legislature, he does not sit in Parliament except for

the purpose of delivering his opening address. The composition of the Lok Sabha and the

Rajya Sabha is as under:

1. House of the People (Lok Sabha) 2. Council of the States (Rajya Sabha)

Presided over by a Speaker he certifies a bill as a Money Bill (Article 110). He also presides over the joint Sessions.

Strength: 552 members of which –

(a) Not more than 530 are representatives from the States.

(b) Not more than 20 representatives of Union Territories.

(c) Not more than 2 nominated Anglo Indians.

Term: Normally for 5 years, but can be dissolved earlier also and can be extended during Emergency.

Election: Directly elected by the

Presided over by a chairman (Vice President Acts as ex officio chairman). Rs cannot be dissolved.

Strength: not more than 250members of which –

(a) Not more than 238 States and Union Territories representatives

(b) 12 nominated by the president.

Term: 6 years. It is not subject to dissolution. One – third of its members retire every second years.

Election: By the elected Members of the State Legislatures.



people, through universal adult franchise (the voting age has been reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Amendment to the Constitution in 1989.)

Qualification: For membership –(a) He / She must be a citizen of

India.(b) He / She must be not less than 25

years of age.

Additional qualifications:(c) He / She should not hold any

office of profit under the government.

(d) He / She should not be of unsound mind.

(e) He / She should not be declared insolvent.

(f) He / She should not be disqualified under any law.

Qualification: For membership –

(a) He / She must be a citizen of India.

(b) He / She must be not less than 30 years of age.

Additional qualifications: (Same as Lok Sabha)

3) JUDICIARY

India has opted for a unified and single judiciary. The Judiciary exists to see that the

laws made by the Legislature are intra-vires the Constitution and they are properly

administered by the Executive and the authority is not exceeded or abused. It is only

through the Judiciary that the powers of the different organs of the State are kept under

control. It is the Judiciary which maintains the supremacy of the Constitution in a

federation.

At the apex of the Indian Judiciary stands the Supreme Court. It also acts as the protector

of the fundamental rights of individuals guaranteed to them by the Constitution. It is the

highest court of appeal in all fields of law – constitutional, civil and criminal.



Chapter 2 : Indian Legal System

The Indian Legal System is one of the oldest in the history of the world. It has changed

and evolved over the centuries to imbibe inferences from the legal systems around the

world.

Concepts of Law and Justice

Law is a body of rules which regulates human conduct in a society and which is

enforced by the State or authority in the courts of law. Justice is the moral idea of being

right, just and reasonable. Law aims to ensure justice in the society.

Law in Ancient India

Law has its equivalent in Hindu jurisprudence the word ‘Dharma’.

Yajnavalkya, an ancient scholar, stated ‘Shruti and Smritis’ to be the sources of

law.

Shruti means the Vedas which were mainly the philosophy of Hindu religion.

The Smritis or Dharmasutras were the basic law of Indian legal system.

‘Manusmriti’ and ‘Naradsmriti’ were important piece of ancient Indian legal system.

Gautam, Manu, Yajnavalkya and Narad were ancient law-givers.

Law in Medieval India

In Medieval India, Hindu Law had two main forms—Mitakshra and Dayabhaga.

Mitakshra which prevails in most of India was given by Vijaneshwara.

Dayabhaga prevailing in Bengal and North-East states were given by Jimutvahana.

Historical and Social Background

The legal scenario prior to the advent of British colonization was a mix of Hindu and

Muslim laws. The Mughal period saw the Muslim law, Shariyat, co-existing with the

Hindu law.

The arrival and subsequent colonization by the British in India gave India a new

perspective to law. This has prevailed since then and has been amended a number of

times to lend itself to the current face of Indian judicial system.



Classification of Law

Law can be classified into different categories on different bases. On the basis of

territorial jurisdiction, law may be National or Municipal Law and International Law. Again

it may be divided into Civil Law and Criminal Law or Public Law and Private Law. We

should learn the meaning of each of them.

I. National or Municipal Law and International Law

All laws applying within the national boundaries are municipal laws. For example:

Indian constitution or the statutes passed by Parliament and State Legislatures. Laws

emanating from the Parliament or the Central Government are sometimes called

Central Laws and those being passed from state legislature are called State Laws.

International Law is a body of rules which regulates the relationship between different

countries. These are generally in the form of treaties and International Customs.

International Law is further divided into two parts:

(a) Public International Law: Also called ‘Law of Peace’, it regulates the relationship

of different countries as members of the International Community.

(b) Private International Law: Also called ‘Conflict of Laws’, it regulates the

relationship of private individuals or juristic persons like companies of two or

more different countries. For example: the marriage of an American with an

Indian or dispute between two companies of different countries.

II. Criminal Law and Civil Law

Criminal Law concerns with public wrongs or offences against the state or society at

large. State prosecutes for criminal offences which are specific and are defined in

Indian Penal Code, 1860 and some other penal laws. Criminal Procedure Code or

Cr.P.C., 1973 deals with the procedure to be adopted for enforcing Criminal Law.

Civil Law relates to restoration of rights of private individuals or juristic persons like,

companies. For example, Law of Contract regulates the relationship between two or

more parties making the agreement.

III. Public Law and Private Law

Public Law is that part of law which deals with relations between the state and ordinary

individuals in circumstances where state has special rights or powers. Criminal Law is a

public law. Constitutional Law and Administrative Law are also public laws.



Private Law regulates relations among subjects. Hindu law and Mohammedan law

regulate relations among Hindus and Muslims, hence they are private laws.

IV.Common Law and Civil Law Systems

Laws laid down by courts in judicial decisions also called precedents constitute the

Common Law. England and those countries which have modeled their legal system on

the basis of English Law are members of Common Law System. India is also a part of

Common Law fold.

Civil law system does not recognise precedent or decisions of the courts as laws.

Countries like Germany and France are Civil Law Countries. The do not recognise

precedents or Judge Made Laws.

V. Substantive Law and Procedural Laws

Law which provides specific provisions as to the rights, duties or obligations of an

individual is normally substantive laws. Indian Penal Code provides specific crimes and

their punishments and hence substantive laws.

Procedural laws are those laws which regulate the functioning of the court or the

judicial system to ensure compliance of the substantive laws. For example, Code of

Civil Procedure, 1908 regulates the functioning of Civil Courts and Cr. P.C. regulates

the affairs of a criminal court.

Personal Law

The people of India are of different religions and faiths. They are governed by different

sets of personal laws in respect of matters relating to family affairs, i.e., marriage,

divorce, succession, etc.

Marriage

Law relating to marriage and/or divorce has been codified in different enactments

applicable to people of different religions.

The Special Marriage Act, 1954 extends to the whole of India except the State of

Jammu and Kashmir. Persons can specifically register marriage under this Act even

though they are of different religious faiths. The Act also provides that the marriage

celebrated under any other from can also be registered under the Special Marriage Act, if

it satisfies the requirements of the Act.



An attempt has been made to codify customary law which is prevalent among Hindus

by enacting the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 applies to

Hindus and also to Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains and also those who are not Muslims, Christians,

Paris or Jews by religion.

Provisions in regard to divorce are contained under the provisions of both Marriage Act

and the Special Marriage Act. Common ground on which divorce can be sought by a

husband or a wife under these Acts fall under these broad heads: adultery, desertion,

cruelty, unsoundness of mind, venereal disease, leprosy, mutual consent and being not

heard of as alive for seven years.

As regards Muslims, marriages are governed by the Mohammedan Law prevalent in

the country. As regards divorce, i.e., Talaaq, a Muslim wife has a much restricted right to

dissolve her marriage.

However, by the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act, 1939, a Muslim wife has been

given the right to seek dissolution of her marriage on certain grounds including non-

maintenance and cruelty.

Muslim Law

Muslim Law is contained in four sources namely: 1. The Quran 2. Hadis 3. Ijmaa and

4. Qiyas.

Muslims in India are mainly governed by the ‘Hanafi’ school.

A Muslim marriage is defined to be a civil contract with the object of procreation and

legalizing of children.

Dower (Mahr) is a peculiar concept of Muslim marriage. This is a sum of money or

other property promised by husband to be paid or delivered to the wife as a consideration

for the marriage.

A Muslim marriage can be dissolved by the means of ‘talak’ which can be effected

orally or by written talaknama.

The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 provides Muslim woman certain

ground to file a suit for divorce.

Source of Indian Law

The main sources of law in India are

The Constitution,



Statutes (legislation),

Case law or precedent and

Customary law

Statutes are enacted by Parliament, State legislatures and Union Territory

legislatures. Besides, there is a vast body of laws known as subordinate legislation in the

form of rules, regulations as well as bye-laws made by Central/State governments and

local authorities like municipal corporations, municipalities, gram panchayats and other

local bodies. This subordinate legislation is made under the authority conferred or

delegated either by Parliament or State or Union Territory legislatures concerned.

Therefore they are called delegated legislation also. Judicial decisions of superior courts

like Supreme Court are binding on all courts within the territory of India. Local customs

and conventions which are not against statute, morality, etc., are also recognized and

taken into account by courts while administering justice in certain spheres.

Legislation as a source of law

Legislation is enacted mainly by two bodies in India:

(A) Parliament; and

(B) State Legislatures.

Their area of operation is as follows –

(a) Parliament makes laws for the whole country on matters assigned to it by the

constitution. These are listed in the Union legislative list, contained in the Seventh

Schedule of the Constitution.

(b) State Legislatures can make laws for a State on matters assigned to them by the

Constitution. These are listed in the State Legislative list, contained in the Seventh

Schedule of the Constitution.

(c) On certain matters, Parliament and State legislatures can make laws. These are

listed in the Concurrent list in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution. Of course,

Parliamentary legislation generally overrides State Laws.

(d) In exceptional circumstances, Parliament can make laws for matters in the State

list.

Besides, there is a vast body of laws known as subordinate legislation in the form of

rules, regulations as well as bye-laws made by Central / State Governments and local

authorities like municipal corporations, municipalities, gram panchayats and other local

bodies.



Delegated legislation

“Delegated legislation” refers to rules and orders made by the executive through

power “delegated” to it by an Act. In modern times almost every Act empowers an

appropriate Government to make rules or orders to “carry out the purposes” of the Act.

The assumption is that the legislature cannot foresee all situations, or may not have time

to provide for all details, or may not possess the expertise needed to set out technical

matters. Hence, out or necessity or for reasons of convenience, the rules on such details is

left to the executive. This is called “delegated legislation” or subordinate legislation.

Principal examples of delegated legislation or subordinate legislation are the

following rules and orders, made under an Act: -

(a) Rules (usually made by the Central or State Government);

(b) Regulations (usually made by a Board or Corporation);

(c) Orders and notifications (usually issued by the Government);

(d) Schemes;

(e) Bye-laws (usually made by local authorities);

(f) Statutes, Ordinances and Regulations, made by a University under the Act creating

that University;

(g) Guidelines.

Case law as a source of law

Case law or precedent is a source of law in India. In this respect, India belongs to

the common law fold. When a High Court or the Supreme Court decides a case, its

judgment has two aspects. First, the judgment binds the parties to the proceeding.

Second, the rule on a particular legal point of a High Court or Supreme Court judgment

becomes binding on all lower courts, for the future litigation on the matter in a lower

court. Of course, the High Court can (by a larger Bench) overrule its earlier view, and the

Supreme Court can overrule the view taken by the High Court on a particular point.

However, until that happens, the rule, as laid down, remains binding. This is called the

doctrine of “precedent”.

Custom as a source of law

“Customs” are habitually observed course of conduct since times immemorial so as

to get the force of law in the society:



(i) In family law i.e., in Hindu and Muslim Personal Laws custom is recognized, in most

cases, as being able to supplement or modify the general rules of law otherwise

applicable.

(ii) In the law relating to certain commercial transactions (e.g., negotiable

instruments), business usage can supplement general statutory provisions, or as

annexing certain incidents to contracts or as explaining the meaning of certain

business terms.

(iii)Usage has also a limited recognition in the law of leases.

Who creates law for us?

Parliament is competent to make laws on matters enumerated in the Union List.

State legislatures are competent to make laws on matters enumerated in the State List.

Parliament alone has power to make laws on matters not included in the State or

Concurrent List. On matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, laws can be made by both

Parliament and legislatures. But in the event of repugnancy or conflict law made by

Parliament shall prevail and law made by State legislature, to the extent of repugnancy,

be void.

Acts and Ordinances

An Act of Parliament is an Act passed by both the Houses of Parliament and assented to

by the President.

Ordinances can be promulgated by the President (for the Union) and by the Governor (for

the State) when circumstances make immediate action necessary and Parliament (or the

State Legislature) is not in session.

Ordinances are temporary laws. These can be made on any matter which is within the

competence of Parliament (or State Legislature). However, an Act must be passed to

replace the ordinance within six weeks of the reassembly of Parliament or State

legislature; otherwise the validity of the Ordinance expires.

Legal Profession: People who practice law

In India, the law relating to legal profession is governed by The Advocates Act,

1961 and the rules framed there under by the Bar Council of India. It is a self-contained

code of law relating to legal practitioners and provides for the constitution of State Bar

Councils and Bar Council of India.



A person enrolled as an advocate under the Advocates Act, 1961, is entitled to practice

law throughout the country. An advocate on the roll of a State Bar Council may apply for

transfer to the roll of any other State Bar Council in the prescribed manner. No person can

be enrolled as an advocate on the rolls of more than one State Bar Council.

There are two classes of advocates, namely, senior advocates and advocates. An advocate

with his consent, may be designated as a senior advocate, if the Supreme Court or a High

Court is of the opinion that by virtue of his ability, standing at the Bar or special

knowledge or experience in law, he deserves such distinction.



GK Part-I

Concept 1: Constitutional Development

Idea of Constituent Assembly for making the constitution was first mooted by M.N. Roy in 1934.

First time Indian National Congress officially demanded the formation of constituent assembly in

1935.

First time demand accepted, in principle, for a constituent assembly in August offer of 1940.

The failed Cripps Proposals envisaged a constituent assembly after World War- II.

Finally, under the provisions of Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) a constituent assembly was formed

for framing the Indian Constitution.

Out of total no. of Members (389) – 296 were indirectly elected from British India and 93 were

nominated by Princely States. Thus Constituent Assembly had nominated as well as elected

members.

The elected members from British India were to be indirectly elected by members of the provincial

assemblies.

The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was held on Dec 9, 1946.

The Muslim league boycotted the constituent Assembly. Due to the boycott of Muslim league, it

was attended by only 211 elected members of the congress.

Constituent Assembly was not a sovereign body as it was brought about by British Government and

could be abolished by it.

Dr. Sachinand Sinha, the oldest member, was elected as the temporary President of assembly.

Later, Dr. Rajendra Prased and H.C. Mukherjee were elected as President and Vice– President

of the assembly respectively.

Sir B. N. Rau was appointed as the constitutional advisor to the assembly.

The historic ‘objective resolution’ was moved by Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru which was later accepted

in its modified form as the preamble of the constitution.

In addition to the making of the constitution and enacting of ordinary laws, the constituent assembly

also performed followed functions:

It ratified India’s membership of the Commonwealth in May 1949

It adopted the national flag on 22 July 1947



It adopted the national anthem and national song on January 24, 1950

It elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first President of India on January 24, 1950

On the 26th November, 1949 constitution was declared as passed after the signature of the President

of the assembly. Thus on 26th November 1949 the constitution of India was adopted.

The provisions relating to citizenship, elections, provisional Parliament, and temporary

provisions, were given effect from 26th November 1949.

The rest of the constitution came in to force on the 26th January, and date is referred to in the

constitution as the Date of Its commencement. (To commemorate the independence day celebrated

since 1930 after the passage of Purna Swaraj resolution)

On January 24, 1950 the constituent assembly held its has't session. However it continued as the

provisional Parliament of India from 26 January, 1950 till the formation in of new Parliament after

the first general elections in 1951-52.

The most important of the committees was the drafting committee which was entrusted with the

task of making the new constitution. It consisted of seven members

1. Dr. Ambedkar (chairman)

2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyengar

3. Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyyar

4. Dr. K.N. Munshi

5. Syed Saadullah

6. N. Madhav Rau (the replaced B.L. Mitter who resigned due to ill – health)

7. T.T. Krishnamachari (he replaced D.P. Khaitan who died in 1948)

The first ‘Draft constitution of India’ was published in Feb. 1948. It was prepared by Sir B. N.

Rau, constitutional advisor to the constituent assembly.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the chairman of the drafting committee is recognized as the father of the

Indian constitution.

IMPORTANT COMMITTEESCOMMITTEE CHAIRMANDrafting committee Dr. B. R. AmbedkarCommittee for states Sardar PatelUnion constitution committee Pt. NehruProvincial constitution committee Sardar PatelSpecial committee to examine the draft constitution Sir Alladi KrishnaswamyUnion powers committee Jawaharlal NehruCommittee on fundamental rights and minorities Sardar Patel



EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION

CONSTITUTIONAL

LANDMARKIMPORTANT PROVISIONS

Regulating Act of 1773 First step by British Government to regulate affairs of East

India Company.

It established a definite system of government of India.

Designated Governor of Bengal as Governor General of

Bengal. 1st one was Warren Hastings

Established Supreme Court at Calcutta

Pitts India Act, 1784 Indian affairs came under direct control of British Government

Distinguished between commercial and political functions of the

company.

Board of Control was established to manage the political affairs

of the company.

Introduced dual government in India.

Charter Act of 1833 GG of Bengal became Governor – General of India

Final step towards centralization in British India

Created Government of India, for first time having authority

over British India

Ended activities of East India Co. as commercial body

Charter Act of 1853 Separated Legislative & Executive functions of Governor

General’s Council

Created separate Legislative Councils for India.

Open competition for civil services of the company

Government of India,

1858

Rule of company was replaced by rule of crown

Secretary of state for India was appointed to exercise the power

of the crown. He was member of British Cabinet, responsible to

it & was assisted by Council of India having 15 members.

Governor General became the agent of the crown.

Indian Councils Act of

1861

Seeds of Parliamentary system sown in India

Introduced Indians as non – official members in Legislature

Initiated process of decentralization

Policy of legislative devolutions introduced which culminated

into grant of almost complete internal autonomy of Provinces in

1937



Indian Councils Act of

1892

Introduced indirect elections. GG still had power to nominate

members

Enlarged functions of Legislative councils. They had power to

discuss budget and address questions to the executive, but they

wee not given the power of voting.

Indian Councils Act,

1909 (Morley–Minto

Reforms)

Changed name of central legislative Council to Imperial

legislative Council. Officials had majority.

Attempted for the first time the introduction of representative and

popular element in the government

Provincial legislative Councils had non – official majority

Introduced communal representation for Muslims. Introduced

separate electorate system. Legalized communalism (Lord

Minto called as father of communal electorate)

Government of India

Act, 1919 (Montagu –

Chelmsford Reforms)

Montagu (Secretary of

State) Chemsford

(Governor-General of

India)

Separated central subjects from provincial

Provincial subjects were of 2 types: 1. Transferred 2. Reserved

Transferred subjects administered by Governor with aid of

ministers responsible to Legislature

Reseved subject administered by Governor & his executive

Concil without any responsibility to Legislature

Dyarchy (dual system of government) was introduced

Introduced Bicameral Legislature (upper & lower houses) &

direct elections for the first time

Majority of members of both houses chosen by direst elections

3 of the 6 members of Governor-General’s Council wee to be

Indin

Demand for responsible government remains unfulfilled as

Central government remains responsible to British Parliament.

Dyarchy failed in Provinces because of dominance of Governor

and Executive Council over policy and ministers

Government of India

Act, 1935

Provided for establishment of All – India Federation consisted

of Provinces & Princely States as units

3 lists of subjects – Federal, Provincial & Concurrent –

introduced

Abolished Dyarchy in provinces & introduced provincial

autonomy



SOME LANDMARKS IN CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1773 centralization started

1784 direct control of British government

1833 centralization completed, GG of India

1853 executive separated from Legislature, open competition

introduced

1858 Secretary of State

1861 representative institutions, decentralization

1892 indirect election principle, budget discussion

1909 separate electorate

1919 division of subjects in 2 lists, dyarchy in provinces,

bicameralism at centre, direct elections

1935 division of subjects in 3 lists, dyarchy at centre, bicameralism in

provinces, provincial autonomy

Indian constitution is the longest known constitution of the world. It is the highest law of the land.

Originally it contained 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. After amendments till date, there are more than 447

Articles and 12 Schedules. Indian constitution has borrowed various provisions from different

constitutions:-

Introduced Dyarchy at Centre & Bicameralism in Provinces

Introduced Responsible governments in Provinces

Established a federal court having original, appellate & advisory

jurisdiction

Indian Independence

Act, 1947

Declared India as independent & sovereign state

Created 2 independent dominions, GG of each appointed by king

Established responsible government at both Center & Provinces

Designated GG of India & Provincial Governors as constitutional

heads (nominal heads)

SOURCES OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

COUNTRY CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS BORROWED

U.K. (England)

Parliamentary SystemBicameral ParliamentLower House More PowerfulPowers of Speaker in Lok Sabha



Indian constitution includes administrative provisions in detail. These are the fundamental

principles of governance, followed and reproduced by the constitution makers from Government

of India Act 1935. Such provisions were borrowed from this Act because people were familiar

with the existing system.

Constitution of India also includes the constitution of constituents of Indian Federation i.e. States.

State of J&K is an exception as it has its own constitution and Article 370 of constitution of India

provides it a special status.

In order of address the regional problems of certain states, Articles 371 to 371-I have been

introduced after inauguration of the constitution. These articles deal with Assam, Manipur, Andhra

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sikkim, Mizoram etc.

Indian constitution provides for procedure and power for the amendment of the constitution to

the Legislature under Article 368. Therefore legislation is supplementary to the constitution.

Indian Constitution is rigid as well as flexible and written constitution, which implies Rigidity with

Parliamentary sovereignty (implies flexibility)

Though constitutional makers tried to make Indian constitution an exhaustive document but taking

into consideration the organic law, room has been left for Conventions. Therefore some powers of

the speaker of Lok Sabha have been left to conventions followed in England.

Preamble is not an enforceable part of constitution. It serves following purposes:

Indicates the source from which constitution derives its authority

Prime MinisterCouncil of MinistersCouncil of Ministers responsible to Lower HouseSingle Citizenship

USA Written ConstitutionFundamental RightsSupreme CourtHead of State (President)Judicial Review

Australia Concurrent ListCentre-State Relationship

Erstwhile USSR

Fundamental Duties5-Year Plan (Non-Constitutional Feature)

Germany Emergency Provisions

Canada Federal System Residuary Powers

South Africa Procedure of Constitutional Amendment.

Ireland Concept of Directive Principles of State Policy. Originally borrowed from Spain



States some of objects which constitution seeks to establish

Declares great rights and freedoms

3 Words ‘Secularism, socialism and Integrity” were added to the Preamble by 42nd Amendment

Act.

INDIA: A UNITARY BASED FEDERAL SYSTEM

India is a distinct federation. Following characteristics make it a federation:-

o Dual Polity

o Division of Powers

o Bicameralism

o Supremacy of the Constitution

o Written constitution

o Rigid Constitution (complicated and difficult procedure for amendment)

o Authority of Courts (legal supremacy of the constitution)

However there are certain features which make it unitary biased. These are:-

o Appointment of Governors by the centre

o Parliament’s power to legislate in the national interest

o Parliament’s power to form new States, change names of the States and alter the boundaries

of existing States

o Emergency Provisions

o Single Constitution, All India Services, CAG

o Constitution is more flexible than rigid as it can be amended by Parliament alone

o Single citizenship, integrated judiciary, centralized election machinery,



GK Part-II

Concept 1: Concept of National Income

National income (NI) is calculated by CSO (Central Statistical Organisation). Base Year is

taken as 1999-2000 (From 2005-06). (Earlier 1993-94)

GDPMP= Sum total of the market value of all final goods and services produced within the

domestic territory of a country during an accounting year (counted without duplication)

GNPMP = GDPMP + Net factor income earned from abroad (In India, GDP>GNP)

Depreciation value of consumption of fixed capital = GDP-NDP

(NDPMP= GDP – Depreciation)

NNPMP= GNP – Depreciation (NNP = NDP + Net factor income from abroad).

GDPFC= GDPMP – Net direct Taxes

(Net direct taxes = Indirect taxes paid - Subsidies received).

Therefore GDPFC = GDPMP – Indirect taxes + Subsidies

When NNP is obtained at factor cost, it is known as “National Income”.

NI = NNPFC. Therefore NNPFC = NNPMP – Indirect taxes + Subsides

NI at current Prices: Goods and services are valued at prices prevailing in the current year for

which NI is calculated.

NI at constant Prices: If goods and services are valued at constant prices i.e. with reference to

some base year in past. It eliminates the effect of rising prices. Therefore known as real NI.

Per capita income = Total income

Total population of the country



Purchasing power party: PPP Index is constructed by taking into account what a unit of currency

can purchase in its own country as compared to what a dollar can purchase in the US of a certain

representative internationally traded basket of goods or services. Introduced by International

Comparison Program of U.N.

GNPMP = GDPMP + Net Factor income from abroad

NDPMP – GDPMP – Depreciation

NNPMP = GNPMP – Depreciation

GDPFC = GDPMP – Indirect taxes + subsidies

= GDPMP – Net Indirect Taxes

NI = NNPFC NNDFGF

Note: Gross Domestic product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), Net National Product (NNP), Net

domestic product (NDP), Market Prices – MP, Factor cost – FC



Concept 2: Planning In India

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1934: ‘Planned Economy for India’ book written by M. Vishveshvarya.

1938: ‘National Planning committee set up under JL Nehru.

1944: Bombay Plan by 8 industrialists of Bombay.

1945: People’s Plan by M.N. Roy.

1950: Sarvodaya Plan by J.P. Narayan.

PLANNING COMMISSION: (PC)

15 March 1950 constituted by Government of India.

Prime minister is ex-officio chairman of the P. C.

Non – constitutional and non – statuary body.

Formulates five year plan

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTAL COUNCIL - NDC

Non-statuary body

Constituted on 6 Aug 1952

Prime minister is the chairman.

Gives representation to states and UT’s

Evaluates the implementation of planning from time to time.

Final approval to a five year plan is given by the Parliament.

TYPES OF PLANNING

Planning By Direction: Characteristic of Socialist economies. In this planning, the state has

complete control over the means of production.



Planning By Inducement: Democratic planning. Private sector is given some inducements to

achieve the given targets. Central planning authority followed this type of plan in India from 1951

to 1990.

Perspective Planning: Long term planning, whereby long range targets are set in advance for a

period of 15, 20 or 25 years. Started in India 6th plan onwards.

Rolling Plan: Concept given by Gunnar Mydral. Combination of annual, five year and

perspective plan. Every year targets and achievements are assessed and necessary changes are made.

Introduced in India by HM Patel in 1978.

PL – 480:- Public law 480 of the USA, it was meant for aiding poor countries through food

assistance. India got assistance under this Law.

Indicative planning – Induced by Monnet in France (1946). Private sector is neither rigidly

enrolled nor directed to fulfill the targets and priorities of the plan. Started in India with 8th plan.

RAO – MANMOHAN MODEL OF PLANNING (1991)

Based on indicative planning.

Ushered in an era of liberalization, privatization and globalization in India.

Industry was 1st sector in which liberalization started.

Two components of (R – M) Model.

8. Stabilization program, short term course correction suggested by IMF to stabilize macro

economic indicator like: balance of payments, inflation and fiscal deficit.

9. Structural Adjustment Program conditioned by World Bank aimed at deregulating

economy by reducing government intervention in various sectors.

Both 1 and 2 are known as Economic Reform Program based on “WASHINGTON

CONSENSUS”

ICOR: INCREMENTAL CAPITAL OUTPUT RATIO

It establishes relationship between increase in investment and the resultant increase in output.

Thus it shows how much increase in output can be obtained by increasing investment per unit i.e.

ICOR is inversely proportional to productivity

ICOR = Investment / Growth rate

e.g. 10th plan: Investment target 28.41

Growth rate 7.93

ICOR = 28.41/7.93 = 4.53

SECTOR WISE CONTRIBUTION TO GDP (CHANGING TRENDS)



SECTOR 1951-52 1990-91 2007-08

Agriculture 59.2% 34.9 17.3%

Industry 13.3% 24.5 26.7%

Services 27.5% 40.6 56%

A LOOK AT THE PLANS IN INDIA

PLAN PERIOD MODEL OBJECTIVES GROWTH RATE (%) SPECIAL FEATURESTARGET ACTUAL

I 1951-56 Harrod Domar Development of agriculture

2.1 3.6 Community development programme

II 1956-61 Mahalanobis Rapid industrializati on

4.5 4.6

III 1961-66 John Sandy & Chakravarty

Self reliance & self sustained economy

5.6 2.7

1966-69 Plan Holiday - Green Revolution

IV 1969-74 Allen Manne & Ashok Rudra

Self reliance & growth stability

5.7 3.3 1971 war, shooting oil prices

V 1974-79 Planning commission

Stress was laid on employment, poverty removal, and justice

4.4 4.8 20-point programme

1979-80 Plan Holiday -

VI 1981-85 Planning Commission

Stress on village and cottage industries and natural mobilization of resources to increase employment

5.2 5.5 Economy started opening up

VII 1985-90 Planning Commission

Liberalization, modernization

5 6

1990-92 Plan Holiday - 1991 policy

VIII 1992-97 John Miller –liberalized economy

Human Resource Development

5.6 6.7

IX 1997-2002 Planning Commission

Growth with social equity

6.5 5.4 Pokhran, Kargil war, South-East Asia crisis

X 2002-07 Planning Commission

Quality of life, reduce imbalances, employment generation

8

IX 2007-12 Planning Commission

Towards faster and more inclusive growth

Average 9% and a growth of 10%during 2011-2012

-



MID-TERM APPRISAL OF THE 10TH PLAN

Conducted by the National Planning Commission.

National Development council (NDC) considers the mid-term appraisal for mid – term course

correction.

Appraisal:-

1. The GDP growth rate target set for the tenth plan was 8.1%. However during the first three

years of the plan the average GDP growth had been only 6.5%

2. Growth rate:

4% in 2002-03

8.5% in 2003-04

6.9% in 2004-05

3. Agriculture has virtually stagnated during the last decade, growth at an average rate of

1.9% (target 4%) The problems of small and marginal farmers as well as of the landless

labour are yet to be addressed effectively.

4. Unemployment have grown from 8.87% (2001-02) to 9.11% in (2004-05)

5. The enormous increase in global oil prices may affect our export target of 16%.

6. Infrastructure inadequacies in rural and urban India continue as serious constrains.

ELEVENTH PLAN (2007-2012)

‘Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth’ is the central theme of the plan. The eleventh plan has the

following targets:

INCOME & POVERTY

Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th plan in order to

double per capita income by 2016-17

Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of benefits

Reduce educated unemployment to <5%. Create 70 mn new work opportunities

Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.

Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.

EDUCATION

Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-

12

Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or more to 85%



Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage points

HEALTH, WOMEN AND CHILDREN

Reduce infant morality rate to 28 & maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births. Reduce

Total Fertility Rate to 2.1

Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip – backs

Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level

Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17

Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all government schemes are

women and girl children

Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work

INFRASTRUCTURE

Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and round – the – clock

power.

Ensure all – weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above (500- in

hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant habitation by 2015

Connect very village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband connectivity to all

villages by 2012

Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for rural poor to

cover al the poor by 2016-17

ENVIRONMENT

Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.

Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.

Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.

Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.



GK Part-III

HISTORY



Concept 1:

Indus Valley Civilization

Discovery and

Time

R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa in 1921.

R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922.

According to radiocarbon dating, it spread from the year

2500 – 1750 B.C.

Geographical

Extent

Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujrat,

Rajasthan and some parts of western UP.

Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on Ravi in W.

Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu – Daro

(Sindh), etc. In India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur

and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangam (Rajasthan),

Banwali (Hissar), and Alamgirpur (western UP).

Largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in

Gujrat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in

it.

Town Planning Elaborate town-planning. It follows the grid system.

Roads well cut, dividing the town into large rectangular

blocks.

Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building

material.

Their drainage system shows developed sense of health

and sanitation.

The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper Part or

Citadel and Lower Part.

In Mohanjodao, a big public bath (Great Bath) has been

found.

Agriculture Used wooden ploughs.

Produced sufficient to feed them selves. Food grain were

stored in granaries.

Art and Craft The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.

Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were

mostly made of copper and bronze.

Cotton fabrics quite common. Woolen in winter.

Very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper,



etc) and dressing up.

Ornaments were worn by both men and women.

Potter’s wheel was in use. Played dice games.

Economic Life Well-knit external and internal trade.

Barter system was there.

A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal.

Religious Life Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess.

Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.

Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon)

and stones were worshipped.

Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.

Script Not yet deciphered.

The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about

600 undeciphered pictographs).

End / Decay The Harappan culture lasted for around 1,000 years.

Invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods, social breakup

of Harappans, earthquakes, major ecological changes

etc. are listed as possible causes.



Concept 2:

Vedic Period: The Aryans

The Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the

Caspian Sea in Central Asia.

Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (Hindukush Mountains) around 1500

B.C.

EARLY VEDIC OR RIGVEDIC PERIOD

Region The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern

Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western U.P. The whole

region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called

the ‘Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava’ (The Indus

and its five tributaries and the Saraswat).

Political

Organization

Monarchial form. Tribe was known as Jan and its king as

Rajan.

The king was assisted by a number of officers of which

purohita was the most important.

Family was the basic unit of society. The family was

patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power

with men.

Economy Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and

agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part.



LATER VEDIC PERIOD (PAINTED CREY WARE PHASE)

THE VEDIC LITERATURE

Standard unit or exchange was cow. At the same time

coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal

and Satmana).

Religion The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked

upon them as living beings.

The most important divinity was Indra who played the

role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar, also

associated with storm and thunder).

Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship.

Worshipped in open air through yajnas.

Region Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Punjab

over the whole of western UP covered by the Ganga – Yamuna

doab.

In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with

the use of iron tools which became common by 1000 – 8000

B.C.

Political

Organization

Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.

Powers of the king, who was called Samrat increased.

A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.

References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapati),

Charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Sangrahita), tax collector

(Bhagdugha), chief queen (Mahisi) and the game companion

(aksavapa).

Social Setup The four fold division of society became clear – initially based on

occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests),

and Shudras (servers of the upper three).

Woman enjoyed freedom & respect but their status deteriorated

compared to earlier time.

The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra

signified descent from common ancestors.

Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the main

pastime.



THE VEDAS

(a) Rig Veda

Oldest religious text in the world.

A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of

sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion.

Contains 1028 hymns (1017 + 11 valakhilyas) and is

divided into 10 mandals.

The X mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which

explains that the 4 varmas (Brahmans, Kshatriya,

Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms,

thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.

The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra

(addressed to sun).

(b) Sama Veda Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘melody’. It is a

collection of melodies.

It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been

borrowed from Rig Veda.

Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’.

(C) Yajur Veda Deals with the procedure for the performance of

sacrifices.

(D) Atharva Veda Divided into 20 kandas (Books) and has 711 hymns –

mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems

of people).

THE BRAHMANS They explain the hymns of the Vedas in an orthodox

manner.

Each veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.

Rigveda: Kaushetki and Aitreya

Yajurveda: Taitriya and Shatpatha

Samaveda: Panchvish and Jemineya

Atharvaveda: Gopath

THE ARANYAKAS Called ‘forest books’, written mainly by the hermits living

in the jungles for their pupils.

Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to

sacrifice and emphasize ‘Meditation’.

THE UPANISHADS The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes

a student sitting near his guru to learn.

They are the main source of Indian philosophy.



There are 108 Upanishads.

They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices.

VEDANGAS Six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta,

Chhanda and Jyotisha.

Shiksha deals with pronunciation.

Kalpa with rituals.

Vyakarana with grammar.

Nirukta with etymology.

Chhanda with meter.

Jyotisha with astronomy.

DARSHANS There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad

– Darshana.

These are given by 6 philosophers of Ancient Indian:

Nyaya (Analysis) Darshana: Gautama.

Vaishesika Darshana: Kanada Rishi (referred atom as

kan/anu).

Sankhaya Darshana: Kapila

Yoga Darshana: Patanjali.

Purva Mimansa: Jaimini

Uttara Mimansa: Badaryana or Vyasa (wrote

Mahabharata, classified Vedas, composed the puranas,

gave vedantic philosophy).

UPAVEDAS There are four upavedas:

Dhanurveda (deals with art of warfare) (Upaveda of

Yajur Veda).

Gandharva veda (deals with art music) (Upaveda of

Sama Veda).

Shilpa veda (deals with architecture) (Upaveda of

Atharva Veda).

Ayurvea (deals with medicine) (Upaveda of Rig Veda).

EPICS Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the

Ramayana – were compiled later, they reflect the state

of affairs of the Later Vedic Period.

The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is considered

older than the Ramayana and describes the period from



the tenth century BC to the fourth century AD. It is also

called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one

lakh verses.

The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, has 24,000 verses.

Its composition started in the fifth century BC and passes

through five stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth

century AD.



Geography

Theory



Concept 1:

Earth And Solar System

The science of studying stars, planets is called Astronomy.

North Star or Polaris indicates north, because seen directly above North Pole.

Huge system of star is known as Galaxy. It contains millions of stars

At some places, stars are so close that they look like a white glowing path. One

such path is known as Milky Way Galaxy (Akash Ganga).

Sun is at centre and head of Solar System.

Sun is formed by moving cloud of Gases known as Nebula (Even Planets).

Force of Gravity ha created them.

Satellite move round the planets. Satellites like planets have no light or heat of

their own.

Earth has only one natural satellite, that is, Moon. Moon is 384, 400 km. away

from Earth.

Moon spins on its own axis and revolves around the earth. It takes 27 days 7 hrs to

complete both movements.

Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin set foot on Moon for the first time.

Armalcolite: A mineral discovered from Moon, named after Armstrong, Aldrin &

Collins

Asteroids are the tiny bodies found between Mars and Jupiter.

Meterites (smaller pieces of Asteroids)



Gedid means earth like shape.

Earth is also known as BLUE PANET.

Distance of Earth from sun - 3rd Place

Size of Earth from Sun - 5th Planet

Eratosthenes calculated size of Earth

When far side of Moon faces sun, it is illuminated. This is called New Moon. We

cannot see New Moon from earth

The different Planets can be arranged away from the sun as follows:-

My Very Educated Mother Just Show Us Nine Planets

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

NAME OF THE DISCOVERER

WHAT DID HE SAY

Ptolemy Earth was the centre of the universe and all heavenly bodies revolve around it.

Copernicus Sun and not earth was the centre of the universe and equated the universe with the solar system

Kepler Sun was the centre of the solar system and not of the universe.

Herschel Solar system was the part of much larger system of stars called galaxy.

Hubble He have Dopler Effect and Red Shift Theory and propounded that universe is expanding rapidly.

Big Bang Theory supported by Red Shift Theory explains the origin of

universe

The Earth vis-à-vis the Solar System

S. No.

Planet

Distance from

the sun (I m

million km)

Time taken

to complete

orbit

Temperature

ino C

Known

satellites



1. Mercury

2. Venus

3. Earth

4. Mars

5. Jupiter

6. Saturn

7. Uranus

8. Neptune

9. Pluto

58

108

150

228

778

1,427

2,869

4,496

5,900

88 days

225 days

365 days

687 days

11-9 years

295 years

84 years

165 years

248 years

350

480

22

-23

-150

-150

-210

-220

-230

0

0

1

2

16

21

15

8

1

Recently Pluto has been excluded from the list of 9 Planets

EARTH’S IMAGINARY LINES – LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES

For locating places on the earth, two reference points – North Pole & South Pole

are used.

Equator is the largest possible circle (Imarginary circular line) on earth.

Latitudes are the lines parallel to equator and to each other. These are also

known as parallels of latitudes. These show the angular distance of a place from

the equator.

From equator to poles, parallel of latitudes becomes smaller and becomes a

point at poles.

The value of latitudes at important places is:-

Equator - Zero

Tropic of Cancer - 23o 30’N

Tropic of Capricorn - 23o 30’S

Artic Circle - 66o 30’N

Antarctic Circle - 66o 30’S

On 21st June. Sun is directly over Tropic of Caner.

On 22nd December, Sun is directly over Tropic of Capricorn.

Tropic of cancer divides India in almost two equal parts.

Torrid Zone is the hottest part of the world. Most of Deserts are located here.



DAY POSITION OF SUN W.R.T. EARTH

21st June Summer solstice (Northern Hemisphere)

23rd Sept Autumnal equinox (Northern Hemisphere)

22nd Dec Winter solstice for Northern Hemisphere and Summer solstice

for Southern Hemisphere

21st March Vernal Equinox (North Hemisphere)

The sun is rever very high above the horizon in Polar Regions Nights on poles

extend for six onths.

Meridians of Longitude are the imaginary vertical lines on earth. These are not

parallel to one another, are equal in length and converge at poles. These are

drawn at an interval of 1o. Time of different countries is calculated w. r. t. these

lines.

There are 180o Meridians drawn at an interval of 1o on both sides of prime

meridian.

All places situated along same meridian will have same local time.

For 1o longitudinal difference, the time difference will be of 4 min. (it is I hr

for a longitudinal distance of 15o).

Prime or Chief Meridian is considered to be 0o. It passes through Greenwich

near London.

Indian Standard Time (IST) is calculated at 82030’ E (line passing through

Allahabad).

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the time that prevails in UK. It is 5.30 hr behind

IST.

Countries with large longitudinal extent have more than 1 time zone. e.g. Russia

has 11 time zones. Conada and USA each have 5 times zones.

These meridians of longitudes and parallels of latitudes form a network called grid.

As one goes from equator to pole, while the distance between two meridians

decreases, latitudes remain equidistant (being parallel).

HOW DAYS AND SEASONS ARE CREATED

Seasons on the earth are caused because of its tilt about its North – South

axis. Earth axis is tilted by an angle of 23o 30’ from vertical.



Rotation is the spinning of earth about its own axis. Period of Rotation is

known as Earth Day. Earth rotates form west to east, that is, anticlockwise.

Earth revolves in a fixed route known as orbit (shape is ellipse).

Because of this tilt, the earths is marking an angle of 66o 30’ with its plane.

Cartography is the Science of map making.

Ptolemy, an Egyptian geographer made map – making, a Science. He first

showed direction by drawing a “N-line”.

Four major directions are called cardinal points.



Concept 2:

Inside the Earth

Centre of Earth is about 6,400 km below the surface.

Temperature & Pressure increase inside the earth with depth

Most abundant elements are O > Si > AI > Fe > Ca

EARTH’S INTERIOR

CRUST MANTLE CORE

Crust is the outer part of

Lithosphere. Made of oceanic

& continental crusts; Avg.

thickness 5-40 km. Oceans is

5 km thick beneath oceans.

Continental Crust is 40 km

thick.

Separated from crust

by MOHO

Discontinuity.

Composed of mostly

metal, therefore,

known as Metallic

Core. Made of outer

(2900-5000 km) &

inner cores (5000-

6400 km)

Continental Crust is less

dense than Oceanic Crust

because it is made of a mix

of light and dense rock types.

Consists of SIAL (Silicon +

Aluminium) – sedimentary

and Granitic rocks. Oceanic

Crust composed of dense

rocks Basalt

Upper part 100 - 1700

km. Consists of SIMA

(Silicon + Magnesium)

and Basic Rocks. First

100 – 400 Km consists

of a zone of weak

roacks called

Asthenosphere.

Outer Core is made

of NIFE (Nickel +

Iron) which is in

Liquid state.

Composed of

Barysphere (heavy

metallic rocks)

Inner part of lithosphere

extends upto 100Km and is

in partly molten state

Lower part 1700 – 2900

Km. Consists of Ultra-

basic Rocks.

Inner is solid because

of pressure exerted by

wt. of overlying rocks.

The boundary between Crust and Mantle is called Mohorovicic boundary. It is

established at 30 KM.

The discontinuity between core & Mantle is called Gutenberg Discontinuity.



P – Waves Shadow Zone inside the earth exists between 105o -140o. S – Waves

are discontinuous between 105o -105o inside the earth

ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Ignis means fire.

Formed from hot molten lava or Magma.

Materials in molten state are called Magma. When Magma reaches earth’s surface,

it is known as lava.

Cooling of Magma either inside the earth or above it, results in the formation of

hard Igneous Rocks.

These rocks make up 2/3rd of earth’s crust. Therefore primary rocks.

Granite and Basalt are examples.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Rocks are broken into small pieces and form sediments. Sediments and organic

remains are deposited in low – lying areas. They get compressed and cemented to

form sedimentary rocks.

These rocks are soft and break easily.

Most of rocks on Earth’s Surface are sedimentary rocks, e.g. Sandstone, limestone,

shale, coal etc.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Due to pressure and heat of earth, these rocks undergo chemical (recombination of

elements) as well as structural (more compact mineral patterns) changes.

Rocks thus formed are completely different in appearance and characteristics from

the original rocks. Such kinds of rocks are known as Metamorphic Rocks.

Examples of few igneous & sedimentary rocks have been given below:-

IGNEOUS METAMORPHIC

Granite Gneiss

SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

Shale Slate

Lime Stone Marble

Coal Diamond





Organism



1. Introduction

Biology – Branch of science in which living beings are studied.

Bios = Life & Logos = Study. Therefore study of life is called biology. The term biology

was first coined by Lamarck and Treviranus in the year 1801. Biology has two main

branches.

1. Botany – Study of different aspects of plants. Theophrastus is known as father of

Botany.

2. Zoology – Study of various aspects of animals. Aristotle is called father of Zoology

as well as Biology.

Important Terms of Biology:

Anatomy – Study of internal structure of organism.

Agrology – Soil science dealing specially with production of crop.

Agronomy – Science of soil management and production of crop.

Agrostology – Study of grass.

Arthrology – Study of joints.

Apiculture – Rearing of honey bee for honey.

Anthropology – Study of origin, development and relationship between the

culture of past and present human.

Anthology – Study of flower and flowering plant.

Angiology – Study of blood vascular system including arteries and veins.

Andrology – Study of male reproductive organ.



Bryology - Study of Bryophytes.

Biometrics – Statical study of Biological problem.

Biomedical engineering – Production and designing of spare part for man for

overcoming various defects in man. e.g. artificial limbs, Iron lung, Pacemaker etc.

Biotechnology – Technology connected with living beings for willful manipulation

on molecular level.

Bacteriology – Study of bacteria.

Cytology – Study of cell.

Cryobiology – It is the study of effect of low temperature on organisms and their

preservation.

Clone – Celones are genetically identical individuals in a population.

Cardiology – Study of heart.

Clone – Clones are genetically identical individuals in a population.

Demography – Study of population.

Diffusion – Random movement of molecule / ion or gases from a region of higher

concentration to lower concentration.

Diffusion – Random movement of molecule / gas/ ion from regin of higher

concentration to lower concentration.

Dermatology – Study of skin.

Dendrochronology – Counting and analyzing annual growth rings of tree to know

its age.

Ecology – Study of inter- relationship between living and their environment.

Evolution – Study of origin of life, variation and formation of new species.

Embryology – It is the study of fertilization and development of zygote.

Eugenics – Study of factors connected with the improvement of race.

Euthenics – Study of environmental condition that contribute to the improvement

of human beings.

Euphenics – Treatment of defective in heredity through genetics engineering.

Ethnology – Study of science dealing with different races of human.

Ethology – Study of animal behaviour.

Etiology – Study of life cycle of pathogen.



Entomology – Study of possibility of life in space.

Floriculture – Cultivation of plant for their flower.

Food technology – Scientific processing, storage and transportation of food.

Forensic science – Application of science for identification of variours facts of

civilian.

Fishery – Catching, breeding, rearing and marketing of fishes.

Forestry – Development and management of forest.

Fermentation – Process of incomplete oxidation that occur in microbes and other

cells in absence of oxygen, leading to the for nation of ethyl alcohol.

Genetics – Study of variation and transmission of characters from parents to their

young ones.

Growth – Permanent increase in the weight and volume or size of an organism.

Genetic Engineering – Manipulation of genes in order to improve the organism.

Gynecology – Study of female reproductive organ.

Gerontology – Study of ageing.

Gastroenterology – Study of alimentary canal or stomach, intestine and their

disease.

Hypertonic – when two solution have differcut sdute concentration. The sol at ion

which have higher concentration is called hypertonic.

Hypotonic – In two solation which have lawer solute con centration is called

hypotonic

Home thermic – Animals who have a constant body temperature are called home

thermic or warm-blooded animal.

Histology – Study of tissue with the help of microscope.

Hygience – Science taking care of health.

Hydroponics – Study of growing plant without soil in water which contain

nutrient.

Haematology – Study of blood.

Hepatology – Study of liver.

Ichthyology – Study of fishes.

Immunology – Study of immunity or resistance of body to disease.

Kallology – Study of human beauty.



Metazoans – All multicellular animals are called metazonans.

Monoecious – Plant which have both male and female flower

Microbiology – Study of external structure.

Microbiology – Study of micro – organism like virus, bacteria, algae, fungi and

protozoa.

Molecular biology – Study of molecule found in the body of living organism.

Medicine – Study of treating disease by drug.

Mammography – Branch of science which deal test of breast cancer.

Nutrients – chemical substance taken as food which are necessary for various

faction, growth and heath of living.

Neurology – Study of new born.

Nephrology – Study of kidneys.

Osmosis – Movement of water molecule across semipermeable membrane from

the region of its higher concentration to the region of lower communication.

Odontology – Study of teeth and gum.

Osteology – Study of bones.

Oncology – Study of cancer and tumours.

Obstetrics – Science connected with care of pregnant women before, during and

after child birth.

Ornithology – Study of birds.

Ornithology – Study of eyes.

Orthopaedics – Diagnosis and repair of disorders of locomotery system.

Phytoplanlktons – Microscopic organism which passively float on the surface of

water.

Parasite – Organism which depend on other living for their food and shelter.

Poikilothermic – Organism which change their body temperature according to

surrounding. These are also called cold blooded animal.

Pigment – A substance which absorb light of certain wavelength like chlorophyll

formed in green leaves.

Paleontology – Study of fossils.

Physiology – Study of function for various system of organism.



Pathology – Study of diseases, effects, causable agents and transmission of

pathogens.

Pomology – Study of fruit and fruit yielding plant.

Psychiatry – Treatment of mental disease.

Psychology – Study of human mind and behavior.

Pisciculture – Rearing of fishes.

Psycology – Study of algae.

Paediatrics – Branch of medicine dealing with children.

Parasitology – Study of parasites.

Photobiology - Effect of light on various biological processes.

Phylogeny – Evolutionary history of organism.

Physiotherapy – Treatment of body defects through massage and exercise.

Radiology – Science dealing with the effect of radiation on living beings.

Rhinology – Study of nose and olfactory organs.

Sonography – Study of ultrasound imaging.

Saurology – Study of lizards.

Serology – Study of serum, interaction of antigen and antibodies in the blood.

Sphygmology – Study of pulse and arterial pressure.

Taxonomy – Study of classification, nomenclature and identification of organism.

Telepathy – Communication of thoughts or ideas from one mind to anther without

normal use of senses. In other word this is the process of menta contact.

Veterinary Science – Science of health care and treatment of animals.



2. What is living

The word living cannot be defined.

There are certain characters by which they are distinguished from non living.

1. Growth – Increase in the number of cell or mass is called growth

2. Reproduction – Living organism produce young ones of their same kind.

3. Metabolism – Chemical reaction occurring inside a living bodies

4. Response of stimuli – Living have the ability to sense the condition in

their surrounding and respond to these stimuli.



3. Classification of Organism

There are millions of organisms. It is impossible to study each individual

separately. Classification means to categories organism into different groups.

Study of an individual of group gives us the idea of rest of the member of that

group.

Linnaeus divide all organism into two kingdoms – Planate and Animalia in his book

“System a Nature”. The foundation of modern classification system was laid in the

line of classification system started by Linnaeus. Therefore Linnaeus is called

‘Father of Taxonomy’. Due to disputed position of organism like bacteria, virus,

fungi and euglena, there is need of reconsideration of two system of classification.

Five Kingdom Classification

Five Kingdom Classification was proposed in 1969 by R.H. Whittaker. Te criteria of

classifying organism into five kingdoms are its complexity, body of organism, mode

of nutrition, life style and phylogenetic relationship.

Living World

Monera Protista Fungi Planatae Animalia

1. Monera – It includes all prokaryotic organism like bacteria, cynobacteria and

archiobactera. Filamentous bacteria also come under this kingdom. All the

organism of this kingdom are microscopic.



2. Protista – This kingdom includes unicellular form usually found in aquatic habitats.

On the basis of mode of nutrition they are autotrophic, parasitic, and saprophytic.

Diatoms flagellates and protozoa come under this kingdom. Euglena have both

heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of nutrition. So, it is placed between plant and

animal.

3. Fungi – This kingdom includes non-green plants. It has saprophytic nutrition and

growing on dead and decaying organic matter. The cell wall is composed of chitin.

Example: Mushroom, Mucor, Albugo etc.

4. Planatae – This kingdom includes all plants except some algae, diatoms, fungi and

member of monera and protista.

5. Animalia – Almost all the animal comes under this kingdom except protozoan.

Binomial nomenclature – There was the need of uniform international naming of

organism. In biology every organism is given two proper names. The first name is

genus name always started with capital letter and the second name is species

name started with small letter. For example scientific name of human is Homo

sapiens. Homo is the name of genus, who0se one species is sapiens.

Scientific Names of some Organisms

1. Man Homo sapiens 2. Frog Rana tigrina

3. Cat Felis domestica 4. Dog Canis familaris

5. Cow Bos Indicus 6. Housefly Musca domestica

7. Mango Mangifera indica 8. Rice Oryza sativa

9. Wheat Triticum aestivum 10. Pea Pisum sativum

11. Gram Cicer arietinum 12. Mustard Brassica campestris



Mathematics

1. NUMBER SYSTEM

Topics covered: Types of numbers Basic mathematical operations, Divisibility tests, and Algebrical

formulae.

Ø Numbers are basically of 2 types: Real no. & Imaginary no.

A number tree is shown below: -

Real nos.: These are the numbers, which can represent actual physical quantities in a meaningful way.

These can be represented on the number line. Number line is a geometrical straight line with arbitrarily

defined zero (origin).

Natural nos. : Set of all non – fractional numbers from 1 to .

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ……}



Whole nos. : W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …….}

Integers : Set of all non-fractional numbers from - to .

I / Z = {-. …-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. …}

Rational nos. : These are real numbers, which can be expressed in the form of (pq), where p & q are

integers. & q o

Ex. 2/3, 37/15, 43/9, 43/9, -17/19, 115/1, -49/2 etc.

(All integers are rational numbers.)

Irrational nos. : All real numbers, which are not rational, are irrational. These are non-recurring as well

as non-terminating type of decimal nos.

Ex. (3)1/3 , (4)1/5

Irrational nos. are also called as Surds, which are of 2 types-

Pure Surd ( 8 ) & Mixed surd ( 22 )

(Mathematical constants & e are irrational nos.)

Prime nos. : All natural numbers that have one & itself as their factors are prime nos. i.e. prime nos. are

exactly divisible by 1 & themselves.

Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23…

Identification of prime number:

Step 1 : Find approximate square root of given no.

There are 25 prime numbers up to 100.

The only even prime number is 2.

Every prime number greater than 3, is of the form (6N+1) or (6N-1), where N is a natural number.

Step 2 : Divide the given no. by prime numbers less than approx. Square root of number. If given

number is not divisible by any of these prime nos. then the no. is prime otherwise not.

Ex. 571



Solution : approximate square root = 24

Prime nos. < 24 are – 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, & 23. 571 is not divisible by any of these prime nos. so

571 is a prime number.

Composite number :

All natural numbers, which are not prime, are composite numbers. Ex. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc.

1 is neither prime nor composite number.

Fractions :

Common fraction: Fractions whose denominator is not 10.

Decimal fraction: Fractions whose denominator is 10 or any power of 10.

Proper fraction: Numerator < denominator

Improper fraction: Numerator > Denominator

Terminating decimal : In this a finite number of digits occur after decimal.

Ex. ½ = 0.5 , 0.6875 , 0.15

Non – terminating & repeating: (Recurring decimal): -

In this a set of digits or a digit is repeated continually.

Ex. 2/3 = 0.6666 -------- = 0.6

5/11 = 0.454545 -------- = 0.45

Conversion of Recurring decimal into a fraction: -

Step 1: To obtain numerator subtract the number formed by non – repeating digits from the complete

number after decimal. (Consider repeated digits only once).

Step 2: To obtain denominator take number of 9‘s = no. of repeating digits & after that put no. of 0‘s =

no. of non-repeating digits.

Ex. 0.45 = (45 – 0) / 99 = 45/99 = 5/11

0.737 = (737 – 7) / 990 = 730/990 = 73/99

0.46573 =( 46573 – 46) / 99900 = 46527/99900

Division :

General representation of result: -



Dividend / Divisor = Quotient + Remainder / Divisor

Dividend = (Divisor x Quotient) + Remainder

Divisibility Test :

Rule for 7: -

Number Test

2. Unit digit should be 0 or even

3. The sum of digits of no. should be divisible by 3.

4. The no. formed by last 2 digits of given no. should be divisible by 4.

5. Unit digit should be 0 or 5.

6. No. should be divisible by 2 & 3 both.

8. The no. formed by last 3 digits of given no. should be divisible by 8.

9. Sum of digits of given no. should be divisible by 9.

11. The difference between sums of the digits at even & at odd places should be zero or multiple of 11.

25. Last 2 digits of the number should be 00, 25, 50 or 75.

Ex. 126

Last digit = 6 previous no. = 12

12 - (6 x 2 ) = 0 i.e. 126 is divisible by 7

Ex. 413

Last digit = 3, previous no. = 41

41 – (3 x 2) = 35 (divisible by 7)

i.e. 413 is divisible by 7.

This rule can also be used for nos. having more than 3 digits.

Ex. 6545

Last digit = 5 previous no. 654

654 – (5 x 2) = 644

64 – (4 x 2) = 56divisible by 7

i.e. 6545 is divisible by 7.

Some Algebrical formulae:-



1. (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab

2. (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab

3. (a2 – b2) = (a + b) (a –b)

4. (a3 + b3) = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)

5. (a3 – b3) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)

6. a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc - ca)

When a + b + c = 0

a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc.

Ex. Evaluate :-)3.03.0()3.0)(7.0()7.07.0(

)3.03.03.0()7.07.07.0(

Using formula: a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) we get

=)]3.03.0()3.07.0()7.07.0[(

)]3.03.0()3.0)(7.0()7.07.0)[(3.07.0(

= 0.7 + 0.3 = 1.0 answer.

VBODMAS Rule : In resolving the value of a given expression the various operations must be

performed in the given order:

V Viniculum or Bar

B Bracket ( ) , { } , [ ]

O Of

D Division

M Multiplication

A Addition

S Subtraction

Ex. (1) Simplify

}8/54

31)3/24/38/7{(

3

21

Solution = 5/3 {(13/8 x 2/3) ÷7/4 + 5/8}

= 5/3 {13/12 ÷7/4 + 5/8}



= 5/3 {13/12 x 4/7 + 5/8}

= 5/3 {13/21 + 5/8}

= 5/3 x 209/168 = 1045/504

(2) Simplify 12,1/3 + 4, 3/15 of 1/3

8/9 ÷2/3 + 5/2 of 3/5

Solution:5/32/52/39/8

3/215/633/37

= 2/33/4

5/73/37

= 185 + 21

15

8 + 9

6

= 206/15 x 6/17 = 1236/255

Properties of square number :

A square no. can not end with 2, 3, 7, or 8.

Every square no. is a multiple of 3 or exceeds a multiple of 3 by 1.

Every square no. is a multiple of 4 or exceeds a multiple of 4 by 1

If a square number ends in 9, the preceding digit is even.



EXERCISE-1 A

1. Find the value of 3 – [2 – { 7 – (6 – 3 – 2 ) }]

(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 0

2. Simplify 1/5 ÷ 3/5 + 4/3 x 1/4 – 1/6 of 2

(a) 1/5 (b) 3 (c) 1/3 (d) 5

3. Simplify 1/7 + 3/4 of 2 2 5 1 ÷ 4 3 – 1/6 3 x 6 7 - 1

5/12 – 2/7 14 4 + 5 3 ÷ 2 7 11 4 8

(a) 5 (b) 0 (c) 5/12 (d) 1

4. A number 1568 x 35 y is divisible by 88. Find x & y.

(a) 6, 4 (b) 4, 6 (c) 2, 6 (d) 6, 2

5. Reduce 609/1595 to its lowest terms.

(a) 29/21 (b) 21/55 (c) 55/65 (d) 21/51

6. The value of 104104104896896896

104104104 896896896

is

(a) 792 (b) 984 (c) 1000 (d) 890

7. If 148a3 , 7b563 , 8276c845 are divisible by 11 , then find the value of a, b & c.

(a) 8, 7, 2 (b) 9, 8, 2 (c) 8, 9, 2 (d) 0, 1, 5

8. What least number must be added to 91463 in order to obtain a multiple of 9.

(a) 5 (b) 9 (c) 7 (d) 4

9. Find (53)4 .

(a) 7890480 (b) 7891267 (c) 7890481 (d) 7990480

10. The value of 1 + 1 .

1 + 1. .

1 + 1/4

(a) 7/10 (b) 3/10 (c) 14/9 (d) 3/7

11. The sum of all the divisors of 150 is

(a) 400 (b) 1200 (c) 372 (d) 482



12. Find the number of divisors of 320.

(a) 15 (b) 6 (c) 14 (d) 18

13. The value of ___

.875 is:

(a) 990

875 (b)

999

875 (c)

990

867(d)

999

800

14. The value of 1334025 is

(a) 1165 (b) 1155 (c) 1265 (d) 1255

15. Which if greatest 3 9 , 4 20 & 6 50

(a) 3 9 (b) 4 20 (c) 6 50 (d) None



EXERCISE-1 B

(1) Four – fifth of number is more than three fourths of the number by 4 find the number.

(a) 90 (b) 80 (c) 75 (d) 60

(2) If one fifth of one – third of one – half of number is 15, find the number.

(a) 450 (b) 350 (c) 300 (d) 400

(3) Find the number of different divisors of 50, besides unity and the number itself.

(a) 6 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 7

(4) The sum of two numbers is 30 and their difference is 6 find the difference of their squares.

(a) 165 (b) 180 (c) 36 (d) 90

(5) The product of two terms is 39 and their difference is 28. Find the difference of their reciprocals.

(a) 28/39 (b) 39/28 (c) 67/39 (d) 67/28

(6) Is 1001 is a prime number ?

(a) No (b) Yes

(7) What least value must be given to * so that the number 97215 * 6 is divisible by 11?

(a) 5 (b) 3 (c) 7 (d) 9

(8) What is mixed surd form of 567

(a) 7 9 (b) 9 7 (c) 6 18 (d) 1319

(9) Find the sum of divisors of 90 ?

(a) 230 (b) 273 (c) 234 (d) 276

(10) Find the number of factors of 7056 ?

(a) 21 (b) 22 (c) 27 (d) 45

(11) Find the value of 1/(216)-2/3 + 1/(256)-3/4 + 1/(243)-1/5

(a) 101 (b) 103 (c) 107 (d) 105

(12) Find the value of (i)989

(a) i (b) -1 (c) -i (d) 1



(13) Evaluate 0.3)(0.3(0.3)(0.7)-0.7)(0.7

0.3)0.3(0.30.7)0.7(0.7

(a) 0.4 (b) 0.7 (c) 0.1 (d) 1.0

(14) Find the value of (343/216)1/3

(a) 7/6 (b) 6/7 (c) 9/8 (d) 8/9

(15) Evaluate : (34)3 . (32)4 / (-3)15 . 34

(a) –3 (b) 3 (c) 9 (d) 37

(16) Find the greater of the two number such that 3 times the greater subtracted from 10 times the lesser

is equal to 15 and 5 times the smaller exceeds the greater one by 10.

(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7

(17) What least value must be given to * so that the number 91876 * 2 is Divisible by 8?

(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) 9

(18) How many odd prime number are there upto 100 ?

(a) 25 (b) 1 (c) 24 (d) 19

(19) If a = 16 and b = 15, then what is the Value of (a2 + b2 + ab) / (a3 – b3)

(a) 1/31 (b) 31 (c) 1 (d) 1/15

(20) If 1453 x 35 y is divisible by 88. Then find the Value of x?

(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 5 (d) 0



2. L. C. M. & H. C. F.

Least Common Multiple (L.C.M)

It is the least number which is exactly divisible by each of the given numbers.

Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)

It is the greatest number that divides each of the given number exactly (i.e. leaving o as the remainder).

It is also called Greatest common divisor (G.C.D.) or the Greatest common measure (G.C.M)

To find H.C.F. of given numbers: -

For two given numbers divide the larger number by the smaller one, Now, divide the divisor by the

remainder keep on dividing the earlier divisor by the remainder last obtained, till a remainder of zero is

obtained. The last divisor obtained in this fashion is the H.C.F. of 2 given numbers.

For more than 2 numbers choose any 2 numbers & find their H.C.F. The H.C.F. of these 2 numbers &

the third number gives the H.C.F. of 3 numbers & likewise.

Ex. Find H.C.F of 2923 & 3239.

2923) 3239 (1 2923 316 ) 2923 ( 9 2844 79 ) 316 (4 316 X Required H. C. F. = 79.

To find L.C.M. of given numbers: -

Put the given numbers in a row & start dividing by the smallest number that divides all of them stop the

process when the common divisor is 1. The L.C.M. is the product of all the divisors & the dividends left.

Ex. Find L.C.M. of 12, 15, 27 & 39



2 12, 15, 27, 39

2 6, 15, 27, 39

3 3, 15, 27, 39

5 1, 5, 9, 13

9 1, 1, 9, 13

13 1, 1, 1, 13

1, 1, 1, 1

L.C.M. = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 9 x13 = 7020

L.C.M. & H.C.F. by factor method: -

Convert the given numbers in the powers of prime numbers.

To find L.C.M. of given numbers consider each & every prime number with their highest powers &

multiply them.

To find H.C.F. of given numbers consider only common prime number with their least power &

multiply them.

Ex. Find L.C.M & H.C.F. of 24, 54, & 70.

Solution : 24 54 70 23 x 3 2 x 33 2 x 5 x 7

L.C.M. = 23 x 33 x 5 x 7 = 7560

H.C.F. = 2.

L.C.M. & H.C.F. of fractions: -

L.C.M. of fractions =rsDenominatoofHCF

NumeratorsofLCM

H.C.F. of fractions = rsDenominatoofLCM

NumeratorsofHCF

Note: First convert the fractions into their simplest form (i.e. H.C.F. of Numerator & Denominator is

equal to 1) & then apply above formula.

Ex. :- Find H.C.F. of 1/2, 2/3,. 3/4, & 4/5

Solution:- H.C.F = 5&43,2,ofL.C.M.

4&3,2,1,ofH.C.F.

= 1/60

Ex. Find L.C.M. of 100/24 & 60/16



Solution :- Simplest form of above fractions are :

25/6 & 15/4

L.C.M = 2

75

6&4ofH.C.F.

15&25ofL.C.M.

L.C.M. & H.C.F. of Decimals :

In given decimals, make the no. of digits equal after decimal in each & every decimal no.. Consider

these numbers without decimal point, find L.C.M. & H.C.F. as usual. Now in the result mark off as many

decimal places as there are in each of the nos.

Ex. Find L.C.M. & H.C.F. of 0.6, 0.45, 0.3 & 1.2

Solution :- These decimals can be written as :-

0.60, 0.45, 0.30 & 1.20

L.C.M & H.C.F of 60, 45, 30& 120 are L.C.M = 360 H.C.F = 15

Required L.C.M = 3.60 & H.C.F = 0.15

Product of two numbers=Product of their L.C.M. & H.C.F.

Ex. The H.C.F of two numbers is 1/5 of their L.C.M. If product of two numbers is 720 find their H.C.F.

Solution :- H.C.F = 1/5 L.C.M. => L.C.M = 5 x H.C.F

L.C.M x H.C.F = Product of nos. = 720

5 x H.C.F. x H.C.F = 720

(HCF)2 = 720/5 = 144

HCF = 144 = 12.

Some Important Points :

H.C.F. of given numbers always divides their L.C.M.

L.C.M. is always greater than or equal to the greatest of the given numbers & it is exactly divisible by given numbers.

H.C.F. always divides the given numbers exactly & is always less than or equal to least of the given nos.



EXERCISE-2 A

1. Three bells toll together at intervals of 3, 4 & 5 seconds. If they now toll together, they will again toll

together after :

(a) 1 2

1min. (b) 1 min. (c) 1

4

3min. (d) 1/2 min. (1988, NLSIU)

2. Find the H.C.F. of 35/12, 49/30, and 21/20.

(a) 6/50 (b) 60/7 (c) 7/60 (d) 49/2

3. The H.C.F. of two numbers is 113 and their L.C.M. is 228825. One of the numbers is 2825. Find the

other.

(a) 9153 (b) 9126 (c) 9258 (d) 9166

4. The greatest number that will divide 290 , 460 and 552 leaving respectively 4, 5, 6 as remainders, is :

(a) 11 (b) 12 (c) 13 (d) 14

5. The L.C.M. of two numbers is 28 times of their H.C.F. The sum of their L.C.M. & H.C.F. is 1740. If one

of the numbers is 240, find the other number.

(a) 400 (b) 440 (c) 420 (d) 445

6. Find H.C.F. of 88 , 32 & 128

(a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 8 (d) 16

7. Find L.C.M. of 9 x5y6 & 36 x6 y7.

(a) 36 x6 y6 (b) 9 x5 y6 (c) 36 x6 y7 (d) 9 x6 y7

8. The least number which when divided by 35, 45 & 55 leaves the remainder 18 , 28 & 38 respectively is :

(a) 2468 (b) 3265 (c) 3448 (d) 3482



Logical Reasoning

15. Syllogism Test

The term ‘SYLLOGISM’ is used to denote that form of reasoning where conclusion is

drawn from two statements. This is undoubtedly the most important part of logical

reasoning. Logical reasoning is an indispensable feature of all competitive exams and tests

a candidate’s basic intelligence and aptitude. Some are of the opinion that Venn-diagram

can be of great use for solving questions of syllogism. No doubt a few questions can be

solved with the help of venn-diagrams, but Venn-diagram alone does not help the

students to solve variety of questions on syllogism. Even common sense also will not be of

much help in working out certain difficult questions. Only the basic concepts and rules

which have a bearing on reasoning faculty alone will help. To proceed further for the study

of rules, we must first know some terminology used in logic.

Proposition: A proposition, also known as a premise, is a grammatical sentence

which comprises a subject, a predicate and a copula. Subject is that which affirms or

denies a fact. Predicate is a term which states something about a subject and copula

establishes relationship between subject and predicate.



Example:

(i) All

(ii) No

Classification of Proposition:

A proposition can mainly be divided into three categories:

(a) Categorical: In categorical proposition there exists a relationship between Subject

and Predicate without any condition. It means predicate is either affirmation or denial of

the subjects unconditionally.

Example: (i) All books are chairs.

(ii) No apple is a Pen.

(b) Hypothetical: In hypothetical proposition, relationship between Subject and

Predicate is asserted onditionally.

Example: (i) If it rains, he will not come.

(ii) If he comes, I will accompany him.

(c) Disjunctive: In disjunctive proposition the assertion is of alteration.

Example: (i) Either he is honest or he is loyal.

(ii) Either he is educated or he is illiterate.



Keeping in view the existing pattern of syllogism in competitive exams, we are

concerned only with the categorical type of proposition.

Four – fold classification of categorical proposition:

Categorical proposition has been classified on the basis of quality and quantity of

proposition. Quality denotes whether the proposition is affirmative or negative. Quantity

represents whether the proposition is universal or particular.

The four-fold classification of categorical proposition can be sumarised as under:

Symbol Proposition Quantity Quality

A All A are B Universal Affirmative

E No A is B Universal Negative

I Some A are B Particular Affirmative

O Some A are not B Particular Negative

To draw valid inferences it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the A E, I,

O relationship.

Distribution: In a proposition a term (either subject or predicate) is said to be distributed

if the quantity of that term is well defined. For example in A type proposition (All A are B),

the quantity of subject, A, is defined. In E type proposition (No A is B) the quantity of

subject and predicate both are defined. In I type proposition (Some A are B) the quantity

of neither subject nor predicate is defined. And in O type proposition (Some A are not B)

the quantity of predicate is defined. This has, further been discussed in the following

paragraph in relation to each type separately.

1. Universal Affirmative or A – Type Proposition

Proposition: All A are B

The above proposition is universal affirmative or A- type proposition. Here, in the

proposition entire category represented by subject (A) is distributed in category as

represented by Predicatge (B). Also from graphical representation of the above proposition

we observe that all A are distributed in B.

From here, we conclude that in A-type proposition only subject is distributed.

2. Universal Negative or E-Type Proposition

Proposition: No A is B



In this type of proposition both Subject and Predicate are denial of each other. This

can also be seen in the diagram that (A), (B), have nothing in common and hence both

Subject and Predicate are distributed.

3. Particular Affirmative or I-Type Proposition

Proposition: Some A are B

Fig. 3 represents the I-type proposition graphically. In this type Subject and

Predicate have something in common. This implies that in I-type neither Subject nor

Predicate is distributed.

4. Particular Negative or O-Type Proposition

Proposition: Some A are not B

In O-type proposition some of the category represented by (A) Subject is not B,

which means that a section of A is denied with the entire category of B. It is, therefore,

deduced that in O-type proposition only Predicate is distributed.

Before we proceed to the rules for arriving at valid inferences, it is necessary to

have a clear understanding of difference between Immediate inference and Mediate

inference. Lack of conceptual knowledge of this difference can lead to confusion while

solving questions on syllogism. On account of different logical approach required to be

applied for drawing each type of inference, a clear understanding of this difference

becomes more important.



Immediate Inference: In syllogism a conclusion is drawn from two propositions

connected by a common term which is popularly known as middle term.

Statements: 1. Some tigers are cows

2. No cow is goat.

In the above pair of statements the term cow is common to both the statements

and links the two statements. Now if an inference is drawn from any one of the two

statements without taking consideration the other statement it is known as Immediate

inference. We are giving below the immediate inferences drawn from the above two

statements.

Conclusions:

(i) Some cows are tigers (From statement 1)

(ii) No goat is cow (From statement 2)

Mediate Inference: In mediate inference coclusion is drawn from the two

statements connected by the middle term. Hence, in mediate inference middle term will

be missing.

Statements: 1. Some tables are trees.

2. No tree is door.

Conclusion: (i) Some tables are not doors.

(ii) No table is a door.

In the above conclusions we see that middle term ‘tree’ is missing and hence these

conclusions are mediate inferences. So, it is clear from the above discussion that



Immediate inference is drawn from a single statement whereas the Mediate inference is

drawn from two statements.

Rules for Immediate Inference: Immediate Inferences can be drawn with the

help of some rules. These rules are divided into four heads as follow:

(a) Conversion (b) Obversion (c) Contrapostion (d)

Subalteration

(a) Conversion: In conversion the subject and the predicate of a given

proposition are transposed, ie, the subject becomes the predicate and the predicate

becomes the subject. The quality of the proposition remains unchanged, ie, the affirmative

remains affirmative and the negative remains negative.

In conversion, A-type proposition can be converted into I-type. E-type propositions

can be converted into E-type. I-type can be converted into I-type and O-type proposition

cannot be conveted.

Examples:

(i) Statement : All lamps are mangoes. (A-type)

Conclusion : Some mangoes are lamps. (I-Type)

(ii) Statement : No men are wise. (E-Type)

Conclusion : No wise are men. (E-Type)

(iii) Statement : Some chairs are tables. (I-Type)

Conclusion : Some tables are chairs. (I-Type)

(b) Obversion: In obversion the conclusion is drawn from interchanging the

quality (affirmative to negative and negative to affirmative) while retaining its original

meaning. The subject of the given statement remains the subject in the conclusion.

Example:

(i) Statement : No men are perfect. (E-Type)

Conclusion : All men are non-perfect. (A-Type)

(c) Contraposition: In this case, there will be double change, first to obverse and

then to converse.

Example: (i) Statement: No men are perfect (E-Type)

Conclusion: All men are non-perfect (A, - Obverse)

Conclusion: Some non-perfect beings are men. (I-Converse)



(d) Sub-alteration: A proposition can be changed into a sub-alternation form by

having the same subject, same predicate, same quality but with changed quantity. Thus,

A will be changed to I and E will be changed to O.

Example:

(i) Statement : All men are wise. (A)

Conclusion : Some men are wise. (I)

(ii) Statement : No men are perfect. (E)

Conclusion : Some men are not perfect. (O)

For conceptual simplicity and procedural convenience of students we are giving

below all the possible valid immediate inferences drawn from each type of proposition (A,

E, I, O). A study of the table given below will enable a student to remember all the valid

immediate inferences easily without going into details of above rules.

Type Proposition Valid Immediate Inferences

A All A are B Some B are A

Some A are B

No B is A

E No A is B Some A are not B

Some B are not A

I Some A are R Some B are A

O Some A are not B No inference

Immediate inferences drawn from each type of proposition (A, E, I, O) as given in

the above table are based on the different rules as discussed in the foregoing paragraphs.

The same inferences can also be drawn from logic using Venn-diagrams. But one of the

important points to be noted while drawing such inferences from the Venn-diagrams is

that all possibilities of Venn-diagrams should be drawn. Let us now discuss each type of

proposition in relation to the pictorial representation.

1. A-Type – All A are B

It is clear from the A type of proposition that all A are contained in B. Therefore,

circle representing A will be either inside or equal to circle representing B. However, in

both the cases conclusions (Some B are A) are (Some A are B) are ture. This case can be

comprehended clearly by taking two sets in all possible ways.

(i) A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}



(ii) A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 2, 3}

The above cases show all possibilities of two sets A and B showing the relationship

between other as represented by the proposition – All A are B. Now in both the

cases we see that set {2, 3} is the part of set A and also of set B. Hence, it is clear

that inference (Some A are B) is true from this relationship. Likewise set {2, 3} is

the part of set B and also of set A. Therefore, it is also clear that inference (Some B

are A) is true. Inference (Some B are not A) is not valid because it is true from

case (i) but false from case (ii). Inference (All B are A) is not valid because it is

true from case (ii) and false from case (i).

Multiple Choice Questions:

Type 1

Directions (Q. 1 – 25): In each question below is given a statement followed by two

conclusions numbered I and II. You have to assume everything in the statement to be

true; then consider the two conclusions together and decide which of them logically

follows beyond a resanoable doubt from the information given in the statement.

Give answer

(a) If only conclusion I follows.

(b) If only conclusion II follows.

(c) If neither I nor II follows.

(d) If both I and II follow.

1. Statements : All books are Copies.

All Copies are Cakes.

Conclusion : I. All books are Cakes.

II. All Cakes are books.

2. Statements : All girls are honest person.

All honest persons are intelligent.

Conclusion : I. Some girls are intelligent.

II.Some intelligent are girls.

3. Statements : All elephants are dog.

No dog is a cow.

Conclusion : I. No cow is an elephant.



II. Some dogs are not cows.

4. Statements : No pen is a potato.

All potatoes are tomatoes.

Conclusion : I. Some pens are tomatoes.

II. Some pens are not tomatoes.

5. Statements : All skirts are shirts.

All keys are skirts.

Conclusion : I. All keys are shirts.

II. All shirts are keys.

6. Statements : No room is a house.

All houses are village.

Conclusion : I. Some rooms are villages.

II. Some rooms are not villages.

7. Statements : No mango is an apple.

No apple is a guava.

Conclusion : I. Some mangoes are guavas.

II. Some guavas ar mangoes.

8. Statements : No book is a pen.

All pens are white dress.

Conclusion : I. Some white dress are pens.

II. No pen is a book.

9. Statements : No bulb is a television.

All televisions are radios.

Conclusion : I. Some radios are not bulb.

II. Some television are not bulbs.

10.Statements : No rickshaw is a bicycle.

All bicycles are motor-cycle.



Conclusion : I. Some rickshaws are not motor-cycles.

II. Some motor-cycles are not rickshaws.



16. Decision Making

Decision making is an indispensable process in one’s personal and official life. A

decision is the final outcome of the process of evaluating and analyzing data. Systematic

analysis of facts and figures reduces the chances of inaccuracy and ensures speedy

decision making. The idea behind incorporating these questions in the competition is to

test candidate’s ability to exploit data for decision making.

In these questions, a set of conditions showing criterian for the selection of a

candidate for a particular job is given. Students are required to match personal data of a

person with the conditions given to select him/her for the job. Following examples will

illustrate these questions.

Examples

Directions: Following are the conditions for drawing a list of suitable candidates to

be called for interview after a written test for recruitment conducted for supervisory level

persons for a reputed company providing software and services.

A candidate must –

(a) be holding a degree in basic science with 60% or above or engineering degree with

45% and above marks.

(b) have passed the written examination with 65% or above marks.

(c) be in the age group of 24 years to 30 years as on 1.4.1997.

(d) have experience of working in a computer company for a minimum period of 3 years

after haing obtained diploma in computers with 60% or above marks.



(e) be presently drawing a monthly salary of Rs 8,000 and above.

In case of the applicant, who satisfies all other criteria except

(i) at (a) above, be referred to the Manager (Recruitment)

(ii) at (b) above, but has more than 75% marks in M. Sc. In Engineering degree be

referred to the Asstt Gen Manager (AGM)

(iii)at (c) above be referred to the General Manager (GM) Based on these criteria and

information provided below, decide the course of action in each case. You are not

to assume anything if the data provided is not adequate to decide the given course

of action, your answer will be “data inadequate”.

The cases are given to you as on 1.4.1997.

1. Niranjan Singh did his diploma in computers at the age of 22 after completing his

BSc. Immediately after completing his diploma he got job in a coputer company

and is employed for the last four years with a salary of Rs 10,500 per month. He

has got more than 65% marks in all examinations including the written

examinations.

(a) Data inadequate

(b) Refer to Manager (Recruitment)

(c) Do not call for interview

(d) Refer to Asstt Gen Manager

(e) Call for interview

2. Kamalnath has been working in a computer company for the last 6 yr after

completing his diploma in computers with 62% marks. He has completed 28 yr of

age in September 1995.

(a) Data inadequate

(b) Do not call for interview

(c) Call for interview

(d) Refer to GM

(e) Refer to AGM

3. Dipti Sahi has been working in supervisory capacity for the last 4 yr in a computer

company after having completed her engineering degree with 55% and diploma in

computers with 70% marks. She has secured 72% marks in the written

examination. Her date of birth is 15 January 1967 and her present salary is Rs

10,000 per month.



(a) Data inadequate

(b) Call for interview

(c) Do not call for interview

(d) Refer to General Manager

4. Jemina Khan completed her BSc at the age of 21 yr, completed her one year’s

diploma in computers immediately and got a job in June 1994. She draws a

monthly salary of Rs 11,000/- She has cleared all her examinations with a

minimum of 68% marks.

(a) Refer to GM

(b) Refer to AGM

(c) Refer to Manager (Recruitment)

(d) Do not call for interview

(e) Data inadequate

5. Anand Gupta has done his masters degree in science and then completed his

diploma in computers with 64% marks from a reputed institute. For last 4 yr he

has been working ina computer company. His age is 27 yr and his present salary is

Rs 8,500 per month. He has obtained 68% marks in the written examination.

(a) Refer to Manager

(b) Data inadequate

(c) Call for interview

(d) Do not call for interview

(e) Refer to Asstt interview



17. Statement-Assumptions

Definition: An assumption is a statement for which no proof or evidence is

offered. It is a hidden premise. It is something supposed or taken for granted.

It is a supposition (or presumption) on the basis of which we may take actions.

When Someone says something, he does not put everything into words. That

means some things are left unsaid. These unsaid things which a person takes for granted

is an assumption.

When we go to the reailway Station to catch a train scheduled at 2.30 pm, we

assume that the train will arrive on time.

When we see cloud in the sky we assume that it may rain.

Naturally, when the assumption are wrong the actions taken would be wrong and

the expected result would not be achieved. Assumptions can be either stated or unstated,

they are most often unstated.

Types of questions and hints to solve them:

1. Words like ‘all’, ‘best’, ‘certainly’, ‘definitely’, ‘only’, ‘strongest’, are associated with

some statements. So, when they appear in assumption, you must be extra cautious to

determine whether the assumption is implicit or not.

Example:

Statement: The new scheme gives people the opportunity to voluntarily declare their

undisclosed property and legitimize it by paying the lowest ever rate of tax.



Assuptions: (i) The new scheme is the best of all such schemes.

(ii) People may desire to pay less tax and own things legitimately.

Explanation: The fist assumption is not implicit because of the word ‘best’ in it. Based on

the given statement, we cannot assume that this is the best of all such schemes. Also, the

second assumption is not implicit because nothing is known about what people desire.

2. Sometimes, a statement consists of two classes joined by a conjunction. Presence of

some conjunction like ‘because’, ‘so’, ‘therefore’, ‘despire’, ‘inspire of’, ‘ever after’,

‘even through’, ‘although’, ‘as’, ‘as a result of’ help us to detect the hidden assumption

in a statement.

Example:

Statement: There was no outbreak of leptospirosis in city ‘X’ in spite of water-logging in

some areas.

Implicit Assuption: Water-logging usually leads to leptospirosis.

3. In certain cases, when the statement discusses some subject, it can be assumed that

it exists and when the statement mentions somebody’s absence, it follows that it is

non-existent.

Example:

Statement: Pampered children are often arrogant.

Implicit Assuption: (i) children are pampered.

(ii) There are arrogant children.

4. Also, when a statement includes an adjective that describes something

unconditionally, we can assume that the subject described has the quality denoted by

the adjective.

Example:

Statement: A trained dolphin saved the life of a drowning boy.

Implicit Assuption: Dolphins can be trained.

5. Some statements have conjunctions like ‘hence’, ‘therefore’, ‘as’, ‘thus’ indicating

cause-effect relationship. For all these cases, an assumption stating the cause that led

to its effect is valid. This cause-effect relationship is sometimes clearly stated or

sometimes, it is hidden.

Example: As you do not have experience, you cannot be selected.



Implicit Assuption: Experience is necessary for selection.

6. Sometimes, the statement is given in the form of an official or an advertisement of a

product or advertisement given by companies or public interest notices issued by

government bodies. For all these statements, the following assumptions are said to be

implicit:

(i) An advertisement/notice/appeal definitely has some effect.

(ii) People who issue public interest notices are responsible for it and it is their duty to

issue them. Also, what is being advised in these notices is for their benefit and its

noncompliance is risky in some way.

(iii)Implementation of any official notice is beneficial for the organization.



Multiple Choice Questions:

Type 1

Directions: In each question below is given a statement followed by two assumptions

numbered (I) and (II). You have to consider the statement and the following assumptions

and decide which of the assumptions is implicit in the statement.

Give answer

(a) If only assumption (I) is implicit

(b) If only assumption (II) is implicit

(c) If neither (I) nor (II) is implicit

(d) If both (I) and (II) are implicit.

1. Statement: Mankind can get freedom only through revolution.

Assumptions: (I) Revolutions can bring freedom.

(II) Except revolution there is no other method of

getting freedom.

2. Statement: The situation calls for immediate action.

Assumptions: (I) The situation is serious

(II) Immediate action is possible.

3. Statement: Poverty is a symptom as well as a consequence of social

disorder.

Assumptions: (I) Poverty is a type of social order.

(II) Poverty is related to social disorder.

4. Statement: “Educating the users can help control vehicular pollution.”

Assumptions: (I) Users are unaware of their contribution to

vehicular pollution.

(II) It is difficult to curb vehicular pollution.

5. Statement: “The most common forms of cancer can be attributed to heredity to

a much higher degree than previously though,” says the report of a study

published recently.



Assumptions: (I) Heredity was considered to be the main cause of

all cancers previously.

(II) A similar study was conducted some time ago.

6. Statement: “Desirable and qualified candidates should submit their application

form along with the requisite qualifications and their biodata” – An advertisement

for admission.

Assumptions: (I) Merely having qualification and aptitude for the

job does not make a person suitable for the job.

(II) Many candidates will apply because they are

interested in the job.

7. Statement: “Children of women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely to

start smoking at a younger age” says the report of a research, conducted by

college of medicine of ‘X’ university.

Assumptions: (I) Foetal exposure to tobacco has a significant

impact on early initiation of tobacco use in

children.

(II) Tobacco exposure damages the developing brain

of a foetus.

8. Statement: Friendship is more necessary for the happy than for the unhappy.

Assumptions: (I) Happpiness is increased by having friends.

(II) Unhappiness is decreased by having friends.

9. Statement: Effective Propaganda is possible when the concerned understands

symbols and their relationship with the things.

Assumptions: (I) Propaganda must be effective.

(II) For propaganda symbols are related with things

they represent.

10. Statement: You cannot be employed, as you do not have expertise.

Assumptions: (I) A person with expertise is needed.

(II) You do not have expertise.



Basic English

Chapter 1

Introduction to grammar

Grammar is a precise study of scientific method providing essential information and

guidance to learn a language.

No one can claim to be a proficient in any language unless he has mastered the rules of

grammar of that language. Grammar also makes one acquainted with the sentence

structure and patterns, it also teaches how words are formed and it defines various parts

of speech, thereby providing adequate information as to when and where these parts of

speech are used in written English. Thus, Grammar is very essential for communication

and correspondence and its importance is indubitably unprecedented. English language is

not difficult to master if you understand the basics of grammar precisely.

More imperatively, sentence correction and sentence completion form an essential part of

CLAT exam. And to master topics like sentence correction and sentence completion we

should be familiar with the nuances of grammar usage so that we can identify the error.

Having realized the significance of English grammar we have designed this book to

enhance your knowledge of functional grammar through practice tasks.This book meets with all

these requirements of learning language. It is more concept based, exam - oriented and

reader friendly. The subject matter of this book is comprehensive, rigorous and yet very

simple. The salient features of this book are that it covers all the pertinent grammar topics

which are asked in CLAT examination and at the end of each chapter a set of practice

papers are given. All these try to test the aspirants’ grasp of English grammar. The book

is an attempt to compile and illustrate the fundamental rules, grammar and usage with

lucid and easy to understand approach. Each rule is followed by necessary explanations.

Explanations are as far as possible, in simple, everyday language. Examples of correct

usage and wherever necessary, examples of typical mistakes are given. The examples

worked out as illustrations have been carefully chosen and judiciously graded.

The purpose of the present book is exclusively meant to help students deal with the

English section in the CLAT with confidence. It aims to familiarize the student with the



wide range of questions usually asked in the entrance tests of most Law Schools and

accelerate your learning process.

As your chosen study partner, in this book we aim to help you as follows:

1. Enhance your knowledge of functional grammar through practice tasks.

2. Train you to spot and use the required tools to solve verbal ability and critical reasoning

problems.

3. A multiflex approach to English Language to make you familiar with the widest verbal usage.

Be resolute. Make up your mind. Set time – bound goals and go for them. Always remember you

are as lucky as the amount of hard work you put into your efforts. Take a plunge and enjoy it.

Grammar Glossary

Noun – A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.

Example: John, Maria, Pune, Table, Computer, etc.

Pronoun – A word used as a substitute for a noun (known as the antecedent).

Example: The pronoun is a lonely word: it must always be paired with an

antecedent.

Adjective – A word or group of words that describe or modify a noun.

Example: The slow, meandering creek sang a gentle song.

Verb – A word that expresses action or being.

Example: A verb is a word that expresses action or being.

Subject – The thing is the sentence that is being discussed. Usually a noun or a noun phrase.

Example: The butterfly had a short but beautiful existence.

Agreement – A singular noun or pronoun must take a singular verb, and a plural noun or

pronoun must take a plural verb.

Active Voice – A sentence style in which the subject performs the action. Usually preferable

to passive voice unless the passive is specifically called for.

Passive Voice – A sentence style in which the action is performed on the subject. Usually

inferior to the active voice unless specifically called for.

Active Voice example: The lightning stuck the tree.

Passive Voice example: The tree was struck by lightning.

Apostrophe – A punctuation mark (’) used to show possession. Also used in contractions,

which should be avoided in formal prose.

Possession example: “That was Nikhil’s favorite coffee mug.”



Contraction example: “You shouldn’t have dropped it.”

Appositive – A noun or pronoun set beside another noun or pronoun to modify it. Usually

accompanied by modifiers.

Example: An experienced backpacker, she left no trace of where she had

camped.

Conjunction – A word that joins words or phrases (i.e. and, but, or).

Example: I’ll pass on the chicken burger, but I’d love some pizza.

Clause – A group of words containing both a subject and a predicate.

Dependent (Subordinate) Clause – A clause that can not stand alone as a sentence and

must be combined with an independent clause.

Dependent Clause example: As the hobo passed through town…..

Independent Clause – A clause that can stand alone as a sentence.

Independent Clause example: The hobo passed through town unnoticed.

Nothing will happen

until you generate the will to

MAKE IT HAPPEN.-Steve Chandler



Chapter 2

Nouns

1. A Noun is the name of a person, place or thing, e.g.:

i. Ram is a good boy.

ii. Delhi is a big city.

iii A carpenter made this table.

The italicized words in the above sentences are nouns.

2. Nouns are of the following kinds:

(a) Proper Noun

(b) Common Noun

(c) Collective Noun

(d) Material Noun

(c) Abstract Noun

3. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, place

or thing:

i. India is a great country.

iii. Newton was a great scientist.

iii. The Gita is a holy book.

4. Common noun is the name given to the things which are very many of the same class.

Like, a table, chair, pen, pencil, man, woman etc.,

Sometimes, a Proper Noun may be used as a Common Noun, but even in that state, it will

begin with a capital letter, e.g.:

(i) Munshi Prem Chand is the Charles Dickens of India.

(ii) Kalidasa is the Shakespeare of India.

(iii) Ritesh is the Newton of our class.



5. A Collective Noun is the name of the same type of persons or things taken together and

regarded as one entity, e.g.:

(i) A bunch of keys or grapes.

(ii) A gang of bandits.

(iii) A class of students.

(iv) An army of soldiers.

(v) A hive of bees.

(vi) A fleet of ships.

(vii) A constellation or galaxy of stars.

(viii) An archipelago of islands.

(ix) A bevy of girls.

(x) A crowd of people.

(xi) A mob of unorganised people.

(xii) A swarm of flies.

(xiii) A jury of judges.

(xiv) A herd of cattle.

(xv) A flock of sheep.

(xvi) A committee of members.

(xvii) A team of sportsmen.

A Collective Noun comprises a collection of Common Nouns and is in itself used as if it

were a Common Noun, e.g.:

(i) This class consists of fifty students.

(ii) The jury was unanimous in its opinion.

(iii) The crowd was too large to be controlled by the police.

(iv) The mob attacked the police station.

(v) The Indian Army defeated the Pakistan Army.

(vi) The British Cricket Team is scheduled to visit India next month.

(vii) A bevy of girls has just entered the garden.

(viii) I have lost a bunch of keys.

(ix) A fleet of Indian ships is moving towards the Chinese sea.

(x) The bees rear their young ones in the hive.

(xi) Our class has been adjudged the best one in cleanliness in the school.

(xii) A swarm of flies often hovers over uncovered trays of sweets.



(xiii) A crew of sailors controlled the ship in the stormy sea.

6. A Material Noun denotes the original or raw elements or objects existing in nature, e.g.: gold,

iron, cotton, wool, silk, sugar, honey, milk, water, wheat, rice etc.

(a) The Definite Article “the” is often not used before a material noun, e.g.:

(i) Gold is a precious metal.

(ii) Milk is good for health.

(iii) Rice is the staple food of most of the people of the world.

(iv) Honey is sweet when tasted.

(v) We cannot live without air and water.

(b) When a Material Noun is used in a particular sense, the Article “the” is used before it,

e.g.:

(i) The iron imported from China is of inferior quality.

(ii) The water of this well is cool.

(iii) The honey in this hive is of a superior quality.

(iv) The cotton growing in this field has been sprayed with insecticides.

7. An Abstract Noun is impalpable and intangible and indicates any of the following four things:

(a) Quality: truth, honesty, kindness, humility, goodness, cunningness, bravery, softness,

gentleness, wisdom, foolishness, dullness etc.

(b) Action: movements, action, activity, theft, hatred, jugglery, mischief, behaviour etc.

(c) State: infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth, adolescence, freedom, slavery, soundness,

liveliness, sickness, sleep, death, penury, etc.

(d) Names of various arts, sciences and professions: economics, politics, history,

literature, physics, chemistry, botany, music, grammar, anthropology, pharmacy, etc.

Generally we do not use any articles before abstract noun. But when it is particularized definite

article can be used before it.

(i) Childhood is a care-free period.

The childhood of Ram was full of misery.

(ii) Honesty is the best policy.

The honesty of the boy pleased me.

(iii) Unity is strength.



The unity of our country depends on communal harmony.

Now let’s study some of the rules relating to the usage of nouns:

RULES - NOUNS

For the sake of convenience we divide nouns in different groups

and see how they are used:

Rule 1 Numerals preceding nouns: See following

examples:

Ten thousand rupees and not ten thousands rupees

30 head of cattle and not 30 heads of cattle

Two dozen eggs and not two dozens eggs

Two pair of shoes and not two pairs of shoes

But-

Dozens of pencils

Thousands of men and women

Hundreds of people

Scores of years

Many pairs of gloves

Rule 2 Hyphenation:

Three-way Street and not three-ways Street

Ten-rupee note and not ten-rupees note

A three-foot ruler and not a three-feet rules.

A 20-year old boy and not a 20-years old boy

Ten-kilo weight and ten-kilo weight

a four-man committee and not a four-men committee

6-mile race and not a six-miles race



five-year plan and not five-years plan

5-foot deep well and not 5-feet deep well

Rule 3 A collective noun usually takes a singular verb and is substituted by a singular

pronoun if it is taken as one whole:

The committee has given its decision.

The jury has given its opinion.

The Parliament has supported this issue with one accord

But-

The jury were divided in their opinion.

Team were wearing different colour shirts.

The parliament were divided in their support to the bill.

The ship sank and the crew were also drowned.

Rule 4 If the same noun is repeated before and after a preposition, the noun is used in

singular form each time and the verb used is also singular:

(i) Truck after truck is bringing people to the venue.

(ii) Mistake after mistake was committed by him.

(iii) Chance after chance was lost by our team to level the score.

(iv) Wave upon wave was rising, but he controlled the boat.

(v) Attempt after attempt was made, but no success could be achieved.

Rule 5 If two or more than two adjectives are connected with ‘and’ and the article has

been used only before the first adjective, the noun used after them will be in the

plural number and if the article is used before each adjective, the noun will be in

the singular:

(i) This art form was very popular in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

(ii) This art form was very popular in the thirteenth and the fourteenth century.

(iii) He has a office each at the seventh and eighth floors of this building.

(iv) He has a office each at the seventh and the eighth floor of this building.

(v) A number of historical incidents took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

(vi) A number of historical incidents took place in the seventeenth and the eighteenth

century.

Rule 6 A material noun does not take an article before it and not used in plural form:

(i) A book is made of paper and not papers.



(ii) Give me a paper is wrong, say give me a piece of paper.

(iii) Cotton is a cash crop.

(iv) The house is built of stone and brick, and not stones and bricks.

(v) Iron is a heavy metal.

(vi) Gold is a precious metal.

Rule 7 Young children and lower animals are referred to as of the neuter gender:

(i) The baby is playing with its toys.

(ii) The mouse lost its tail when a cat pounced on it.



Verbal Ability

Chapter - 1

Verbal Analogy

Direction: In each of the following questions, you are given a related pair of words or

phrases in capital letters. Each capitalized pair is followed by four lettered pairs of words or

phrases. Choose the pair which best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed by

the original pair.

ANALGESIC: PAIN::

1. Expenses: audit 2. Truss: suspension

3. Durability: hardware 4. Lubricant: friction

The relationship between the capitalized pair of words can be summarized as: An

ANALGESIC helps to reduce PAIN. The correct answer is (4), lubricant helps to reduce

friction.

What is an analogy?

Analogies are all about relationships. They test your ability to see a relationship between two

words and to recognize a similar relationship between two other words. The key to analogy success

is being able to express the relationship between the words in a pair e.g.

SCRIBBLE: WRITE::

1. Inform: supply 2. Mutter: listen 3. Nuzzle: feel 4. Stagger: walk

Here, the answer is (4) and the relationship that exists between them is that one word is a

spurious form of the other word. Scribbling is bad kind of writing and staggering is a bad kind of

walking.

Steps to solve such questions:

1. Find out how the capitalized words are related and even check their order.

2. Create a sentence that expresses that connection.

3. Test the choice with your sentence and eliminate the ones that don’t work.



4. if you are left with more than one answer or no answer at all- go back and refine your

sentence.

5. Choose the best answer. If none of the choices fits exactly, choose the one that works best.

Now let’s try out these five steps on an analogy question.

CONDEMNATION: DISAPPROVAL::

1. Ignorance: patience 2. Blasphemy: irreverence

3. Optimism: insight 4. Sorrow: intention

1. By definition, the relationship is one of “defining characteristic”.

2. A sentence that expresses this connection is “Disapproval is the defining characteristic of

condemnation”.

3. Test the choice with the sentence. Answer is (2) because “Irreverence is the defining

characteristic of blasphemy”. There is no need to go back and refine the sentence, so skip

steps 4 & 5 and mark your answer.

NOTE: The most important tip to get your analogies right is to have a good vocabulary because

until and unless you know the meanings of the words, you can’t express relationship between them.

So, start working on your word power now, e.g.

GRAIN: SILO::

1. Pilot: plane 2. Judge: courtroom 3. Water: reservoir 4. Clock: time

Now, if you know a silo is a place where grain is stored then it becomes extremely easy to gauge the

relationship. The answer is (3) because a reservoir is a place where water is stored.

There are various types of relationships that exist between words. They are:

S.

No.Types of Relationship Examples Explanation

1.“Part of the definition of’

analogies

AGGRESSION: BELLICOSITY

RIDDICULE: BURLESQUE

FAMOUS: CELEBRITY

One word is part of the

definition of another word.

2.“Lack of something is part

of the definition” Analogies

POVERTY: FUNDS

TRAITOR: LOYALTY

AMNESIA: MEMORY

One word lacks in the

definition of the other word.

3.“This is a spurious form of

that” analogies

STUMBLE: WALK

BRAVADO: COURAGE

QUACK: PHYSICIAN

One word is the spurious or

distorted form of the other

word.



4. “Degree” analogies

DRIZZLE: POUR

PROTEST: REVOLUTION

BREEZE: GALE

One word is more powerful

than the other word.

5. “Part of Whole” analogies

MOVEMENT: SONATA

PAGE: BOOK

VERSE: SONG

One word is a part of the

other word.

6. “Type of” analogies

BALLAD: SONG

CARDIOLIGIST: PHYSICIAN

SWORD: WEAPON

One word is a type of the

other word.

7. “Sequence” analogies

FOREWORD: APPENDIX

REHEARSAL: PERFORMANCE

INFECTION: ILLNESS

One word precedes the other

word.

8. “Tool” analogies

PAINTBRUSH: ARTIST

SCALPEL: SURGEON

TELESCOPE: ASTRONOMER

One word is a tool used by a

particular person.

9. “A place for” analogies

WITNESS: COURTROOM

FARMER: FIELD

DOCTOR: HOSPITAL

One word serves as a place

for a particular person.

10. “Interruption” analogies

RETIREMENT: SERVICE

DISMISSAL: EMPLOYMENT

DIVORCE: MARRIAGE

One word marks an

interruption to the other

word.

11. “Sigh of” analogies

GRIMACE: PAIN

SIGH: RELIEF

FIDGET: RESTLESSNESS

One word is a sign of the

other word.

12.“Instrument and

measurement”

BAROMETER: PRESSURE

ALTIMETER: ALTITUDE

LACTOMETER: MILK PURITY

A particular instrument in

used to measure particular

quantities.

13.“Product and raw material

relationship”

BUTTER: MILK

SMETAL: ORE

WINE: GRAPES

One word is a raw material

used in the manufacture of

the other word.

14.“Study and Topic”

relationship

BOTANY: PLANTS

ICTHYOLOGY: FISHES

SEISMOLOGY:

EARTHQUAKES

One word is used for the

study of particular topic.

15.“Quantity and units

relationship”

CURRENT: AMPERE

PRESSURE: PASCAL

RESISTANCE: OHM

A particular quantity is

measured in particular units.



16.“Animal and young ones”

relationship”

BUTTERFLY: CATERPILLAR

HORSE: PONY

LION: CUB

A particular word is used for

the young one of a particular

animal.

17.“Tool and Action

relationship”

AUGER: BORE

CHISEL: CARVE

NEEDLE: STITCH

A particular tool is used for

doing particular action.

18.“Worker and product”

relationship

AUTHOR: BOOK

TAILOR: CLOTHES

SCULPTOR: SCULPTURE

A particular product is made

by a particular person.

19.“Country and Capital

relationship

AUSTRIA: VIENNA

INDIA: NEW DELHI

U.S.A.: WASHINGTON D.C.

A particular place is the

capital of a particular

country.

20.“Country and Continent”

relationship

INDIA: ASIA

ARGENTINA: SOUTH

AMERICA

A particular country is in a

particular continent.

21.“Rivers and country”

relationship

AMAZON: AMERICA

BRAHMPUTRA: INDIA

HUDSON: AMERICA

A particular river flows

through a particular country.

22.“Country and Language

relationship

GREECE: GREEK

IRAQ: ARABIC

COLOMBIA: SPANISH

A particular language is

spoken in a particular

country.

23.“Relationship of

“Comparison”

CLEAR: CRYSTAL

BUSY: BEE

CHEERFUL: LARK

One word can be compared

to the other word.

24.“Group and Unit”

relationship

PACK: HOUNDS

CHOIR: SINGERS

CONGREGATION:

WORSHIPPERS

A particular word is used to

name a particular group.

25.“Home and object”

relationship

ARSENAL: WEAPONS

BARRACKS: SOLDIER

DOCKYARD: SHIP

Particular objects are kept in

a particular place.

26.“Animal – Sound”

relationship

BIRDS: TWITTER

APES: GIBBER

CATTLE: LOW

Particular animals produce

particular sounds.

27. “Sex” relationship

BOY: GIRL

NEPHEW: NIECE

GENTLEMAN: LADY

Both words are of opposite

sex.

28. “Age” relationshipNAN: BOY

CALF: COW

Different terms are used for

different ages of same type.



COLT: HORSE

29. “Characteristic” relationship

INTELLIGENTSIA: ELITIST

RABBLE: PLEBEIAN

GENEROSITY:PHILANTHROP

IST

One word is a characteristic

of a particular person.

30. “Location” relationship

LOTUS TEMPLE: DELHI

JAIPUR: RAJASTHAN

HANGING GARDEN:

BABYONIA

First is located in the other

31. “Synonyms” relationship

SOLICIT: REQUEST

FALLACY: ILLUSION

HACYNEYED: BANAL

Both are similar in meaning.

32. “Antonyms” relationship

ABDUCT: LIBERATE

CONTUMACIOUS: OBEDIENT

EPHEMERAL: PERMANENT

Both are similar in meaning.

33. “Utilitarian” relationship

TRUCK: TRANSPORT

ARTICLE: PURPOSE

PAINTING: DECORATION

A particular item has a

particular use.

34.“Cause and Effect”

relationship

GERMS: DISEASE

STORM: HAVOC

SCANDAL: IGNOMINY

One is the cause and other is

the effect.

35. “Blood/family” relationship

BROTHER: SISTER

FATHER: MOTHER

UNCLE: AUNT

Both belong to same family.

Analogies are basically a test of vocabulary. The given pair of words has a certain relationship

which needs to be identified and then pick the correct alternative on the basis of the instructions

given.

While it is essential that one’s vocabulary be very good, it is more important to be able to spot the

relationship between the given words. If you are in doubt about the basic relationship it is advisable

to not waste any further time and progress to the next analogy. A good understanding of usage,

knowledge of commonly used phrases and idioms go a long way in cracking analogies. These are the

least time consuming questions in the English secton and with practice you should be able to

average 6-8 questions per minute.

What Is An Analogy?

In general, an analogy is a parallel that is drawn between two different, but sufficiently similar,

events, situations, or circumstances. A verbal analogy draws a parallel between one pair of words

and another pair of words.



Directions: Each of the following items consists of a related pair of words or phrases presented in

capital letters, followed by five lettered pairs of words or phrases presented in lower case letters. For

each question, choose the lettered pair that expresses the same relationship as that expressed in

the capitalized pair.

EXAMPLE:

UNFETTERED: PINIONED::?

1. recite: practiced 2. sully: impure

3. enlighten: ignorant 4. rever: unrecognized 5. adore: cordial

The single and double colons punctuate the analogy, telling where the comparison has been made.

The answer is 3. To be unfettered is to be free, to be pinioned is to be chained down. Antonyms. So

are to be enlightened and to be ignorant.

Relationships

A few analogies are not based upon actual dictionary definitions, but there is nonetheless a tight

connection between the two words. With a tight connection, you don’t need to know anything about

the particular facts of the case to understand the connection. All you have to do is think about the

meanings of words. To illustrate the point, contrast the following sentences:

This spinster is not married

This teacher is not married

The first sentence is necessarily true because part of the meaning of spinster is “unmarried”. The

second sentence may or may not be true, depending on the teacher’s marital status.

For this reason, you would never find a capitalized pair of words such as TEACHER: MARRIED.

SPINSTER: MARRIED, however, could be the basis for an analogy because of the tight connection

between the words. Knowing that the connections you are looking for must be tight can help you to

attack analogies.

EXAMPLE:

DAMP: VIBRATION::

1. drench: moisture 2. concentrate: extraction

3. boil: liquid 4. seal: perforation 5. stanch: flow

At first glance, you might think that the damp in the above analogy means “Moist”. You can try to

say something like “I vibrate when I am damp”, but there is no tight connection between damp and

vibration, so that cannot be the meaning intended in the analogy. Damping also refers to the

process of reducing vibrations, and that is the meaning intended here. Using this meaning, there is

a tight connection between the words. The answer therefore is 5. Damp stops vibrations. Stanch

checks the flow of blood in a wound.



What makes for difficult analogies?

1. Level of Vocabulary

Some analogies are difficult because they contain difficult vocabulary words.

EXAMPLES:

URGE: REQUEST::?

1. pry: inquiry 2. balk: obstacle

3. ruminate: silence 4. discountenance: plea

5. vitiate: punishment

IMPORTUNE: REQUEST::?

1. pry: inquiry 2. balk: obstacle

3. ruminate: silence 4. discountenance: plea

5. vitiate: punishment

The answer to both the questions is 1. The justification too is the same in both the cases. To urge is

a more intrusive form of a request. To pry is to inquire inquisitively.

Similarly importune is to make persistent or pressing requests. The second analogy is more difficult

because importune is not as well known as urge is.

2. A second reason that some analogies are more difficult concerns the type of relationship

involved. Some analogy relationships are concrete. The relationship just discussed (“is more

intrusive form of”) is quite familiar and very concrete. The following analogy is more abstract.

EXAMPLE:

ZEALOUS: ENTHUSIASTIC::?

1. pedantic: educated 2. flamboyant: stylish

3. cautious: prudent 4. pious: virtuous 5. idolatrous:

devoted

The best answer to this more difficult analogy is 5. Zealous is to be ardent, enthusiastic idolatrous is

to be a devoted admirer or worshipper of idols.

3. All analogies are constructed using nouns, adjectives, and occasionally verbs. The answer

choices will reflect the grammatical structure of the capitalized pair of words. One common

grammatical form is:

NOUN: NOUN::?



(A) noun: noun (B) noun: noun

(C) noun: noun (D) noun: noun (E) noun: noun

Another possibility is:

AJECTIVE: NOUN::?

(A) Adjective: noun (B) adjective: noun

(C) Adjective: noun (D) adjective: noun (E) adjective: noun

Since the first capitalized word is an adjective the first word of each answer choice will also be an

adjective. And since the second capitalized word is a noun, the second word of each answer choice

will also be a noun.

There are other possibilities such as VERB: NOUN and so on, but there is not need to memorize the

possibilities, just remember that the parts of speech of the choices will always reflect those of the

capitalized words. This feature of analogies is important because some words are ambiguous with

respect to part of speech.

EXAMPLE:

TENDER: ACCEPTANCE::?

1. Publish: wisdom 2. Exhibit: inspection

3. Scrutinize: foresight 4. Authorize: approval 5. Declare:

observation

Tender floated to award a contract is accepted after evaluation. An exhibit is inspected before the

final order is placed.

One way of looking at the capitalized pair of words is to say that “you TENDER something and then

you give it ACCEPTANCE”. But there is no answer choice that corresponds to this relationship. For

example, it makes no sense to say “you rose something and then you give it a thorn”. What has

happened? The word TENDER is ambiguous. It can be either a verb (meaning “to give in, as in to

tender an apology”) or a noun (as in a financial document when you bid for a contract). In this

analogy the word TENDER is meant to be a noun, not a verb. If you treat TENDER as a noun, then

you might describe the connection between the two capitalized words in this way: “A TENDER has to

have an ACCEPTANCE after evaluation” and “An exhibit is inspected before the final order is placed”.

But how do you know what part of speech is intended? You can resolve any ambiguity about part of

speech by looking at the answer choices. The parts of speech of the answer choices must be parallel

to those of the capitalized words. If you are in doubt as to whether TENDER is intended to be a verb

or a noun, look at the first word in some of the answer choices. You will find some word that can be

only one part of speech.



4. Wrong answer choices are carefully prepared. They must be wrong, but they are not supposed

to be so obviously wrong that the analogy is a dead giveaway. – An answer choice will be wrong

for one of two reasons. Either

1) it expresses a relationship that is not parallel to the connection between the capitalized words, or

2) it expresses not tight relationship at all. The next analogy contains both kinds of wrong answers.

EXAMPLE:

FRAGILE: BREAK::?

1. Invisible: see 2. Erratic: control

3. Flammable: burn 4. Noxious: escape 5. Industrial:

manufacture

The best answer to this analogy is 3. Fragile means brittle or delicate tending to break easily. The

same relationship is with flammable tending to burn on ignition. What is wrong with the incorrect

choices? First, a choice may be wrong because it expresses a wrong relationship. This is the case

with (1). There is a perfectly good relationship between invisible and see, What is invisible cannot be

seen, but that is not the connection between the capitalized words. In option 5, ‘industrial’ is related

to manufacture but the relationship is not a tight one.



Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension : Theory Notes

This is the age of ‘information’ and we must read extensively to keep up with the latest

advances. Those who can read quickly and accurately gain immense pleasure from doing

so and improve their chances of advancement in their career or studies. The better you

can read the more you want to read.

A classical liberal arts education used to guarantee that as a result one could read. This

appears to be no longer the case, except perhaps at the most prestigious schools.

Exposure to the writings of the great thinkers, philosophers, and writers used to assure

that one was exposed to complexity of thought and expression. Today, study is mostly

from second-hand sources, from predigested textbooks that are written, apparently, to

make the material accessible to a wider audience. Therefore, the typical student is at a

disadvantage when confronted with complex reading comprehension passages. What to

do? Exposure to many areas of written thought allows one to get attuned to the inherent

patterns. The result is that, when taking the test, there will be a ring of familiarity to the

material.

Benchmarking Reading Speed

To start with, let us get an idea of your reading speed. Please time yourself on the

passage below and find out how much time you took to read it.

It has been a wonderful year for Hindi movies – suddenly, everybody is talking about the

need for something called a ‘script’. Even the producer, who would spend Rs 30 lakh on

one song and would gladly spend another Rs 2 crore on action sequences but would

grudge paying the writer even Rs 2 lakhs, has begun to realize that great song sequences,

great music, great action and even great stars cannot save his film, if it does not contain a

‘story’.

I think it was Hitchcock who, in his inimitable style, talked about three most important

elements necessary to make a successful movie: script, script and ……………… script! And it

was none other than Steven Spielberg who acknowledged that if the writers didn’t write,

everybody in Hollywood would be out of their jobs. And Robert Evans, the producer of



such blockbusters as The Godfather would rather have the next five commitments from

Robert Towne, (the legendary Hollywood script doctor who wrote ‘Chinatown’, arguably

the greatest American screenplay) than the next five commitments from Robert Redford.

Now compare this with the status of Bollywood writers. Where does a Bollywood writer

stand today?

Answer: Fifth from the left in the fourth row in any ‘mahurat’ photograph; somewhere

below the knee of the star, sucking up to him, narrating a dhansu introduction scene just

right for his ego; begging for his 50 per cent balance remuneration from a producer who

claims to have suddenly gone bankrupt; begging the director not to steal his credit;

hustling a successful director in the corridor of a 5- star hotel to narrate him six stories in

five minutes flat!

Bollywood which produces the maximum number of films in the world has, may be, three

thousand writers registered with its Film Writers Association out of which barely a dozen

get regular work, and not more than six are actually busy. The busiest, however, are not

even members of the Film Writers Association – Ms Laser Disc and Mr VCR Swamy. Now

compare this to Hollywood where every University has a film course, every city has film

schools and dozens of regular script workshops organised to teach script writing, which

produce, on an average, may be three thousand writers every year!

So is it a wonder that even the biggest blockbuster of the year can be best remembered

only for its tolerable music and interior decoration? Is it a wonder that the boxoffice has

proved to be the graveyard of most visual stylists? Is it a wonder that the audience seems

to have graduated but the film makers are still stuck in the fourth grade? Is it a wonder

that the most ‘agonising’ moral choice our heroes are burdened with is whether to pick up

an AK-47 or an AK-56? And what about dilemmas? Well, there is no dilemma too big for a

portable stereo and a Ganesha to solve!

Whatever ails Hindi movies, I hope it gets worse. Because things change only when they

reach the extreme-water turns to steam only at 100 degree C, not even at 99.99 degree

C. And because I love Hindi moview. Because I love being a writer of Hindi films. Because

I believe a writer is the first star of a film, not its last priority.

STOP: NOW NOTE DOWN THE TIME YOU TOOK TO READ THE PASSAGE

Refer to the table below to calculate your reading speed in words per minute (WPM)

Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM



30 s 1090 2 min 40 s 204 4 min 40 s 117

45 s 727 2 min 50 s 192 4 min 50 s 113

1 min 545 3 min 182 5 min 109

1 min 10 s 467 3 min 10 s 172 5 min 10 s 105

1 min 20 s 409 3 min 20 s 164 5 min 20 s 102

1 min 30 s 363 3 min 30 s 156 5 min 30 s 99

1 min 40 s 327 3 min 40 s 149 5 min 40 s 96

1 min 50 s 297 3 min 50 s 142 5 min 50 s 93

2 min 273 4 min 136 6 min 91

2 min 10 s 252 4 min 10 s 131 6 min 10 s 88

2 min 20 s 234 4 min 20 s 126 6 min 20 s 86

2 min 30 s 218 4 min 30 s 121 6 min 30 s 84

Now that you have a benchmark make it a point to calculate your reading speed by

approximating the number of words and dividing it by the time taken in minutes to read

the passage. This passage had 545 words in all.



Speed Breakers in Reading

You: can become a faster and more accurate reader. The three curses of a slow reader

are: sub-vocalization, skip back, and ocular slaving. Sub-vocalization is when you read

out syllables or words to yourself as you read. Skip back is where you jump back a few

words every now and then to reread them. Ocular slaving is where your eyes fixate on

each letter or syllable in a word in order to read that word. These things slow you down,

reduce your comprehension, interrupt your concentration and wear you out. If you have

observed these things about yourself then your reading speed and comprehension is likely

to be 20% of your true capacity.

You can significantly increase reading speed by breaking what is termed the “sub-

vocalization barrier”. This barrier limits most readers to around 300 words per minute as

the reader reads each word or each syllable with a simple eye movement.

“The average person reads only 250 words a minute, endures eye fatigue, daydreaming,

poor memory and recall. Improvement is easy it starts with decisions to move forward”

The stages in which you will improve skills are – learn speed reading, mind mapping,

improved memory, comprehension, recall, used with books, magazines, research,

study, casual reading.

In the conventional speed-reading methods, which have you run your finger across the

page, Another suggested way is in what we call to get in “the zone”. The biggest Problem

Intelligent People Have When They Read Is, They Are Thinking Of 5 or 10 Other Things

While They Read”. That’s right, your head is pointed at the book but your mind is

somewhere else. You got to the bottom of the page and ask yourself “what did I just

read?” and you can’t answer yourself!

You should experience your eyes absorbing entire sections. Words on the page seem to

jump out. Your focus is sharp and unshakable. Your memory becomes impressed

permanently with what you read. You’re speeding through chapters with acute

comprehension and indelible recall. The skill is permanent. And it can be applied to many

important areas in your life besides reading. It all happens because of the focus, the

relaxation, the confidence.

Comprehension

Now just to check your comprehension, without going back to the passage, take a minute

to jot down the main things that you remember about the passage above in the space

below:



Ideas discussed:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Having jotted down the ideas, try answering the questions below. Remember no going

back to the passage.

1. The author is using the words ‘script’ and ‘story’ as

1. Synonyms 2. Antonyms

3. Supplements 4. Complements

2. Robert Redford is a

1. Producer 2. Writer

3. Doctor 4. None of the above

3. The number three thousand refers to

1. Number of films Bollywood produces.

2. Number of writers registered with the Film Writers’ Association.

3. Number of busy film writers of Bollywood.

4. Number of script writers registered with Hollywood.

4. It has been a wonderful year for Hindi movies, because

1. The biggest block buster of the year is remembered for its music.

2. The audience have graduated.

3. Our heroes are burdened with AK-47 / AK-56.

4. Everybody is talking about the need for script.

5. Which one of the below is not true?



1. Producers grudge paying Hindi writers.

2. If writers didn’t write, everybody in Hollywood would be out of their jobs.

3. China town is the greatest American screen play.

4. The busiest writers are members of the film writers association.

The answers are given at the end of the article. How did you fare? Did your score reflect

the number of ideas you could scribble down in the space provided for doing so. Had you

been able to concentrate during the initial reading of the passage in order to be able to

COMPREHEND and at least remember the key ideas.

Eye movements and eye span

Another issue that speed – readers occasionally talk of is eye span. Have you noticed that

your eyes do not cover the entire line in a continuous motion from left to right. Rather the

eyeball moves 2-5 times as you cover the span of words from the beginning of a line to

the end of a line. Remember that any physical movement takes time, and so the more the

eyeball movement that happens the slower you read. This is also one of the reasons that

newspapers have articles written which are only 5 cm wide. One of the reasons why you

read a newspaper faster than your textbooks. The aim is to train the eye and the brain to

accurately read a single sentence or line of information with a single eye

movement. This technique has been advocated by many successful speed reading books

and seminars. The technique changes the way that the eye and the brain work together to

read sentences. This allows sentences to be scanned as a complete unit by the eye and

the brain is taught to read each word from the mind’s eye.

Now below we present an article similar in nature to the one in the first passage, but in

the newspaper format. Let us see how much time you take to read the article below.

Historians and scientists will try to recover critical pieces of the Titanic this week in an

underwater expedition that might lead to a better understanding of the oceanliner’s

demise.

A team of about 100 people are gathered off the coast of Newfoundland, where the Titanic

hit an iceberg and sank in 1912, resting four km below on the ocean floor.

They plan to bring to the surface a part of the ship’s hull and analyse the underwater

micro-organisms that are steadily eating away at the once – mighty vessel.



“I’m very confident they will get up the big piece,” David Livingstone, chief naval architect

of Harland and Wolff Technical Services, said from Boston before boarding a ship bound

for the wreck.

“It’s better co-ordinated than it was the last time.”

In 1996, efforts to raise the piece which measures 6.5 x 4 metres failed when scientists

raised it to the surface but could not hoist it onto a ship, sending it back down to the

bottom.

Livingstone said this expedition, which runs from August 5 to August 8 will attempt to

clarify what happened underwater when the ship sank and how certain marine processes

were destroying it. “I think all the reputable or serious engineers now accept what

happened to the ship on the surface.

“What we’re a little less sure (about), because we haven’t looked before, is what

happened to the ship under the surface.”

Speculation includes theories that certain air pockets may have caused rooms to implode

from water pressure after the sinking and that weaker steel was as much to blame as

human arrogance.

The 1996 expedition brought back pictures of the ship’s interior, but a tangle of pipes and

cables prevented explorers from going very far, said Livingstone.

Despite the public fascination with the doomed ship, the expedition is not without its

critics.

STOP: NOW NOTE DOWN THE TIME YOU TOOK TO READ THE PASSAGE

Refer to the table below to calculate your reading speed in words per minute (WPM):

Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM

15 s 1220 1 min 15 s 244 3 min 10 s 96

20 s 915 1 min 20 s 229 3 min 20 s 92

25 s 732 1 min 30 s 203 3 min 30 s 87

30 s 610 1 min 40 s 183 3 min 40 s 83

35 s 523 1 min 50 s 166 3 min 50 s 80

40 s 458 2 min 153 4 min 76

45 s 407 2 min 10 s 141 4 min 10 s 73



50 s 366 2 min 20 s 131 4 min 20 s 70

55 s 333 2 min 30 s 122 4 min 30 s 68

1 min 305 2 min 40 s 114 4 min 40 s 65

1 min 5 s 282 2 min 50 s 108 4 min 50 s 63

1 min 10 s 261 3 min 102 5 min 61

Now compare your speed with the earlier one. Did the reduction in eyeball movement

have any impact? The trick here is to be able to read as many words in a single movement

of the eyeball. In fact the attempt should be made to have the eyeball focused on the

centre of the page and to move down vertically. As an aid to do so draw a vertical line

with a pencil in the middle of the reading material and try to focus your eyeball on that

line and move down the page.

We do hope that you also tried to use some of the concentration techniques that we had

talked of at the end of the earlier passage. Let us check if you have done so. Answer the

questions that follow – except that this time we will allow you to go back to the passage.

The answers are given at the end of the article.

6. What might lead to a better understanding of the oceanliner’s

demise?

1. Detailed analysis of the pipes and cables in the interior of the ship.

2. An analysis of the underwater micro-organisms that are steadily eating away

the Titanic.

3. Bringing to the surface a part of the ship’s hull

4. All of the above

7. The chief naval architect is confident that

1. The investigation of Titanic’s demise will be a success

2. The analyses will be successful in identifying the under water micro organisms

that are steadily eating away at the once – mighty vessel

3. They will get up the big piece

4. This expedition is better co-ordinated than it was the last time.

8. The piece to be hoisted onto a ship will have to be raised in the

ocean by

1. about 4 kilometers



2. about 4 miles

3. about 6.5 x 4 metres

4. unknown height

9. The primary purpose of the expedition is to attempt to

1. Recover critical pieces of the Titanic

2. Clarify what happened under water when the ship sank.

3. Analyse the under water micro-organisms that are destroying the vessel

4. All of the above

10. Which of the following is not supported by the text?

1. We’re little less sure about what happened to the ship under the surface

2. Air pockets may have caused rooms to implode from water pressure after the

sinking

3. Weaker steel and human arrogance were to be blamed for the tragedy

4. The expedition has public support.

After you have finished evaluation, we would like you to reflect on how many times did

you have to refer back to the article. The phenomenon of going back again and again is

called REGRESSION. This is the enemy of the speed – reader. Needless to say, it slows

down your answering rate tremendously.

Authoring techniques

Psychologists tell us that it is very difficult for even the most skilled reader to assimilate

and retain random bits of information. According to research pertaining to reading, when

information in the text is presented at random, the reader is disoriented. Research

indicates that readers actively look for a principle of regularity that organizes the text that

they are reading into a meaningful whole.

An understanding of writing styles can help one anticipate what the structure of a

particular passage could be. Major ways to organize an argument are –

Chronological – When the focus in the text is change or transformation, chronological

order is usually the pattern. In fact questions on the structure would typically address



issues like “When did event X take place? What was the duration? What precedes or

follows X?”

spatial – Here location, orientation or distance art critical. For example describing a

progression over a geographic area. A typical example would be an army’s invasion of a

territory.

Hierarchical – arranging some attribute in ascending / descending order of importance.

Understanding this particular structure will make you realize where the relatively more

important points are located.

Categorical – General to Specific and vice versa.

The topics for RC’s come from 4 areas:

1. Social Sciences – History, anthropology, sociology, government.

2. Natural Sciences – Bio, Physics, Chemistry, Astonomy, Botany.

3. Humanities – art, music, literature, philosophy,

4. Business – Economics, Marketing, Human Resources (only for CAT and GMAT)

The test writer starts with some previously published material, usually an article from an

academic journal or research work. The source material is edited, not to make it clearer,

but to make it less accessible. In this summarization, a lot of questions are actually asked

about material that has faced the axe in the editing process. For example, I would delete

some thing that is actually an author’s opinion and then ask you about the same. Or I

could ask you to define terms whose definitions were there in the original version, but

have been edited out.

A general cocktail would go something like this

- One main idea

- A few key concepts

- Some examples

- One or more undefined phrases

- Two or more competing theories



Comprehension Techniques

Before you begin reading the paragraph, preview it. Read key sentences that are likely to

express the most important ideas and are key in the development of the argument. Key

sentences usually are: The first sentence of every paragraph, The last sentence of the last

paragraph. The first sentence of the first para is likely to outline the theme of the

passage. The first sentences of other paras will probably tell you what those paras are

about. The last sentence of the last para will hint about what the conclusion of the author

is. You can modify this to suit circumstances. If a key sentence is short, try, the next

sentence. If it is too long, just read the first half.

One thing that works for a lot of people is to read only once, (the passage should not be

skimmed and re-read,) but that it be very slowly and carefully read. Count on answering

the questions based upon this one reading. The reasons are:

* A slow, thoughtful reading of the passage allows the mind to form

unconscious, subtle connections between parts of the material. Answers to

many of the difficult questions will depend upon picking up on these subtle

connections. A reading speed of 300 words a minute is quite adequate to

get through the material. Repeated re-reading, hunting for the obvious

answers – which simply are not there – is what wastes time.

Passages can often be stereotyped into those that

- Argue a position (often social sciences)

- Discuss something specific within a field of study

- Explain some significant new finding or research (often science)

One’s job is to actively seek out such structures as you begin to read the passage. This search for the structure should make you think about the “big picture” that the author is trying to show you.

“How” the big picture is shown is the author’s tone. Taking the example of a passage thatis dealing with a new finding, the author is likely to be clinical in her description. Similarly when the passage takes a position the style is argumentative. Or if the author is simply describing the strongly held positions of others, the tone is factual or descriptive.

Dialogue with the material

Understanding the Big Idea: First describe the logical development of the passage with a

single word like: explaining, proving, illustrating, refuting, reconciling, outlining. Then in a

few well-chosen words, summarize the content of the passage. Also outline the structure

of the passage in the margin.



More often than not the “big idea” is mentioned in the first third of the passage. The best

thing to do is as soon as you see the main idea “jot it down on paper”. Before you move

on to answering the questions, you should have done this. For one thing, the purpose of

the passage is to support the main idea. Also, many of the questions are much simpler to

handle once the main idea is clear. Always look for choices that are consistent with the

“big idea”. Wrong options usually are not consistent with the “big idea”.

While reading a paragraph, try to find the gist of the para. Writing styles usually mean

that the new para is started when we have just finished the discussion of one idea and are

moving on to another. So typically each para will be communicating a single idea. Also

mentally try to relate the para back to the passage as a whole.

Typically for university exams you would have always read with the idea of memorizing

what you read for subsequent reproduction in the examination. What makes aptitude tests

different is that the passage is available for reference – an open book test with the stress

on short term retention. So do not waste your time in going through details. If you have a

good idea of the structure of the passage you should not face nay problems in going back

to the relevant part of the passage.

* What’s the author trying to say?

* Is it true?

* Is it someone else’s opinion?

* Is the author going to rebut?

* Does the content agree with what I know?

* Am I supposed to take content seriously?

* I don’t get it. Is it meant to be nonsense?

An interactive reading will prepare the applicant to answer such questions without further

re-reading.

* The answers to the very subtle questions will depend on faint resonance in the

mind. The in – depth reading has the best chance of creating such resonance.

Consciously, there will be just a faint sense as to which answer is correct. In my

experience, it is the ability to pick up on those faint resonance which is being

tested.

* It is expected that the subject matter of some of the passages will be unfamiliar to

you. That may be the point. MBAs are expected to become instant experts on the



material in their cases. The ability to have quick insight into the unfamiliar may be

a valid subject for testing on the CAT. In – depth reading helps in this regard.

* Words are included in the passage that applicant is not expected to be familiar

with e.g., words as ‘homunculus’ or ‘halcyon’. Questions are then asked about

such words. The point is that the applicant is expected to decipher the meaning

from the CONTEXT, i.e., the implication of the words connected to it.

The first third of a RC passage usually introduces its topic, scope, the main idea and the

tone. The scope is important in the sense that while framing options the author will

attempt to generate some options related to the topic, but outside the scope of the

passage. For example, we might be doing a passage on “Poverty”. Now poverty is too

broad a topic to be covered in a 1-page passage – so probably the passage only deals with

a certain aspect of it-say that in a region of India. Any options that talk of things other

than India will be outside the scope of the passage. In identifying the scope, we are also

enlightened about why the author has particularly frozen in on only a particular aspect.

This reason is the objective or the main idea of the passage.



Question setting techniques

The aptitude tests used for getting admissions to the top schools are very sophisticated

tests. The Schools need to make differentiations among applicants in the 95 percentile

range. Therefore the answers to very difficult questions must rely on some meaningful

distinctions grounded in the applicant’s knowledge, in logic, or the applicant’s ability to

draw inferences.

There are usually two types of questions – the factuals and the thematics. The answer to

the thematic questions in the Reading Comprehension passages are found not in what the

passage STATES, but in what is IMPLIED. This differentiates them from the factual

questions. The consequences are that some of the techniques useful for factual questions

may be less so on the thematic ones.

* Reading the questions before reading the passage. If the answers will not be

immediately apparent on a first normal reading, carrying unanswered questions in

short-term memory may just serve to confuse, without other benefit.

* Underlining and circling key words when reading, while useful for easier questions,

will have less effect because the answers are not in WORDS but in their

IMPLICATIONS.

Using outside knowledge may be beneficial to cracking a passage, but beware, the

passage tests you on the author’s opinions not yours. In case there is a difference of

opinions, you might end up egg-faced.

Reading comprehension questions measure your ability to understand, analyze and apply

information and concepts presented in written form. All questions are to be answered on

the basis of what is stated or implied in the reading material, and no specific knowledge of

the material is required.

RC questions therefore evaluate your ability to

- Understand words and statements in the reading passage (Questions of this type

are not vocabulary questions. These test your understanding and ability to use

specialized terms as well as your understanding of the English language.)

- Understand the logical relationships between significant points and concepts in

the reading passages (e.g. To determine the strong and weak points of an

argument or to evaluate the importance of ideas and arguments in the passage.

- Draw inferences from facts and statements in the reading passage (reach a

general conclusion based on specific facts)



- Understand and follow the development of quantitative concepts as they are

presented in the verbal material (This may involve the interpretation of numerical

data or the use of simple arithmetic to reach conclusions about the material in

the passage)

Here it would also be interesting to understand how the questions setter sets wrong

options. There are a number of tricks that she employs. Some of them are:

Contradict the main idea

Distort the main idea

Mention true points not relevant to the question

Raise a topic not mentioned in the passage

Types of questions

We will conclude this part of the note with a small discussion on the Question Types:

Main idea – Already dealt with in the earlier part of the Note.

Title – A title, in effect, is the main idea summed up in a brief, catchy way. Be sure not to

go with a choice that aptly describes only the later half of the passage. A valid title, like a

main idea, must cover the entire passage.

Structure – “Which of the following choices best describe the organization of the

passage?” – Answer options to these questions are worded very generally, forcing you to

recognize the broad layout of the passage as opposed to specific content. Social Science

structures: - Make comparisons; Describe cause and effect relationships; opinionate or

reason; Science: - problem solving, cause and effect, classification of things and events;

experimentation; Literature: - Create moods, Narrate events, describe settings and

characters. Possible ways are: A hypothesis is stated and then analyzed; A proposal is

evaluated and alternatives are explored; A viewpoint is set forth and then subsequently

defended. These terms sound very similar but they are different things. Once you realize

that, such questions are a cakewalk.

Tone – Here please do not confuse the nature of the content with the tone in which the

author has presented her idea. A social science passage on violence in society may be

presented in a descriptive manner! Some examples of tone could be:

* Argumentative * Factual



* Ironic * Censorious

* Conjectural * Authoritative * Didactic

Inferential – An inference is something that is certainly true based on the passage.

Inferences require ‘reading between the lines”. The author hints at some things without

explicitly stating them. So here you have to translate the information in the passage to a

situation presented in the question.

Factual – Often the questions provide a clue as to where the answer may be found

(caveat when the question specifies a certain line number, be sure to check out the 5 lines

preceding and following that line number) It could be in the form of some text that links

up in the passage structure.

Overall Strategy

1. Answer passages with familiar subject matter first.

2. Attack the key sentences of the passage first; viz: The first sentence of every

paragraph, The last sentence of the last paragraph.

3. Skim through the rest.

4. Attempt questions in an efficient order. - The thematics first, then the factuals,

save the inferentials for the last. Read the question, and not the answer

alternatives, then read the passage and try to frame an answer. Reading the

passage is time consuming. If you skip questions and move on to another passage,

you’ll spend a lot of time in re-reading it. So answer all the questions that you

want to answer without leaving anything for later – take those educated guesses

right away.

Answer Key to Exercise

1-1, 2-4, 3-2, 4-5, 5-4, 6-3, 7-3, 8-1, 9-2, 10-4



A Happy Anniversary Lunch, and Then…

Start timing I won’t soon forget my fourth wedding anniversary. Four years earlier, a

woman had entered my life and changed it. On that fourth anniversary day, another

woman entered my life – and my courtroom and changed my perceptions a bit.

That day for me blended the ingredients of successful marriage with something that is

usually unrelated contempt of court. Much has been written of the first; the second tends

to be briefly noted in the newspaper and then consigned to the law books.

Judges contempt powers are awesome. When these powers must be used, the judicial

officers become not only judge and executioner, but also witness because, inmost

instances, the courtroom is where the contemptuous act occurs. It is the judge who,

based on his standards of seemly conduct, determines what a contemptuous act is, and it

is the judge who, based on the facts, decides if a contemptuous act has been committed.

If he so rules, it is the judge who punishes by imposing sentence.

Because he has such powers, a judge must be slow anger and quick to forgive; otherwise

my risk abusing these powers.

But to return to the events of my fourth anniversary:

On this special day I planned to launch at home with my wife. But before I could leave the

courthouse I had to deal with three cases – all scheduled to begin at 11:30. I hoped to get

one set up for trial in the afternoon, then postpone the others. It was 11:45, however,

before all three defendants were in the courtroom and I was studying the complaints

against them: One was charged with assault, another with driving under the influence,

and the third with theft.

I had to decide which to hear first, and that day my choice was not so much conscious as

random. I simply picked up one of the three pink complaint slips and called the name

typed on it. Up stepped a woman in her 40s, a lawyer at her side.

“You, ma’am,” I told the woman, “are charged with violating Section 23102a of the

Vehicle Code – operating a motor vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating liquor

and while under the combined influence of intoxicating liquor and a drug. The offense is

alleged to have occurred on or about…………”

“Drugs?” she shrieked. “What are you trying to pull?”

“Ma’am, I am only telling you what the complaint sets out as the charge; I don’t know

anything at all about the facts of the case.”

Speed Reading Practice Exercise-01



“What kind of kangaroo court is this?” she screamed.

“Please stop talking,” I said. “Not one more word. I expect male who comes to the

courtroom to act like a gentleman and each female to act like a lady. Leave now you are

ordered to come back at 1:30 PM. I will expect you to act like a lady at that time or you

will face problems totally unrelated to the charge which brought you to court.”

Defendants and witnesses in the remaining cases bristled. I bristled. The courtroom

personnel bristled. The others cases, however, went routinely it was a few minutes past

noon when I gaveled the session to a close.

On the 15- minute drive home, I was preoccupied with pleasant reveries about my

wedding day four years earlier and the lunch I would soon have with my wife. The baby

would already have been fed, so there would by just my wife and me to share memories.

Our time together, however, was much too brief. At 1 pm., it was time to leave, for a

pressing court calendar awaited me. Worse yet, I would have to deal with the bitter –

tongued woman of my morning session whose case I’d held over. Driving back to the

courthouse, I ran through a scenario in my head: I’ll start by explaining that I, as a judge,

had nothing to do with filing the original charge against her – its content (which had

prompted her outburst) is strictly the prosecutor’s responsibility.

Back in court, the spectators settled in their seats as I asked the woman to step forward.

For 10 minutes I drove home my point, taking care to be fair and thorough. The woman

smiled and nodded, so I thought things were going smoothly.

Then I asked: “Do you understand the nature of the charges lodged against you?”

“When do I genuflect?” she said sarcastically.

My response was immediate. “For making that statement you are held in contempt of

court. The sentence is three days in jail. Take her away.”

I stepped down quickly from the bench. It was now 1:45 p.m. and there was no time to

lose. Preparation of contempt commitment, fully describing what had transpired, was

needed to explain why the woman should be jailed. Should my contempt order be tested

in a higher court, my action would stand or fall on its content.

When my secretary arrived. I rushed through a first draft. Time was of the essence: Until

that paper was prepared in its final form and signed by me, all female prisoners in the

court complex faced delays in being transported to the County Jail.

After dictating the draft, I realized I had done nothing about the charges that had brought

the woman into my court. All I had one was react with anger on hearing the word

“genuflect.” Now it was too late – she was gone. There was no way to rectify my error,



and after the incident I knew I shouldn’t try. I returned her case to the calendar court for

reassignment to another judge.

By 4 p.m. I had signed the final contempt order in accordance with the California Code of

Civil Procedure. Then, after presiding at another trial, I headed home with some relief.

At the wheel, I reflected on the day’s meaning. I was not the first time in six years as a

judge that I had encountered erratic behavior, nor will it be the last. Almost always I give

the offenders a chance to think things over, to retract their statement or retreat from their

positions. Almost always they do.

Why was today different? One lesson it taught was that judges, just like defendants, are

individuals with complex hopes, aspirations, and expectations. Judges are human. They

live in communities. They have wedding anniversaries. They react to events both without

the courtroom.

On occasion, people overreact – on both sides of the bench. On occasion these facts of life

are forgotten by judges and non – judges alike. Surely, from time to time, it is a good

thing for judges to be reminded of their frailties, the better to wield their enormous power

over those in trouble.

My reflective mood was broken when, on arriving home, I entered the kitchen to my wife’s

greeting, “Hi, dear,” she said. “Happy anniversary – again. Did you have a good

afternoon?”

End timing

Record here the time required on this selection: ___________ minutes

________ seconds

Test your Comprehension

DIRECTIONS: Which one of the following statements most accurately

summarizes the main idea of the selection you have just finished?

1. Judge America’s fourth wedding anniversary was a combination of a successful

marriage and contempt - of – court citation.

2. A judge should be slow to anger and quick of forgive.

3. The first defendant that morning was very discourteous woman.

4. The judge’s wedding anniversary was spoiled by the extra work demanded by the

contempt citation.



5. There are times when judges, like other people, may overreact, and judges should

remind themselves of their weaknesses in order to exercise their enormous power

more judiciously.

6. Judges, like other humans, have complex hopes and expectations.

Key: The answer is given in somewhat cryptic from so that you will not inadvertently

discover the correct response before making your own choice. The number of the

statement that best summarizes the main idea can be found by subtracting six from seven

and adding four.

(If you checked the incorrect response, reread the selection to discover why you

erred in thinking one of the details or one of the contributing ideas was the main

message of the selection. Much of your Speed Reading training will help you

understand the structure of writing so that you can more accurately and more

quickly grasp main ideas and see details and supporting points in their proper

perspective.)



Compute Your Rate

(Approximate Number of Words: 1100)

(If you have a calculator, divide 1100 by the minutes and seconds expressed as a whole

number and a decimal. Thus, for 1 minute 15 seconds, 1100 is divided by 1.25; for 1

minute 30 seconds, 1100 is divided by 1.50; and so on. If you are not using a calculator,

read your rate to the closest time from the following table.)

Time WPM Time WPM

1 min 1100 3 min. 45 sec. 293

1 min. 10 sec. 943 4 min. 275

1 min. 15 sec. 880 4 min. 15 sec. 259

1 min. 20 sec. 825 4 min. 30 sec. 244

1 min. 30 sec. 733 4 min. 45 sec. 238

1 min. 45 sec. 629 5 min. 220

2 min. 550 5 min. 15 sec. 210

2 min. 15 sec. 489 5 min. 30 sec. 200

2 min. 30 sec. 440 5 min. 45 sec. 191

2 min. 45 sec. 400 6 min. 183

3 min. 367 6 min. 15 sec. 176

3 min. 15 sec. 338 6 min. 30 sec. 169

3 min. 30 sec. 314 6 min. 45 sec. 163

7 min. 157

Your present rate Reading: WPM



Word List

Learning VocabularyHow to go About it?

Vocabulary is an essential study if you have to appear in any competitive examination. Students find

learning words quite difficult, so ways have to be found that are both interesting and aid learning. It

is also worthwhile to remember that not only the words but also the usage is very important. These

days in CAT mere meanings are not asked. Instead, for each word, four sentences will be given and

the student will be asked to tick the one in which the usage is inappropriate. Only if you are aware

of the usage will you be able to spot out the wrong usage. This section describes how to remember

words and also how to use them.

Everyone has his own way of learning vocabulary. For some people random word lists will seem to

be the most appropriate, usually with a translation into the mother tongue. Other will favour some

kind of organisation, perhaps organizing their vocabulary through topic, word category or word

frequency. Some learners will find it effective to use vocabulary exercise in order to acquire new

vocabulary, while others will use vocabulary cards and regularly test themselves to check whether

new items have been learnt. All of these methods are effective in their own right and will suit

different individuals in different ways. It is also useful to know the relationships between words

themselves. Exploiting such relationship can be a very effective additional method of organising and

storing items of vocabulary and may help learners to learn and remember new items. Examples of

such relationships are:

Hyponymy: Chair, bench, armchair, bar-stool, pew, rocking-chair and deck- chair are all types of

seat. Thus, they are related to each other as examples of a type and have a one-way relationship

with the head-word, seat (a chair is a seat, a bench is a seat and so on, whereas a seat is not

necessarily a chair). Similarly, car, bus, van, tram, lorry, motor-cycle and taxi are all types of

vehicle. Learners may find it productive to store items of vocabulary under head words like these in

the form of simple diagrams.

Antonym: Associating words through their opposites appears to be quite a powerful relationship.

When asked what word they associate with ‘hot’, many people will immediately answer ‘cold’, rather

than, say, ‘desert’, ‘sun’ or ‘weather’. Learners may find it useful to store words with words that

convey an opposing concept.

Clines: Many adjectives, though close in meaning, are not synonyms but are related through

degree, with their meaning expressing a greater or lesser degree of a particular concept. Once

again, learners may find it helpful to store words in this way.



Collocation: It is clearly useful to learn words which typically “go together”, as in ‘perform a

task’, ‘make a suggestion’ and ‘do one’s homework’. Words can also be stored in this way in the

form of diagrams or mind maps and this may aid recall and memorization.

It is worthwhile to store items of vocabulary in the above ways. Using diagrams and mind maps will

appeal to the more visual type of learner (particularly if different colours are also used) but storing

items of vocabulary in a more systematic way should be of benefit to most learners.

How to learn Words?

First, it is often helpful to have some kind of “hook” (i.e., mnemonic or memory-device) to help you

to retrieve the word or meaning that you want to remember.

Second, you need practice in recalling the word. Third, you need to hear, see, and understand the

word repeatedly in its various forms and in its most typical contexts.

The following points, or some combination of them, may help you find your own best way to learn

vocabulary.

1. Use Flash Cards

Flash-card technology is still better than the most expensive educational computer gear that you can

buy. It is the quickest way to get just the repetition that you need on just the words that you need

to repeat. It is tried and true. And it is inexpensive.

Using index cards or a pack of blank business cards, write the target words and phrases on the

cards, putting one language one the front and the other on the back. As you review the words,

proceeding through the stack, separate the words into two piles: those you understand immediately,

and those you do not. Keep going through the yet-unlearned words until you attain a speedy

mastery of them.

2. Think of Cognates and Usages

Think of words directly related to the word in question (cognates) or of phrases that use the word.

For example, Semper fidelis (“Always faithful”) is the motto of the Marines. Therefore you may

actually have already begun to learn these words. Also, remember that a cognate of fidelis is

fidelity.

CAUTION: The cognate is rarely the exact equivalent of the meaning of the original word. For

example, fidelis (an adjective) does not mean fidelity (a noun).

3. Visualize and Vocalize

Meditate on an image that the word represents or suggests as you say it aloud. If you are walking

outside, look up at the sky and say “pristine”, “pure”, “spotless”.

4. Practice the Key-word or Key-sound or Key-letter Technique



Think of a word (called the key-word) Based on the first (or very prominent) syllable of the word (or

on the sound of the whole word) and then make up a story or an image involving both this key-word

and the meaning of the original word.

Stories are easier to remember than individual words, so this key-word will get you back to the word

if you are going from your language to the other one.

5. Read, Write, and Recite phrases

Discover, create, and review many comprehensible phrases using the word to be remembered. This

helps you to deep-process the word by working it into a whole web of meanings.

6. Repeat, Repeat, and Repeat

Especially for memorizing important parts and forms of words, sometimes only “brute” repetition will

secure your memory for certain hard-to-retain items. Frequent vocal repetition impresses the forms

on your “mental ear.” This auditory dimension will help you recognize and recall the words later.

7. Attend, Echo, and Associate

We forget words because sometimes we are thinking of something else when it is spoken. (We need

to ATTEND to what is said and really hear it.). At other times we hear the word, but we fail to

refresh our memory immediately by repeating the new word to ourselves or to others in

conversation. (We need to ECHO the word shortly after hearing it). Finally even if we do these

things, we might still quickly lose the word if we leave ourselves without some “hook” back to it. We

have no hook if we do not connect the word with something or someone else we know. (We need to

ASSOCIATE the name with something that is already meaningful to us. This practice helps us note

similarities and differences and deepens our original ATTENTION.)

8. Read Freely and Abundantly

We can increase our vocabulary through free voluntary reading. However some linguists claim that

we must have first acquire about 3000 to 5000 word-families, so that we will be able to know

enough of the context to begin to construct accurate meanings for the words that we do not know.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

a) Mnemonic Techniques:-

“Mnemonic” means “aiding memory.” Often referred to as “memory trick,” mnemonics work by

developing a retrieval plan during encoding so that a word can be recalled through verbal and visual

clues. Mnemonics help learners because they aid the integration of new material into existing

cognitive structures and because they provide retrieval clues. Learners need to experiment with

different kinds of mnemonic techniques to see which ones work best for them.

b) Linguistic Mnemonics:-



The Peg Method: This method allows unrelated items, such as words in a word list, to be recalled

by linking them with a set of memorized “pegs” or “hooks”. Learners associate words to be

memorized with these “pegs” to form composite images.

The keyword Method: It calls for the establishment of an acoustic and image link between a word

to be learned and a word that sounds similar. For example, the German word Ei “egg” can be

learned by first establishing an acoustic link with the English word eye then conjuring up an

interactive image of an egg with an eye in the middle of it. Similarly, the Spanish word pan “bread”

can be learned by imagining a loaf of bread in a pan.

c) Spatial Mnemonics:-

The Loci Method: To use this ancient technique, one imagines a familiar location, such as a room.

Then one mentally places the first item to be remembered in the first location, the second item in

second location, and so forth. To recall the items, one takes an imaginary walk along the landmarks

in the room and retrieves the items that were “put” there.

Spatial Grouping: Rearrange words on a page to form different kinds of patterns such as triangles,

squares, columns and so on.

d) Visual Mnemonics:-

Pictures: Pair pictures with words you need to learn. Studies have shown that this is an effective

and efficient way to memorize vocabulary.

Visualization: Instead of using real pictures, visualize a word you need to remember. This is much

more effective than merely repeating the word.

e) Physical Mnemonics:-

Physically enacting the information in a word or a sentence results in better recall than simple

repetition. Several teaching techniques are based on physical reenactment. Among them Total

Physical Response use of melodrama, and the Silent Way.

The Narrative Chain: Link words in a list together into a sentence or a story. By using the words

and associating them with each other you create a firmer connection between the new words and

those already stored in your memory.

Semantic Mapping: Arrange the words into a diagram with the key word at the top and related

words as branches linked to the key word and to each other. You can practice this technique in a

group.

Self-Assessment: Practicing retrieval can improve long-term recall. In addition, you can find out

what percentage of the material you retained with your study method and timing. If you are not

satisfied with the result, try new techniques and/or spend more time on task.

Personalization: No two people in the world have the same vocabulary because everyone has

different interests and experiences. In adding to the vocabulary contained in your learning

materials, you should make an effort to learn words that occur in newspapers and magazines.



Since you need to learn many thousands of words, it is a good idea to develop a plan for learning

new words every day besides those included in your wordlist. If you are a beginner, set up a

schedule for learning the vocabulary in your wordlist.

Review: Even though your self-test revealed perfect recall, chances are that by the next day you

will have forgotten part of the words. Unlike computers, human beings tend to forget over time.

Therefore, one of the keys to successful language study is regular reviewing of previously learned

words.

Real-Life Practice: When material learned in one context is retrieved in another, memory

performance tends to suffer. Military training, therefore, always includes practice under conditions

that simulate those in the battle field. Language skills learned in the highly familiar and safe cocoon

of the classroom tend to disintegrate in the more stressful real-life communication conditions.

Participation in real-life communicative situations during language training is a must. Seek out as

many opportunities for real-life practice as you can possibly find. Try to use the words you have

learned in real-life situations.

Retaining It All

One of the biggest problems with vocabulary learning is the what’s ‘learned’ today is often forgotten

tomorrow! We’ve all experienced this problem: what can be done about it?

There are three main ways of learning vocabulary:

1. Memorizing

Here are some strategies for memorizing that you can try:

Say or write the words you are learning – this can help remember them.

Record the words/phrases you are learning on tape, or as audio files, and play them to yourself

whenever you have some spare time (e.g. when traveling) – this way you will get used to the

spoken form of the word as well as the written form. If you record them on an MD player, you

can access each word easily.

Play audiotapes or videotapes repeatedly (e.g. songs or part of a movie) – after a while you will

find that you remember the words.

Write the words you are learning on pieces of paper/stick-it notes and put them round room or

home.

Write the words on cards, with the meanings on separate cards. You can then play games such

as ‘Memory’ or ‘Snap’ with a partner (or on your own) by matching words to meanings.

‘Memory’ works like this (if you have a Nokia mobile phone, you’ll know it!). You turn all the

cards (words and meanings) face down, so that the blank sides of the cards are facing upwards.

You then turn over two of the cards at random. If the cards match, than you have ‘a pair’ (a

score for you) and you remove them. You or your partner then turns over two more cards. If the

cards do not match, then you do not score anything, and you return the cards (face down) to

their places. The winner is the person with the most ‘pairs.’



2. Using

Here are some strategies for using what you have learned (especially if you are learning vocabulary

for speaking or writing). Using vocabulary in speech or writing helps it to stay learned. As they say:

“Use it or lose it.” For example, you can:

Create sentences of your own for the words you are learning, related them to your own

situation.

Write a story that includes all the words you have learned.

Learn words for a certain topic/situation. And then write about the topic using the vocabulary

learned, or have a discussion or conversation with a partner or partners, trying to use the words

appropriately.

3. Recycling

Here are some strategies for recycling what you have learned.

If you try to read, listen to, speak about or write about the same topic over a number of weeks, you

will find that the same vocabulary keeps occurring. If you follow the same topic over several weeks,

it is likely that you will meet some of the words you have tried to learn earlier. Meeting the words in

context will help you remember them naturally without having to ‘study’ them.

For example, you can:

Follow a news story that is printed or broadcast every day for several weeks. These are not

always available, but look out for ongoing natural disasters (e.g. floods in China, earthquakes in

Taiwan), war (e.g. Iraq, Israel/ Palestine), ongoing political event (e.g. elections).

Focus on one type of news story that occurs almost every day (e.g. Crime, Disasters, Sports,

Weather).

Watch movies or read books or magazines on particular topics (e.g. Astronomy, Business,

Crime, Romance, Technology, Travel).

Read books at particular vocabulary levels. You have a high chance of meeting repeated

vocabulary in simplified readers.

Read several books by the same author (e.g. Jane Austen)

Read several books featuring the same characters (e.g. Dilbert, Peanuts, Sherlock Holmes, The

Simpsons, Tintin)

Here are some suggested methods for reducing the ‘forgetting problem’.

Learn words repeatedly, with increasing intervals between learning sessions. We all know that if

learning is not repeated, we will forget the words the words we have learned. But research in

Psychology shows that we do not forget things gradually. Instead, most of our forgetting occurs

within 20 minutes after we have first ‘learned’ something. More is forgotten within one hour, and

still more within 8 hours – but after 8 hours, the rate of forgetting stays surprisingly steady.



Have the words you want to learn with you wherever you go, so that you can use any ‘dead’

time, e.g. traveling to university. Word cards or vocabulary notebooks are useful. So is an

Electronic dictionary (Mini Office) which allows you to select the words you want to learn and

test yourself on them, in random order.

Set aside a regular time for vocabulary learning or memorizing – e.g. just before you go to bed,

or when traveling to and from university.

Spend more time on the words that you find difficult.

Often, when learning vocabulary, people create a list with the target words on one side and

meanings on the other, and go down the list from the first word to the last, trying to memories each

one. This method can have two problems: Firstly, the words at the top of the list tend to be

remembered better than those further down; and secondly, time is wasted going over words that

the learner has already learned. One way of overcoming these problems is to spend more time on

the words that you find difficult. A simple way of doing this is to delete the words you know from the

list. If you sort in word, you can also change the order of the list, so that it’s not the same every

time. An alternative is to post words onto a wall or board, and take them down when you know

them.

Let’s say you are trying to learn the following 10 words (from an article on a fire which killed 170

people on board an Austrian ski train): asphyxiated, blast furnace, blazing, catastrophe, evacuated,

fumes, expressed condolences, fumes, inferno, mourning, victims. You write these words on cards

or type them into a computer document. You also create three small boxes, or sections on a notice

board, or tables in a computer document labelled ‘Daily’, ‘Weekly’ and ‘Monthly’. As all ten words are

new to you, you put them into the ‘Daily’ box first, as shown here:

Asphyxiated

Blast furnace

Blazing

Catastrophe

Evacuated

Expressed condolences

Fumes

Inferno

Mourning

Victims

A day later, you test yourself on all 10 words, and find that have remembered six of them. So you

move these six to the ‘Weekly’ box.

You continue testing yourself on the remaining four words each day and soon them all, and move

them to the ‘Weekly” box. One week after you started, you test yourself on the words in the



‘Weekly’ box. This time, let’s say you remember eight, but get two wrong. The forgotten words are

moved back to the ‘Daily’ schedule, whereas the remembered words can now be moved to ‘Monthly’

checking only.

After a month, any of the ‘Monthly’ words not remembered will return to ‘Weekly’ checking. And so

on. As you can see, words are moved in either direction from one box to the next, depending on

whether they have been remembered or forgotten. The method may sound complicated, but it

combines two principles that seem to be important in vocabulary learning:

A. Learn words repeatedly and frequently (which increases your learning load)

B. Spend more time on the words you find difficult, less on the words you find easy (which reduces

your learning load)

New vocabulary

When you come across a new word in reading, listening or seminar work don’t rush straight for the

dictionary.

A. Try to deduce its meaning from the context: Keep a record of the whole sentence in which

you encountered it.

B. Try to deduce its meaning from the structure of the word – it may contain familiar elements.

C. Try to find other sentences or phrases containing the same word: does its meaning change

in different contexts?

D. Notice what part of speech it is, and how it behaves grammatically – a range of sentences

will help this.

E. Note the other words around it (some verbs take specific prepositions for example): can you

read the word in isolation or does it have regular ‘collocations’?

F. Note who is using the word and in what style or register of discourse (spoken, written,

formal, informal, vocabulary pertaining to a particular age group or social context etc.)

G. Check its pronunciation (using a dictionary, asking a native speaker, listening to it in use on

a tape) and for longer words mark its stress point to remind you.

You’re more likely to remember something you’ve worked out for yourself.

Summing It Up

You’ll remember words better when you’ve used them in context or, preferably, a variety of

contexts!

Try the Internet – there are vocabulary tests and other language learning tools to be found.

Choose yourself a ‘word of the day’ every day and think up as many ways of using it as possible.

Try to use it with your friends, in class or in open access activities.

Repetition is the best way to remember – copy sentences containing the word, write your own



out, tape yourself repeating words rhythmically e.g. write your own raps – then play the tape

back. Concentrate on using the words rather than mugging up the meaning only.



Types of vocabulary questions asked in CLAT

A brief discussion on the various types of questions related to vocabulary that have been

part of CLAT over the years follows.

Synonyms

Q. Which one of the following is closet in meaning to the word “Authentic?”

a) strive

b) original

c) genuine

d) spurious

e)

Argument:

The correct answer is {c}

Genuine means: not false, not an imitation

The court declared the document as genuine

Strive means: great effort

The minister said that the region must now strive for economic development as well as

peace.

Spurious means: seems genuine but actually false.

The manager was suspended on spurious forgery charge.

Original means: innovative, inventive

The inhabitants have voted over whelmingly to restore the city’s original name “Bombay”

instead “Mumbai”.

Antonyms

Q. Which of the following options are nearly opposite in meaning to the word “Perplexity?”

a) Bewilderment

b) Confound

c) Confusion

d) Certainty

Argument:

The right answer is (d)

Certainty means: definite, no doubts.



He said with certainty that pets can help children develop friendship skill.

The options a, b, c are synonyms and therefore can be ruled out for the question is asking about the

opposite in meaning and not similar to the meaning of word Perplexity.

III. Odd Man Out

Q. Which of the following option which does not belong to the group?

a) Scarcity

b) Paucity

c) dearth

d) Dwindle.

Argument:

The right answer is: D

Dwindle it means- to grow less, to become degenerate. Other words are related to fewness;

deficiency.

IV. Idea based questions:

Q. Which of the following statement does not belong to the group?

a) Pray before you eat.

b) God bless you! The priest said.

c) Thank you for your advice.

d) Heartiest best wishes on your birthday.

Argument:

The right answer is: a

The options b, c, d includes greetings which is missing in option ‘a’.

V. Analogies

Q. Select the option that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the

original pair.

RACKET: TENNIS

a) Ball: football

b) board: chess

c) cock: badminton

d) bat: cricket

Argument:

The right answer is: d



As racket is used to strike a ball in the game of tennis, similarly a bat is used to strike a ball in the

game of cricket.

Q. Select the option that best expresses a relationship dissimilar to that expressed in the

original pair.

Cow: ox

a) Bitch: Dog

b) Tadpole: Frog

c) Mice: mouse

d) lioness: lion

Argument:

The right answer is: b

Bitch, mice, lioness are females whereas tadpole is the young of a frog.

VI. Fill in the blanks in a sentence

Q. What is the ___________ of this watch?

a) charge

b) price

c) amount

d) assessment

Argument:

The right answer is: b

Charge means that one has to pay for a service or goods, amount means how much there is or how

much one have, need, get, assessment means consideration of someone or something and a

judgment about them or estimation of amount. Price means cost, value.



Alphabetical Word list

Crack CLAT...Gateway to Law Schools Sample Study

Material


A1. ABACK adj.

Backwards; hence taken aback means taken by surprise.

Roland was taken aback by our strength of feeling.

2. ABATE v.To lessen, to nullify, to decrease, moderate, Slacken, wane.Syn. lessen, shrinkAnt. Increase, augment, swell, grow

The storms had abated by the time they rounded Cape Horn.

3. ABDUCT v. ABDUCTION n.To forcefully take away.Syn. Kidnap, carry off, steal, nabAnt. Deliver, rescue, salvage, liberate

His car was held up and he was abducted by four gunmen.

4. ABOLISH v.To put an end to, to do away with.Syn. Eliminate, stop, eradicate, annulAnt. Establish, found, start, create

The following year Parliament voted to abolish the death penalty for murder.

5. ABOMINABLE adj. ABOMINATE vDetestable, extremely unpleasant, very badSyn. Repulsive, monstrous, detestable

The President described the killing as an abominable crime.

6. ABORT v.To fail to go forward or develop as expected. To miscarry, to terminate earlySyn. End, abandon, stop midstream

The decision was made to abort the mission.

7. ABSTEMIOUS adj.Sparing in food, drink or enjoyment, moderate, temperateSyn. Self-denying, ascetic, soberAnt. Wild, abandoned, unreserved

It is eccentric to see the bulging bellies of purported abstemious saints.

8. ABSTAIN v. ABSTINENCE n. To refrain deliberately.

Do you drink alcohol, smoke, or abstain?


Material


9. ABUNDANT adj.Ample, copious, luxuriant, overflowing.Syn. Plentiful, copious, rich, profuse Ant. Meager, scarce, inadequate

There is an abundant supply of cheap labour in India.

10. ACCLAIM n, v.Commendation, citation, eulogy, applaud, Announce with great approvalSyn. Applause, cheer, encomiumAnt. Disapprove, odium, boycott

She has been acclaimed for the TV drama ‘Surbhi’.

11. ACCOMPLICE n.Conspirator, companion, coworker, associate in a crime.Syn. Accessory, co-conspirator

The gunman escaped on a motorcycle being ridden by an accomplice.

12. ACERBIC adj. ACERBITY n.Bitter and sour, corrosiveSyn. Acidulous, cutting caustic, mordantAnt. Mild, gentle, meek, placid, calm.

He was acclaimed for his acerbic wit and repartee.

13. ACOUSTIC adj. ACOUSTICS pl (n.)Related to theory of sound or hearing, quality that makes a room easy or hard to hear in.Syn. Audio, aural, auditory, sound.

The church is acoustically perfect.

14. ACUITY n.Keenness of perception; sharpness.

We work on improving visual acuity.

15. ACRID adj.Bitter, pungent, sarcastic, acerbic, vitriolic, caustic, sharp, biting.Syn. Choking, unpleasant, harsh.Ant. Savoury, delectable.

The room filled with the acrid smell of tobacco.

16. ACRIMONIOUS adj. ACRIMONY n.Full of bitterness in words or manner.Syn. Spiteful, rancorous, hostile.Ant. Musical, congruent, cordial.

The council’s first meeting ended in acrimony.

17. ACROBAT n. Gymnast, tumbler.Syn. Trapeze artist, circus performer.


Material


Generally children are captivated by the performance of acrobats at the circus.

18. ACRONYM n.A word formed from the initial letters of other words.Syn. Short form, contraction, ellipsis.

An example of an acronym is NATO which is made up of the first letters of the ‘North

Atlantic Treaty Organization’.

19. ACTUARY n. ACTUARIAL adj.A statistician who compotes insurance risks and premiums.

The company’s actuarial report is available on demand.

20. ADDLE v.

Become rotten, confuse

Suppose the shock had addled his poor old brain.

21. ADIEU n.A farewell.Syn. Goodbye, bon voyage, sayonaraAnt. Salutation, welcome, greet.

The senior students were given adieu party by their juniors.

22. ADJURE v.To charge on oath or to command solemnly under Syn. Swear in, entreat, beseech.

The witness was adjured on holy book Geeta to speak the truth.

23. ADORN v.Decorate, beautify, garnish,Syn. Embellish, polish, glamorizeAnt. Blemish, disfigure, distort.

His watercolour designs adorn a wide range of books.

24. ADVERSARY n.Opponent, hostile rival, enemy.Syn. Challenger, rival.Ant. Supporter, follower, fan, backer

His political adversaries were creating a certain amount of trouble for him.

25. AFFECT v.To act on, to influence, to move.Syn. Involve, shape, touch, disturb

Nicotine adversely affects the functioning of the heart and arteries.


Material


26. AFFLICTION n.The cause of persistent pain or distress; great suffering.Syn. Ordeal, tribulation.Ant. Consolation, solace.

Hay fever is an affliction which arrives at an early age.

27. AFTERMATH n.Consequence, result, events following

In the aftermath of the coup, the troops opened fire on the demonstrators.

28. AGAPE adj.Wide open, open-mouthedSyn. Astonished, amazed.

She stood looking at Carmen with her mouth agape.

29. AGGRAVATE v.To worsen, to make more grievous, intensify, to exacerbate, burden, irritate.Syn. Worsen, exaggerate, intensify

Ant. Calm, pacify, quiet, appease

Stress and lack of sleep can aggravate the situation.

30. AGOG adj.Full of intense interest or excitement.Syn. Eager, anxious, keenAnt. Aloof.

Young generations are all agog over latest technologies.

Documents

CrackCLAT Sample Study Material