10
We believe the key to the 10's longevity is its basically simple, clean structure with adequately large (one Mbyte) address space that allows users to get work done. In this way, it has evolved easily with use and with technology. An equally significant factor in its success is a single operating system environment enabling user program sharing among all machines. The machine has thus attracted users who have built significant languages and applications in a variety of environments. These user-developers are thus the dominant system architects-implementors. In retrospect, the machine turned out to be larger and further from a minicomputer than we expected. As such it could easily have died or destroyed the tiny DEC organization that started it. We hope that this paper has provided insight into the interactions of its development. Acknowledgments. Dan Siewiorek deserves our greatest thanks for helping with a complete editing of the text. The referees and editors have been especially helpful. The important program contributions by users are too numerous for us to give by name but here are most of them: APL, Basic, BLISS, DDT, LISP, Pascal, Simula, sos, TECO, and Tenex. Likewise, there have been so many contributions to the 10's architecture and implementations within DEC and throughout the user community that we dare not give what would be a partial list. Received April 1977; revised September 1977 References 1. Bell, G., Cady, R., McFarland, H., Delagi, B., O'Laughlin, J., and Noonan, R. A new architecture for minicomputers---,the DEC PDP-11. Proc. AFIPS 1970 SJCC, Vol. 36, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 657-675. 2. Bell, G., and Freeman, P. C ai- A computer architecture for AI research AFIPS Conf. Proc. Vol. 38 (Spring, 1971), 779-790. 3. Bell, G., and Newell, A. Computer Structures: Readi ngs and Examples. McGraw-Hill, New Y ork, 1971. 4. Bobrow, D.G., Burchfiel, J.D., Murphy, D. L., and Tomlinson, R.S. TENEX, A Paged Time Sharing System for the PDP-10. Comm. ACM 15, 3 (March 1972), 135-143. 5. Bullman, D.M. Editor, stack computers issue. Computer 10, 5 (May 1977), 14-52. 6. Clark, W.A. The Lincoln TX-2 computer. Proc. WJCC 1957, Vol. 11, pp. 143-171. 7. Lunde, A. Empirical evaluation of some features of Instruction Set Processor architecture. Comm. ACM 20, 3 (March 1977), 143- 152. 8. Mitchell, J.L., and Olsen, K.H. TX-0, a transistor computer. Proc. EJCC 1956, Vol. 10, pp. 93-100. 9. McCarthy, J. Time Sharing Computer Systems, Management and the Computer of the Future M. Greenberger, Ed., M .I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1962, pp. 221-236. 10. Murphy, D.L. Storage organization and management in TENEX. Proc. AFIPS 1972 FJCC, Vol. 41, Pt. I, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 23-32. 11. Olsen, K.H. Transistor circuitry in the Lincoln TX-2. Proc. WJCC 1957, Vol. 11, pp. 167-171. 12. Roberts, L.G. Ed. Section on Resource Sharing Computer Networks. AFIPS 1970 SJCC, Vol. 36, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 543-598. 13. Wulf, W., and Bell, G. C .mmp --A mutli-mini-processor. Proc. AFIPS 1972 FJCC, Vol. 41, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 765-777. 14. Wulf, W., Russell, D., and Habermann, A.N. BLISS: A language for systems programming. Comm. ACM 14, 12 (Dec. 1971), 780-790. 6 3 Computer Systems G. Bell, S. H. Fuller, and D. Siewiorek, Editors The CRAY- 1 Computer System Richard M. Russell Cray Research, Inc. This paper describes the CRAY,1, discusses the some of the problems that were overcome during its manufacture. The CRAY-1 is the only computer to have been built to date that satisfies ERDA's Class VI requirement (a computer capable of processing from 20 to 60 million floating point operations per second) [11. The CR AY-I's Fortran compiler (CVT) is designed to give the scientific user immediate access to the benefits of the CRAY-rs vector processing architecture. An optimizing compBer, cFr, "vectorizes" innermost DO loops. Compatible with the ANSI 1966 Fortran Standard and with many commonly supported Fortran extensions, CVT does not require any source program modifications or the use of additional nonstandard Fortran statements to achieve vectorization. Thus the user's investment of hundreds of man months of effort to develop Fortran programs for other contemporary computers is protected. Key Words and Phrases: architecture, computer systems CR Categories: 1.2, 6.2, 6.3 Introduction Vector processors are not yet commonplace ma- chines in the larger-scale computer market. At the time of this writing we know of only 12 non-CRAY-1 vector processor installations worldwide. Of these 12, the most powerful processor is the ILLIA C IV (1 installation), the most populous is the Texas Instru- ments Advanced Scientific Computer (7 installations) and the most publicized is Control Data's STAR 100 Copyright © 1977, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. General permission to republish, but not for profit, all or part of this material is granted provided that ACM's copyright notice is given and that" reference is made to the publication, to its date of issue, and to the fact that reprinting privileges were granted by permission of the Association for Com puting Machinery. Author's address: Cray Research Inc., Suite 213, 7850 Metro Parkway, Minneapolis, MN 55420. Comm unications January 1978 of Volume 21 the ACM Number 1

Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 1/10

W e b e l i e v e t h e k e y t o t h e 1 0 ' s l o n g e v i t y i s i t s

b a s i c a ll y s im p l e , c l e a n s t r u c t u r e w i t h a d e q u a t e l y l a r g e

( o n e M b y t e ) a d d r e s s s p a c e t h a t a l l o w s u se r s to g e t

w o r k d o n e . I n t h is w a y , i t h a s e v o l v e d e a s i l y w i t h u s e

a n d w i t h t e c h n o l o g y . A n e q u a l l y s i g n i fi c a n t f a c t o r in

i t s s u c c e s s is a s i n g l e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m e n v i r o n m e n t

e n a b l i n g u s e r p r o g r a m s h a r i n g a m o n g a l l m a c h i n e s .

T h e m a c h i n e h a s t h u s a t t r a c t e d u s e rs w h o h a v e b u i l t

s i g n i f i c a n t l a n g u a g e s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s i n a v a r i e t y o f

e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e s e u s e r - d e v e l o p e r s a r e th u s t h e

d o m i n a n t s y st e m a r c h i t e c t s - i m p l e m e n t o r s .I n r e t r o s p e c t , t h e m a c h i n e t u r n e d o u t t o b e la r g e r

a n d f u r t h e r fr o m a m i n i c o m p u t e r t h a n w e e x p e c t e d .

A s s u c h i t c o u l d e a s i ly h a v e d i e d o r d e s t r o y e d t h e t i n y

D E C o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t s ta r t e d it . W e h o p e t h a t t h is

p a p e r h a s p r o v i d e d i n s ig h t i n t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f i ts

d e v e l o p m e n t .

Acknowledgments . D a n S i e w i o r e k d es e r v e s o u r

g r e a t e s t t h a n k s f o r h e l p in g w i t h a c o m p l e t e e d i t i n g o f

t h e t e x t . T h e r e f e r e e s a n d e d i t o r s h a v e b e e n e s p e c i a l l y

h e l p f u l. T h e i m p o r t a n t p r o g r a m c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y u s e r s

a r e t o o n u m e r o u s f o r u s t o g iv e b y n a m e b u t h e r e a r e

m o s t o f t h e m : A PL , B a s i c , BLISS, DDT, L I S P , P a s c a l ,S i m u l a , s o s , T E C O , a n d T e n e x . L i k e w i s e , t h e r e h a v e

b e e n s o m a n y c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e 1 0 ' s a r c h i te c t u r e

a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s w i th i n D E C a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e

u s e r c o m m u n i t y t h a t w e d a r e n o t g i v e w h a t w o u l d b e a

p a r t i a l l i st .

Rece ived Apr i l 1977 ; rev ised Sep tember 1977

References1 . Be l l , G . , Cady , R . , McFar land , H . , De lag i , B . , O 'Laug h l in , J . ,and Noonan, R. A new architecture for minicomputers--- , the DECPDP-11 . P roc . AFIP S 1970 SJCC, Vo l . 36 , AFIP S P ress ,Mon tva le , N . J . , pp . 657 -675 .2 . B e l l , G . , a n d F r e e m a n , P . C a i - A c o m p u t e r a r c h it e c tu r e f o rAI re sea rch AFIPS Conf . P roc . Vo l . 38 (Sp r ing , 1971) , 779 -790 .

3 . Be l l , G . , and Newel l , A . Computer Structures: Readings andExamples. McG raw-Hi l l , New Y ork , 1971.4 . Bobrow, D.G . , Burchf ie l , J .D . , M urphy , D. L . , andToml inson , R .S . TEN EX , A Paged Time Sha r ing Sys tem fo r thePDP-10 . Comm. ACM 15, 3 (March 1972), 135-143.5 . Bu l lman , D.M. Ed i to r , stack compu te rs i s sue . Computer 10, 5(May 1977), 14-52.6 . Cla rk , W .A. The Linco ln TX-2 compu te r . P roc . W JCC 1957,Vol. 11, pp. 143-171.7 . Lunde , A . Empir ica l eva lua t ion o f some fea tu re s o f In s truc t ionSet Processor architecture . Comm. ACM 20, 3 (March 1977), 143-152.8 . Mi tche l l , J .L . , and Olsen , K .H . TX-0 , a t r ans i s to r compu te r .P roc . EJCC 1956 , Vo l . 10 , pp . 93 -100 .9 . McCar thy , J . Time Sharing Computer Systems, Managementand the Computer of the Future M. Greenb e rge r , Ed . , M . I .T . P re ss ,Cambr idge , Mass . , 1962 , pp . 221 -236 .

10 . Murphy , D .L. S to rage o rgan iza t ion and managem en t inTENEX. P roc . AFIPS 1972 FJCC, Vo l . 41 , P t . I , AFIPS P ress ,Mon tva le , N . J . , pp . 23 -32 .11 . Olsen , K .H. T rans i s to r c i rcu it ry in the Linco ln TX-2 . P roc .W JCC 1957 , Vo l . 11 , pp . 167 -171 .12 . Rober t s , L .G . Ed . Sec t ion on Resou rce Sha ring Compu te rNe tworks . AFIPS 1970 SJCC, V o l . 36 , AFIPS P ress , Mon tva le ,N. J . , pp . 543 -598 .13 . W ulf , W . , and Be l l , G . C .m mp --A mut l i -min i -p rocesso r . P roc .AFIPS 1972 FJCC, Vo l . 41 , AFIPS P ress , Mon tva le , N . J . , pp .7 6 5 - 7 7 7 .14 . W ulf , W . , Russe l l , D . , and Habe rmann , A .N. BL ISS : Alanguage fo r sy s tems p rog ram ming . Comm. ACM 14, 12 (Dec .1971) , 780 -790 .

63

C o m p u t e r

S y s t e m s

G . B e l l , S . H . F u l l e r , a n d

D . S i e w i o r e k , E d i t o r s

T he C R A Y - 1

C o m p u t e r S y s t e mR i c h a r d M . R u s s e l l

C r a y R e s e a r c h , I n c .

T h i s p a p e r d e s c r ib e s t h e C R A Y , 1 , d i s c u s se s t he

e v o l u t i o n o f i ts a r c h i te c t u r e , a n d g i v e s a n a c c o u n t o f

s o m e o f th e p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e o v e r c o m e d u r i n g it s

m a n u f a c t u r e .

T h e C R A Y - 1 i s t h e on l y c o m p u te r t o h a v e b e e n

b u i l t t o d a t e th a t s a t is f i es E R D A ' s C l a s s V I

r e q u i r e m e n t ( a c o m p u t e r c a p a b l e o f pr o c e s s i n g f r o m

2 0 t o 6 0 m i l l i o n f l o a t i n g p o i n t o p e r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d )[ 1 1 .

T h e C R A Y - I ' s F o r t r a n c o m p i l e r ( C VT ) i s d e s i g n e d

t o g i v e t h e s c i e n t i f i c u s e r i m m e d i a t e a c c e s s t o t h e

b e n e f it s o f t h e C R A Y - r s v e c t or p r oc e s s in g

a r c h i t e c t u r e . A n o p t i m i z i n g c o m p B e r , c F r ,

" v e c t o r i z e s " i n n e r m o s t D O l o o p s . C o m p a t i b l e w i t h

t h e A NS I 1 9 6 6 F o r t r a n S t a n d a r d a n d w i t h m a n y

c o m m o n l y s u p p o r t e d F o r t r a n e x t e n s i o n s , CVT d o e s n o t

r e q u i r e a n y s o u r c e p r o g r a m m o d i f i c a t i o n s o r t h e u s e

o f a d d i t i o n a l n o n s t a n d a r d F o r t r a n s ta t e m e n t s t o

a c h i e v e v e c t o r i z a t i o n . T h u s t h e u s e r ' s i n v e s t m e n t o f

h u n d r e d s o f m a n m o n t h s o f e f f o r t t o d e v e l o p F o r t ra n

p r o g r a m s f o r o th e r c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p u t e r s i sp r o t e c t e d .

K e y W o r d s a n d P h r a s e s : a r c h i t e c t u r e , c o m p u t e r

s y s t e m s

C R C a t e g o r i e s : 1 . 2 , 6 . 2 , 6 . 3

I n t r o d u c t i o n

V e c t o r p r o c e s s o rs a r e n o t y e t c o m m o n p l a c e m a -

c h i n e s i n t h e l a r g e r- s c a l e c o m p u t e r m a r k e t . A t t h e

t i m e o f t h is w r i t i n g w e k n o w o f o n l y 1 2 n o n - C R A Y - 1

v e c t o r p r o c e s s o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s w o r l d w i d e . O f t h e s e 1 2 ,

t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l p r o c e s s o r is t h e I L L I A C I V ( 1i n s t a l l a t i o n ) , t h e m o s t p o p u l o u s i s t h e T e x a s I n s t r u-

m e n t s A d v a n c e d S c i e nt i f i c C o m p u t e r ( 7 i n s t a l la t i o n s )

a n d t h e m o s t p u b l i c i z e d i s C o n t r o l D a t a ' s S T A R 1 0 0

Copyr igh t © 1977, Assoc ia t ion fo r Com pu t ing Mach ine ry , Inc .Gene ra l pe rmiss ion to repub l i sh , bu t no t fo r p ro f i t , a l l o r pa r t o fth i s ma te r ia l i s g ran ted p rov ided tha t ACM's copyr igh t no t ice i sgiven and that" reference is mad e to the pub lication, to i ts date ofissue, and to the fact that reprinting privileges were granted bype rmiss ion o f the Assoc ia t ion fo r Com pu t ing Mach ine ry .

Au tho r ' s add ress : Cray Resea rch Inc . , Su i te 213 , 7850 Met roParkway , M inneapo l i s , MN 55420 .

Comm unica t ions Janua ry 1978of Vo lume 21the A C M N u m b e r 1

Page 2: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 2/10

( 4 in s t a ll a t io n s ) . I n i ts r e p o r t o n t h e C R A Y - 1 , A u e r -

b a c h C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o g y R e p o r t s p u b l i s h e d a c o m -

p a r is o n o f t h e C R A Y - 1 , t h e A S C , a n d t he S T A R 1 0 0

[ 2]. T h e C R A Y - 1 is s h o w n t o b e a m o r e p o w e r f u l

c o m p u t e r t h a n a n y o f i ts m a i n c o m p e t i t o r s a n d i s

e s t i m a t e d t o b e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f fi v e I B M 3 7 0 / 1 9 5 s .

I n d e p e n d e n t b e n c h m a r k s t u d ie s h a v e s h o w n t h e

C R A Y - 1 f ul ly c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t in g c o m p u t a t i o n a l

r a t e s o f 1 3 8 m i l l i o n f l o a t i n g - p o i n t o p e r a t i o n s p e r s e c -

o n d (M F LO PS ) f o r s u s t a i n e d p e r i o d s a n d e v e n h i g h e r

r a t e s o f 2 5 0 M r LO P S i n s h o r t b u r s t s [ 3 , 4 ] . S u c h

c o m p a r a t i v e l y h ig h p e r f o r m a n c e r e s u l ts f r o m t h e

C R A Y - 1 i n t e r n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h i c h is d e s i g n e d t o

a c c o m m o d a t e t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l n e e d s o f c a r ry i n g o u t

m a n y c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d i s c r e t e s t e p s , w i t h e a c h s t e p

p r o d u c i n g i n t e r i m r e s u l t s u s e d i n s u b s e q u e n t s t e p s .

T h r o u g h a t e c h n iq u e c a l l ed " c h a i n i n g , " t h e C R A Y - 1

v e c t o r f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s , in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h s c a la r a n d

v e c t o r r e g i s t er s , g e n e r a t e i n t e r i m r e s u lt s a n d u s e t h e m

a g a i n i m m e d i a t e l y w i th o u t a d d i t i o n a l m e m o r y r e f e r -

e n c e s , w h i c h s lo w d o w n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l p r o c e s s in

o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s .

O t h e r f e a tu r e s e n h a n c in g t h e C R A Y - I ' s c o m p u t a -

t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e : i t s s m a l l s i z e , w h i c h r e d u c e s

d i s t a n c e s e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s m u s t t r a v e l w i t h i n t h e c o m -

p u t e r ' s f r a m e w o r k a n d a ll o w s a 1 2 .5 n a n o s e c o n d c l o c k

p e r i o d ( t h e C R A Y - 1 i s t h e w o r l d ' s f a s t e st s c a la r p ro c -

e s s o r ) ; a o n e m i l l io n w o r d s e m i c o n d u c t o r m e m o r y

e q u i p p e d w i t h e r r o r d e t e c t i o n a n d c o r r e c t i o n l o gi c

( S E C D ~ D ) ; i t s 6 4 - b i t w o r d s i z e ; a n d i t s o p t i m i z i n g

F o r t r a n c o m p i l e r .

A r c h i t e c t u r e

T h e C R A Y - 1 h a s b e e n c a l le d " t h e w o r l d 's m o s t

e x p e n s i v e l o v e - s e a t " [ 5 ]. C e r t a i n l y , m o s t p e o p l e ' s fi r str e a c t i o n t o t h e C R A Y - I i s t h a t i t i s s o s m a l l . B u t i n

c o m p u t e r d e s i g n i t i s a tr u i s m t h a t s m a l l e r m e a n s

f a s t e r. T h e g r e a t e r t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s , t h e

l o n g e r t h e t i m e t a k e n f o r a s i g n a l t o p a s s b e t w e e n

t h e m . A c y l i n d ri c a l s h a p e w a s c h o s e n f o r t h e C R A Y - 1

i n o r d e r t o k e e p w i r i n g d i s t a n c e s s m a l l .

F i g u r e 1 sh o w s t h e p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f th e

m a c h i n e . T h e m a i n f r a m e i s c o m p o s e d o f 1 2 w e dg e -

l i k e c o l u m n s a r r a n g e d i n a 2 7 0 ° a r c . T h i s l e a v e s r o o m

f o r a r e a s o n a b l y t r i m i n d i v i d u a l t o g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e

i n t e r io r o f t h e m a c h i n e . N o t e t h a t t h e l o v e - s e a t d i s-

g u i s es t h e p o w e r s u p p l i e s a n d s o m e p l u m b i n g f o r th e

F r e o n c o o l i n g s y s t e m . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s ( F i g u r e 2 a n d3 ) sh o w t h e in t e r i o r o f a w o r k i n g C R A Y - 1 a n d a n

e x t e r i o r v ie w o f a c o l u m n w i t h o n e m o d u l e i n p l a c e .

F i g u r e 4 i s a p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e i n t e r i o r o f a si n g l e

m o d u l e .

A n A n a l y s i s o f th e A r c h i t e c t u r e

T a b l e I d e t a il s i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f th e

C R A Y - 1 C o m p u t e r S y s t em . T h e C R A Y - 1 is e q u i p p e d

w i t h 1 2 i /o c h a n n e l s , 1 6 m e m o r y b a n k s , 1 2 f u n c t i o n a l

6 4

Fig. 1. Physical organization of m ainframe.

1, 1031/2" ,I

- DimensionsBase-103½ inches diameter by 19 inches highColumns-56½ inch es diameter by 77 in ches high including

height of base--24 chassis- 1662 modules; 113 module types--Eac h module contains up to 288 IC packages per module-Power consumption approximately 115 kw input for maximum

memory size--Freon cooled with Freon/water heat exchange

-T h ree m em ory op ti ons-W eigh t 10,500 lbs (maximUm memory s ize)-T hr ee basic chip types

5/4 NAND gatesMemory chipsRegister chips

u n i t s, a n d m o r e t h a n 4 k b y t e s o f re g i s t e r s to r a g e .

A c c e s s t o m e m o r y i s s h a r e d b y t h e i /o c h a n n e l s a n d

h i g h - s p e e d r e g i s te r s . T h e m o s t s t r i k in g f e a t u r e s o f th e

C R A Y - 1 a r e: o n l y f o u r c h ip t y p e s , m a i n m e m o r y

s p e e d , c o o l i n g s y s t e m , a n d c o m p u t a t i o n s e c t i o n .

F o u r C h i p T y p e s

O n l y f o u r c h i p t y p e s a r e u s e d t o b u i l d t h e C R A Y -1 . T h e s e a r e 1 6 × 4 b i t b i p o l a r r e g i s t e r c h i p s ( 6

n a n o s e c o n d c y c le t i m e ) , 1 0 2 4 × 1 b i t b i p o l a r m e m o r y

c h i p s ( 5 0 n a n o s e c o n d c y c le t im e ) , a n d b i p o l a r lo g i c

c h i p s w i t h s u b n a n o s e c o n d p r o p a g a t i o n t i m e s . T h e l o g i c

c h i p s a r e a l l s i m p l e l o w - o r h i g h - s p e e d g a t e s w i t h b o t h

a 5 w i d e a n d a 4 w i d e g a t e ( 5 / 4 N A N D ) . E m i t t e r -

c o u p l e d l o g i c c i r c u i t ( EC L ) t e c h n o l o g y i s u s e d t h r o u g h -

o u t t h e C R A Y - 1 .

T h e p r i n t e d c i rc u i t b o a r d u s e d i n t h e C R A Y - 1 i s a

5 - l a y e r b o a r d w i t h th e t w o o u t e r s u r f a c e s u s e d f o r

s i gn a l r u n s a n d t h e t h r e e i n n e r l a y e r s f o r - 5 . 2 V ,

- 2 . 0 V , a n d g r o u n d p o w e r s u p pl ie s . T h e b o a r d s a r e

s ix in c h e s w i d e , 8 i n c h e s l o n g , a n d f i t i n t o t h e c h a s s i sa s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 .

A l l i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t d e v i c e s u s e d i n t h e C R A Y - 1

a r e p a c k a g e d i n 1 6 - p i n h e r m e t i c a l l y s e a l e d f la t p a c k s

s u p p l i e d b y b o t h F a i r c h i ld a n d M o t o r o l a . T h i s ty p e o f

p a c k a g e w a s c h o s e n f o r it s r e l ia b i l it y a n d c o m p a c t n e s s .

C o m p a c t n e s s i s o f sp e c i a l i m p o r t a n c e ; a s m a n y a s 2 8 8

p a c k a g e s m a y b e a d d e d t o a b o a r d t o f a b r i c a t e a

m o d u l e ( t h e r e a r e 1 1 3 m o d u l e t y p e s ) , a n d a s m a n y as

7 2 m o d u l e s m a y b e i n s e r t e d i n t o a 2 8 - i n c h - h i g h c h a s s is .

Comm unications January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 3: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 3/10

Fig. 2. The CRAY-1 Computer . Fig. 4. A single module.

Fig. 3. CRAY-1 modules in place.

Such component densities evitably lead to a mammoth

cooling problem (to be described).

Main Memor y SpeedCRAY-1 memory is organized in 16 banks, 72

modules per bank. Each module contributes 1 bit to a

64-bit word. The other 8 bits are used to store an 8-bit

check byte required for single-bit error correction,

double -bit e rro r det ectio n (SECDEO). Da ta w ords are

stored in 1-bank increments throughout memory. This

organization allows 16-way interleaving of memory

accesses and prevents bank conflicts except in the case

6 5

Table I. CRAY-1 CPU characteristics summary

Computation Section

Scalar and vector processing modes

12.5 na nosecond clock period operat ion

64-bit word sizeInteger and floating-point arithmetic

Twelve fully segment ed functional units

Eight 24-bit address (A) registers

Sixty-four 24-bit intermediate address (B) registers

Eight 64-bit scalar(S) registers

Sixty-four 64-bit intermediate scalar (T) registers

Eight 64-element vector (V) registers (64-bits per element)

Vector length and vector mask registers

One 64-bit real time clock (RT) register

Four instruction buffers of sixty-four 16-bit parcels each

128 basic instructions

Prioritized interrupt control

Memory Section

1,048,576 64-bit words (plus 8 check bits per word)

16 independe nt banks of 65,536 words each

4 clock period bank cycle time1 word per clock period transfer rate for B, T, and V registers

1 word per 2 clock periods transfe r rate for A and S registers

4 words per clock period transfer rate to instruction buffers (up to

16 instructions per clock period)

i/o Section

24 i/o channels organized into four 6-channel groups

Each channel group contains either 6 input or 6 output channels

Each channel group served by memory every 4 clock periods

Channel priority within each channel group

16 data bits, 3 control bits per channel, and 4 parity bits

Maximum channel rate of one 64-bit word every 100 nanoseconds

Maximum data streaming rate of 500,000 64-bit words/second

Channel error detection

of memory accesses that step through memory with

either an 8 or 16-word increment.

Cooling SystemThe CRAY-1 generates about four times as much

heat per cubic inch as the 7600. To cool the CRAY-1

a new cooling technology was developed, also based

on Freon, but employing available metal conductors in

a new way. Within each chassis vertical aluminum/

stainless steel cooling bars line each column wall. The

Communicat ions January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 4: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 4/10

F ig . 5 . Block d iag ram o f reg is te r s .

VECTOR REGISTERS

4EMOR)

, K - ' - ' ] v 7/~ -i v6

//~-. ' v5

~ ~ _ . ~ v3 4

Z . Z ~ I vlv2 ....

/j / co,' VO

VectorC o n t r o l

VjVk

Vi

i .SJ

I v. F. ~ i

~ SCALAR REGISTERS

oo

T 77 s~~

((Ah) + jkm) ~'?" I SO ~----~-

~XCn~aone

VectorADDRESS REGISTERS

Shlftl

VECTOR I I

_F

v j

FLOATING

POINT

r

n | | ! J

l

I 7 1 I I I ~

A k

c o n t r o l

Ak

,,P

L , , F . . . .

INSTRUCTION BUFFERS

ADDRESS

FUNCTIONAL UNITS

F r e o n r e f r i g e r a n t is p a s s e d t h r o u g h a s t a i n le s s s t e e l

t u b e w i t h i n t h e a l u m i n u m c a s i n g . W h e n m o d u l e s a r e

i n p l a c e , h e a t i s d i s s i p a t e d t h r o u g h t h e i n n e r c o p p e r

h e a t t r a n s f e r p l a t e i n t h e m o d u l e t o t h e c o l u m n w a l l s

a n d t h e n c e i n t o t h e c o o l i n g b a r s . T h e m o d u l e s a r e

m a t e d w i t h t h e c o l d b a r b y u s i n g s t a in l e s s s t e e l p in s t o

p i n c h t h e c o p p e r p l a t e a g a i n s t t h e a l u m i n u m o u t e r

c a s in g o f t h e b a r .

T o a s s u r e c o m p o n e n t r e l i a b i l i t y , t h e c o o l i n g s y s t e m

66

w a s d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e a m a x i m u m c a s e t e m p e r a t u r e

o f 1 3 0 ° F ( 5 4 ° C ) . T o m e e t t h i s g o a l , t h e f o l l o w i n g

t e m p e r a t u r e d i f fe r e n ti a ls a r e o b s e r v e d :

T e m p e r a t u r e a t c e n t e r o f m o d u l e

T e m p e r a t u r e a t e d g e o f m o d u l e

C o l d p l a t e t e m p e r a t u r e a t w e d g e

C o l d b a r t e m p e r a t u r e

R e f r i g e r a n t tu b e t e m p e r a t u r e

130°F (54°C)l18°F (48°C)

78°F (25°C)70°F (21°C)70°F (21°C)

Com munica t ions Janua ry 1978of Vo lume 21t h e A C M N u m b e r 1

Page 5: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 5/10

F u n c t i o n a l U n i t s

T h e r e a r e 1 2 f u n c t i o n a l u n i ts , o r g a n i z e d i n f o u r

g r o u p s : a d d r e s s , s c a l a r , v e c t o r , a n d f l o a t i n g p o i n t .

E a c h f u n c t i o n a l u n i t is p i p e l i n e d i n t o s i n g l e c lo c k

s e g m e n t s . F u n c t i o n a l u n i t t i m e i s s h o w n i n T a b l e I I .

N o t e t h a t a l l o f th e f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s c a n o p e r a t e c o n c u r -

r e n t l y s o t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b e n e f i t s o f p i p e l i n i n g

( e a c h f u n c t i o n a l u n i t c a n b e d r i v e n a t a r e s u l t r a t e o f 1

p e r c l o c k p e r i o d ) w e a l s o h a v e p a r a l l e l i s m a c r o s s t h e

u n i t s to o . N o t e t h e a b s e n c e o f a d i v id e u n i t i n t h e

C R A Y - 1 . I n o r d e r to h a v e a c o m p l e t e l y se g m e n t e d

d i v id e o p e r a t i o n t h e C R A Y - 1 p e r f o r m s f lo a t i n g - p o i n t

d i v is i o n b y t h e m e t h o d o f r e c i p r o c a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n .

T h i s t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n u s e d b e f o r e ( e . g . I B M S y s t e m /

3 6 0 M o d e l 9 1 ) .

R e g i s t e r s

F i g u r e 5 s h o w s t h e C R A Y - 1 r e g i s te r s in r e l a ti o n -

s h i p t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s , i n s t r u c t i o n b u f f e r s , i / o

c h a n n e l c o n t r o l r e g i s te r s , a n d m e m o r y . T h e b a s i c s e t

o f p r o g r a m m a b l e r e g i s te r s a r e a s fo l lo w s :

8 2 4 - b i t a d d r e s s ( A ) r e g i s t e r s

6 4 2 4 - b i t a d d r e s s - s a v e ( B ) r e g i s t e r s

8 6 4 - b i t s c a l a r ( S ) r e g i s t e r s6 4 6 4 - b i t s c a l a r - s a v e ( T ) r e g i s t e r s

8 6 4 - w o r d ( 4 0 9 6 - b i t ) v e c t o r ( V ) r e g i s t e r s

E x p r e s s e d i n 8 - b i t b y t e s r a t h e r t h a n 6 4 - b i t w o r d s ,

t h a t ' s a t o t a l o f 4 ,8 8 8 b y t e s o f h i g h - s p e e d ( 6 n s ) r e g i s te r

s t o r a g e .

T h e f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s t a k e i n p u t o p e r a n d s f r o m a n d

s t o r e r e s u l t o p e r a n d s o n l y t o A , S , a n d V r e g i s t e r s .

T h u s t h e l a r g e a m o u n t o f r e g i s t e r s t o r a g e i s a c ru c i a l

f a c t o r i n t h e C R A Y - I ' s a r c h i t e c t u r e . C h a i n i n g c o u l d

n o t t a k e p l a c e i f v e c t o r r e g i s t e r s p a c e w e r e n o t a v a i l a -

b l e f o r t h e s t o r a g e o f f i na l o r i n t e r m e d i a t e r e s u lt s . T h e

B a n d T r e g i s t e rs g r e a t l y a s s is t sc a l a r p e r f o r m a n c e .

T e m p o r a r y s c a l a r v a l u e s ca n b e s t o r e d f r o m a n d r e -

l o a d e d t o t h e A a n d S re g i s t e r i n t w o c l o c k p e r i o d s .

F i g u r e 5 s h o w s t h e C R A Y - I ' s r e g i s t e r p a t h s i n d e t a i l .

T h e s p e e d o f t h e e FT F o r t r a n I V c o m p i l e r w o u l d b e

s e r io u s l y im p a i r e d i f i t w e r e u n a b l e t o k e e p t h e m a n y

P a s s 1 a n d P a s s 2 t a b l e s i t n e e d s i n r e g i s t e r s p a c e ,

W i t h o u t t h e r e g i s t e r s t o r a g e p r o v i d e d b y t h e B , T , a n d

V re g i s t e rs , th e C R A Y - I ' s b a n d w i d t h o f o n l y 80

m i l l i o n w o r d s / s e c o n d w o u l d b e a s e r i o u s i m p e d i m e n t

t o p e r f o r m a n c e .

I n s t r u c ti o n F o r m a t s

I n s t r u c t i o n s a r e e x p r e s s e d i n e i t h e r o n e o r t w o 1 6 -

b i t p a r c e l s . B e l o w i s t h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f a C R A Y - 1

i n s t ru c t i o n . T w o - p a r c e l in s t r u c ti o n s m a y o v e r l a p m e m -

o r y - w o r d b o u n d a r i e s , a s f o ll o w s :

Fields g h i j k m

0 - 3 4 - 6 7 - 9 1 0 -1 2 1 3 - 1 5 1 6 -3 1Bit posi- (4) (3) (3) (3) (3) (16)tions

Parcel 1 Parcel 2

T h e c o m p u t a t i o n s e c t io n p r o c e s s e s i n s tr u c t io n s a t a

m a x i m u m r a t e o f o n e p a r c e l p e r c lo c k p e r io d .

Table II. CR AY -1 functional units

FunctionalRegister unit time

usage (clock pe-riods)

Address function unitsaddress add unit A 2address multiply unit A 6

Scalar functional unitsscalar add unit Sscalar shift unit S

scalar logical unit Spopulation/leading zero count

unit S 3Vector functional units

vector add unit V 3vector shift unit V 4vector logical unit V 2

Floating-point functional unitsfloating-point add unit S and V 6floating-point multiply unit S and V 7reciprocal approximation unit S and V 14

32 or 3 if double-

word shift1

F o r a r i t h m e t i c a n d l o g i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , a 7 - b i t o p -

e r a t i o n c o d e ( g h ) i s f o l l o w e d b y t h r e e 3 - b i t r e g i s t e rd e s i g n a t o r s . T h e f i r s t f i e l d , i , d e s i g n a t e s t h e r e s u l t

r e g i s t e r . T h e j a n d k f i e l d s d e s i g n a t e t h e t w o o p e r a n d

r e g i s te r s o r a r e c o m b i n e d t o d e s i g n a t e a B o r T

r e g i s t e r .

T h e s h i f t a n d m a s k i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a 7 - b i t

o p e r a t i o n c o d e ( g h ) f o l l o w e d b y a 3 - b it i f i e l d a n d a 6 -

b i t j k f i e l d . T h e i f i e ld d e s i g n a t e s t h e o p e r a n d r e g i s t e r .

T h e j k c o m b i n e d f i e l d s p e c i f i e s a s h i f t o r m a s k c o u n t .

I m m e d i a t e o p e r a n d , r e a d a n d s t o re m e m o r y , a n d

b r a n c h i n s t r u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e t w o - p a r c e l i n s t r u c t i o n

w o r d f o r m a t . T h e i m m e d i a t e o p e r a n d a n d t h e r e a d

a n d s t o r e m e m o r y i n s tr u c t io n s c o m b i n e t h e j, k , a n d

m f i el d s to d e f i n e a 2 2 - b i t q u a n t i t y o r m e m o r y a d d r e s s .

I n a d d i t io n , t h e r e a d a n d s t o r e m e m o r y i n s t ru c t io n s

u s e t h e h f i e ld t o s p e c i f y a n o p e r a t i n g r e g i s t e r f o r

i n d e x in g . T h e b r a n c h i n s t r u c t io n s c o m b i n e t h e i , j , k ,

a n d m f i e l d s i n t o a 2 4 - b i t m e m o r y a d d r e s s f i e l d . T h i s

a l lo w s b r a n c h i n g t o a n y o n e o f t h e f o u r p a r c e l p o s i ti o n s

i n a n y 6 4 - b i t w o r d , w h e t h e r i n m e m o r y o r i n a n

i n s t r u c t i o n b u f f e r .

O p e r a t i n g R e g i s te r s

F i v e t y p e s o f r e g i s t e r s - t h r e e p r i m a r y ( A , S , an d

V ) a n d tw o i n t e r m e d i a t e ( B a n d T ) - a r e p r o v i d e d i n

t h e C R A Y - 1 .

A r e g i s t e r s - e i g h t 2 4 - b i t A r e g i s t e r s s e r v e a v a r i e t yo f a p p l ic a t i o n s . T h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y u s e d a s a d d r e s s

r e g i s te r s f o r m e m o r y r e f e r e n c e s a n d a s i n d e x r e g i s te r s ,

b u t a l s o a r e u s e d t o p r o v i d e v a l u e s f o r s h i f t c o u n t s ,

l o o p c o n t r o l , a n d c h a n n e l i / o o p e r a t i o n s . I n a d d r e s s

a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e y a r e u s e d t o i n d e x t h e b a s e a d d r e s s

f o r s ca l a r m e m o r y r e f e r e n c e s a n d f o r p r o v i d in g b o t h a

b a s e a d d r e s s a n d a n i n d e x a d d r e s s f o r v e c t o r m e m o r y

r e f e r e n c e s .

T h e 2 4 - b i t i n te g e r f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s m o d i f y v a l u e s

67 Comm unications January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 6: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 6/10

( s u c h a s p r o g r a m a d d r e s s e s ) b y a d d i n g , s u b t r a c t i n g ,

a n d m u l t i p l y i n g A r e g i s t e r q u a n t i t i e s . T h e r e s u l t s o f

t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a r e r e t u r n e d t o A r e g i s t e r s .

D a t a c a n b e t r a n s f e r re d d i r e c tl y fr o m m e m o r y t o A

r e g i s te r s o r c a n b e p l a c e d i n B r e g i s t e r s a s a n i n t e r m e -

d i a t e s t e p . T h i s a ll o w s b u f f e r i n g o f t h e d a t a b e t w e e n

A r e g i s t e r s a n d m e m o r y . D a t a c a n a l s o b e t r a n s f e r r e d

b e t w e e n A a n d S r e g i s t e rs a n d f r o m a n A r e g i s t e r to

t h e v e c t o r l e n g t h r e g i st e r s . T h e e i g h t A r e g i s t e r s a r e

i n d i v i d u a ll y d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e sy m b o l s A 0 , A 1 , A 2 ,

A 3 , A 4 , A 5 , A 6 , a n d A 7 .B registers--there a r e s i x t y - f o u r 2 4 - b i t B r e g i s t e r s ,

w h i c h a r e u s e d a s a u x i l i a r y s t o r a g e f o r t h e A r e g i s te r s .

T h e t r a n s f e r o f a n o p e r a n d b e t w e e n a n A a n d a B

r e g i s t e r re q u i r e s o n l y o n e c l o c k p e r i o d . T y p i c a l l y , B

r e g i s t e rs c o n t a i n a d d r e s s e s a n d c o u n t e r s t h a t a r e r e f e r -

e n c e d o v e r a lo n g e r p e r i o d t h a n w o u l d p e r m i t t h e i r

b e i n g r e t a i n e d i n A r e g i s t e r s . A b l o c k o f d a t a i n B

r e g is t e rs m a y b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o o r f r o m m e m o r y a t t h e

r a t e o f o n e c l o c k p e r i o d p e r r e g i s t e r . T h u s , i t is f e a si b l e

t o s t o r e t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e s e r e g i s te r s i n m e m o r y

p r i o r t o c a l l i n g a s u b r o u t i n e r e q u i r i n g t h e i r u s e . T h e

s i x t y - f o u r B r e g i s t e r s a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d b y

t h e s y m b o l s B 0 , B 1 , B 2 . . . . . a n d B 7 7 8.S regis t er s -e ig h t 6 4 - b i t S r e g i s t e r s a r e t h e p r i n c i p l e

d a t a h a n d l i n g r e g i s t e r s f o r s c a l a r o p e r a t i o n s . T h e S

r e g i s t e r s s e r v e a s b o t h s o u r c e a n d d e s t i n a t i o n r e g i s t e r s

f o r s c a l a r a r i t h m e t i c a n d l o g i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s . S c a l a r

q u a n t i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n v e c t o r o p e r a t i o n s a r e h e l d i n S

r e g i s te r s . L o g i c a l , s h i ft , f i x e d - p o i n t , a n d f l o a t i n g - p o i n t

o p e r a t i o n s m a y b e p e r f o r m e d o n S r e g is t e r d a t a . T h e

e i g h t S r e g i s t e r s a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e

s y m b o l s S O , S 1 , $ 2 , $ 3 , $ 4 , $ 5 , $ 6 , a n d $ 7 .

T regis t er s - s ix ty- fo ur 6 4 - b i t T r e g i s t e r s a r e u s e d a s

a u x i l ia r y s t o r a g e f o r t h e S r e g i s te r s . T h e t r a n s f e r o f a n

o p e r a n d b e t w e e n S a n d T r e g i s t e r s r e q u i r e s o n e c l o c k

p e r i o d . T y p i c a l l y , T r e g i s t e r s c o n t a i n o p e r a n d s t h a t

a r e r e f e r e n c e d o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d t h a n w o u l d p e r m i t

t h e i r b e i n g r e t a i n e d i n S r e g i s t e r s . T r e g i s t e r s a l l o w

i n t e r m e d i a t e r e s u l ts o f c o m p l e x c o m p u t a t i o n s t o b e

h e l d i n i n t e r m e d i a t e a c c e s s s t o r a g e r a t h e r t h a n i n

m e m o r y . A b l o c k o f d a t a in T r e g is t e rs m a y b e

t r a n s f e r r e d to o r f r o m m e m o r y a t t h e r a t e o f o n e w o r d

p e r c l o c k p e r i o d . T h e s i x t y - f o u r T r e g i s te r s a r e i n d i v id -

u a ll y d e s i g n a te d b y t h e s y m b o l s T O , T 1 , T 2 . . . . . a n d

T 7 7 8 .

V r e g i s t e r s - e i g h t 6 4 - e l e m e n t V r e g i s t e r s p r o v i d e

o p e r a n d s t o a n d r e c e i v e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e f u n c t i o n a l

u n i t s at a o n e c l o c k p e r i o d r a t e . E a c h e l e m e n t o f a V

r e g i s t e r h o l d s a 6 4 - b it q u a n t i t y . W h e n a s s o c i a t e d d a t a

i s g r o u p e d i n t o s u c c e s s iv e e l e m e n t s o f a V r e g i s t e r, t h e

r e g i st e r m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t o c o n t a i n a v e c t o r . E x a m -

p l e s o f v e c t o r q u a n t i t i e s a r e r o w s a n d c o l u m n s o f a

m a t r i x , o r s i m i l ar l y r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s o f a t a b l e . C o m -

p u t a t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y is a c h i e v e d b y p r o c e s s i n g e a c h

e l e m e n t o f t h e v e c t o r i d e n ti c a ll y . V e c t o r m e r g e a n d

t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e p r o v i d e d i n t h e C R A Y - 1 t o a l l o w

o p e r a t i o n s t o b e p e r f o r m e d o n i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s

d e s i g n a t e d b y th e c o n t e n t o f t h e v e c t o r m a s k ( V M )

6 8

r e g i s t e r. T h e n u m b e r o f v e c t o r r e g i s t e r e l e m e n t s t o b e

p r o c e s s e d is c o n t a i n e d i n t h e v e c t o r le n g t h ( V L ) r e g is -

t e r . T h e e i g h t V r e g i s t e r s a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d

b y th e s y m b o l s V 0 , V 1 , V 2 , V 3 , V 4 , V 5 , B 6 , a n d V 7 .

Supporting RegistersT h e C P U c o n t a i n s a v a r i e t y o f a d d i t i o n a l r e g i s t e r s

t h a t s u p p o r t t h e c o n t r o l o f p r o g r a m e x e c u t i o n . T h e s e

a r e th e v e c t o r l e n g t h ( V L ) a n d v e c t o r m a s k ( V M )

r e g i s t e r s , t h e p r o g r a m c o u n t e r ( P ) , t h e b a s e a d d r e s s

( B A ) a n d l i m i t a d d r e s s ( L A ) r e g i s t e r s , t h e e x c h a n g ea d d r e s s ( X A ) r e g i s t e r , t h e f l a g ( F ) r e g i s t e r , a n d t h e

m o d e ( M ) r e g i s t e r .

V L r e g i s t e r - t h e 6 4 - b i t v e c t o r m a s k ( V M ) r e g i s t e r

c o n t r o l s v e c t o r e l e m e n t d e s i g n a t i o n i n v e c t o r m e r g e

a n d t e s t i n s t ru c t i o n s . E a c h b i t o f t h e V M r e g i s t e r

c o r r e s p o n d s t o a v e c t o r r e g i s te r e l e m e n t . I n t h e v e c t o r

t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e V M r e g i s t e r c o n t e n t i s d e f i n e d b y

t e s t in g e a c h e l e m e n t o f a V r e g i s t e r f o r a s p e c if i c

c o n d i t i o n .

P r e g i s t e r - t h e 2 4 - b i t P r e g i s t e r s p e c i fi e s t h e m e m -

o r y r e g i s te r p a r c e l a d d r e s s o f t h e c u r r e n t p r o g r a m

i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e h i g h o r d e r 2 2 b i ts s p e c if y a m e m o r y

a d d r e s s a n d t h e l o w o r d e r t w o b i t s i n d i c a t e a p a r c e ln u m b e r . T h i s p a rc e l a d d r e s s is a d v a n c e d b y o n e a s

e a c h i n s t r u c t i o n p a r c e l i n a n o n b r a n c h i n g s e q u e n c e i s

e x e c u t e d a n d i s r e p l a c e d w h e n e v e r p r o g r a m b r a n c h i n g

o c c u r s .

B A r e g i s t e r s - t h e 1 8 - b i t b a s e a d d r e s s ( B A ) r e g i s t e r

c o n t a i n s t h e u p p e r 1 8 b it s o f a 2 2 - b i t m e m o r y a d d r e s s .

T h e l o w e r f o u r b it s o f t h is a d d r e s s a r e c o n s i d e r e d

z e r o s . J u s t p r i o r t o i n it i al o r c o n t i n u e d e x e c u t i o n o f a

p r o g r a m , a p r o c e s s k n o w n a s t h e " e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e "

s t o r e s in t o t h e B A r e g i s t e r th e u p p e r 1 8 b i ts o f t h e

l o w e s t m e m o r y a d d r e s s t o b e r e f e r e n c e d d u r in g p r o -

g r a m e x e c u t i o n . A s t h e p r o g r a m e x e c u t e s , t h e a d d r e s s

p o r t i o n o f e a c h i n s t r u c t io n r e f e r e n c i n g m e m o r y h a s i ts

c o n t e n t a d d e d t o t h a t o f t h e B A r e g is t er . T h e s u m

t h e n s e r v e s a s t h e a b s o l u t e a d d r e s s u s e d f o r t h e m e m -

o r y r e f e r e n c e a n d e n s u r e s t h at m e m o r y a d d r e s s e s l o w e r

t h a n t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e B A r e g i s t e r a r e n o t a c c e s s e d .

P r o g r a m s m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e a l l i n s t r u c t i o n s r e f e r -

e n c i n g m e m o r y d o s o w i th t h e i r ad d r e s s p o r t i o n s

c o n t a i n i n g r e l a t i v e a d d r e s s e s . T h i s p r o c e s s s u p p o r t s

p r o g r a m l o a d i n g a n d m e m o r y p r o t e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s

a n d d o e s n o t , i n p r o d u c i n g a n a b s o l u t e a d d r e s s , a f f e c t

t h e c o n t e n t o f th e i n s t ru c t i o n b u f f e r , B A , o r m e m o r y .

L A regi s t e r - - the 1 8 - b i t l i m i t a d d r e s s ( L A ) r e g i s t e r

c o n t a i n s t h e u p p e r 1 8 b it s o f a 2 2 - b i t m e m o r y a d d r e s s .

T h e l o w e r 4 b i ts o f t h is a d d r e s s a r e c o n s i d e r e d z e r o s .

J u s t p r i o r t o i n it ia l o r c o n t i n u e d e x e c u t i o n o f a p r o -

g r a m , t h e " e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e " p r o c e s s s to r e s in t o th e

L A r e g i s t e r t h e u p p e r 1 8 b it s o f th a t a b s o l u t e a d d r e s s

o n e g r e a t e r t h a n a l l o w e d t o b e r e f e r e n c e d b y t h e

p r o g r a m . W h e n p r o g r a m e x e c u t i o n be g i n s, e a c h in -

s t ru c t i o n r e f e r e n c in g a m e m o r y l o c a ti o n h a s t h e a b s o -

l u te a d d r e s s f o r t h a t r e f e r e n c e ( d e t e r m i n e d b y s u m m i n g

i t s a d d r e s s p o r t i o n w i t h t h e B A r e g i s t e r c o n t e n t s )

c h e c k e d a g a i n s t t h e L A r e g i s t e r c o n t e n t . I f t h e a b s o l u t e

Communications January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 7: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 7/10

a d d r e s s e q u a l s o r e x c e e d s t h e L A r e g i s te r c o n t e n t , a n

o u t - o f - r a n g e e r r o r c o n d i t i o n i s f l a g g e d a n d p r o g r a m

e x e c u t i o n t e r m i n a t e s . T h i s p r o c e s s s u p p o r t s t h e m e m -

o r y p r o t e c t i o n o p e r a t i o n .

XA register ~ t h e 8 - b i t e x c h a n g e a d d r e s s ( X A ) r e g -

i s te r c o n t a i n s t h e u p p e r e i g h t b i ts o f a 1 2 - b i t m e m o r y

a d d r e s s . T h e l o w e r f o u r b i t s o f t h e a d d r e s s a r e c o n s id -

e r e d z e r o s . B e c a u s e o n l y t w e l v e b i t s a r e u s e d , w i t h t h e

l o w e r f o u r b i t s a lw a y s b e i n g z e r o s , e x c h a n g e a d d r e s s e s

c a n r e f e r e n c e o n l y e v e r y 1 6 t h m e m o r y a d d r e s s b e g i n -

n i n g w i t h a d d r e s s 0 0 0 0 a n d c o n c l u d i n g w i t h a d d r e s s

4 0 8 0 . E a c h o f th e s e a d d r e s s e s d e s i g n a t e s t h e fi rs t

w o r d o f a 1 6 - w o r d s e t. T h u s , 2 5 6 s e ts ( o f 16 m e m o r y

w o r d s e a c h ) c a n b e s p e c i f i e d . P r i o r t o i n i t i a t i o n o r

c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a p r o g r a m ' s e x e c u t i o n , t h e X A r e g i s t e r

c o n t a i n s t h e f i rs t m e m o r y a d d r e s s o f a p a r t ic u l a r 1 6 -

w o r d s e t o r e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e . T h e e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e

c o n t a i n s c e r t a in o p e r a t i n g a n d s u p p o r t r e g i s t e r s ' c o n -

t e n t s a s r e q u i r e d f o r o p e r a t i o n s f o l lo w i n g a n i n t e r r u p t .

T h e X A r e g i s t e r s u p p o r t s t h e e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e o p -

e r a t i o n a n d t h e c o n t e n t s o f X A a r e s t o r e d in a n

e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e w h e n e v e r a n e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e

o c c u r s .

F register-the 9 - b i t F r e g i s t e r c o n t a i n s f l a g s t h a t ,

w h e n e v e r s e t , i n d i c a t e i n t e r r u p t c o n d i t i o n s c a u s i n g

i n i ti a ti o n o f a n e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e . T h e i n t e r r u p t c o n -

d i t i o n s a r e : n o r m a l e x i t , e r r o r e x i t , i / o i n t e r r u p t , u n c o r -

r e c te d m e m o r y e r ro r , p r o g r a m r a n g e e r r o r , o p e r a n d

r a n g e e r r o r , f l o a t i n g - p o i n t o v e r f l o w , r e a l - t i m e c l o c k

i n t e r r u p t , a n d c o n s o l e i n t e r r u p t .

M register-the M ( m o d e ) r e g i s t e r i s a t h r e e - b i t

r e g i s te r t h a t c o n t a in s p a r t o f t h e e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e f o r

a c u r r e n t l y a c t i v e p r o g r a m . T h e t h r e e b i t s a r e s e l e c -

t i v e l y s e t d u r i n g a n e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e . B i t 3 7 , t h e

f l o a t i n g - p o i n t e r r o r m o d e f l a g , c a n b e s e t o r c l e a r e d

d u r i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n i n t e r v a l fo r a p r o g r a m t h r o u g h

u s e o f t h e 0 0 2 1 a n d 0 0 2 2 i n s t ru c t i o n s . T h e o t h e r t w o

b i t s ( b i t s 3 8 a n d 3 9 ) a r e n o t a l t e r e d d u r i n g t h e e x e c u -

t io n i n t e r v a l fo r th e e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e a n d c a n o n l y b e

a l t e r e d w h e n t h e e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e i s i n a c t iv e i n s to r -

a g e . B i t s a r e a s s i g n e d a s f o l lo w s i n w o r d t w o o f t h e

e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e .

B i t 3 7 - F l o a t i n g - p o i n t e r r o r m o d e f la g . W h e n t hi s

b i t i s s e t , i n t e r r u p t s o n f l o a t i n g - p o i n t e r r o r s a r e

e n a b l e d .

B it 3 8 - U n c o r r e c t a b l e m e m o r y e rr o r m o d e f l ag .

W h e n t h is b i t i s s e t , i n t e r r u p t s o n u n c o r r e c t a b l e

m e m o r y p a r i ty e r r o r s a r e e n a b l e d .

B i t 3 9 - M o n i t o r m o d e f l a g. W h e n t h is b i t i s s e t , a l li n t e r r u p t s o t h e r t h a n p a r i t y e r r o r s a r e i n h ib i t e d .

In teger Ar i thmet i c

A l l i n te g e r a r i t h m e t i c i s p e r f o r m e d i n 2 4 - b i t o r 6 4 -

b it 2 ' s c o m p l e m e n t f o r m .

F l o at i n g-P o i n t Ar i thmet i c

F l o a t i n g - p o i n t n u m b e r s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n si g n e d

m a g n i t u d e f o r m . T h e f o r m a t i s a p a c k e d s i g n e d b i n a r y

69

f r a c t i o n a n d a b i a s e d b i n a r y i n t e g e r e x p o n e n t . T h e

f r a c t i o n i s a 4 9 - b i t s i g n e d m a g n i t u d e v a l u e . The e x p o -

n e n t i s 1 5 - b i t b i a s e d . T h e u n b i a s e d e x p o n e n t r a n g e i s :

2 -2°°°°s t o 2 +177778,

o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y

10 -25o0 to 10 +25o0

A n e x p o n e n t e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n 2 +2°°°°8 i s r e c o g -

n i z e d b y t h e f l o a t i n g - p o i n t f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s a s a n o v e r -

f l o w c o n d i t i o n , a n d c a u s e s a n i n t e r r u p t i f f l o a t i n g p o i n ti n t e r r u p t s a r e e n a b l e d .

C h a i n i n g

T h e c h a i n i n g t e c h n i q u e t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f t h e

p a r a l l e l o p e r a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s . P a r a l l e l v e c t o r

o p e r a t i o n s m a y b e p r o c e s s e d i n tw o w a y s : ( a ) u s in g

d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s a n d V r e g i s t e r s , a n d ( b )

c h a i n i n g ; t h a t i s , u s i n g t h e r e s u l t s t r e a m t o o n e v e c t o r

r e g i s te r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s t h e o p e r a n d s e t f o r a n o t h e r

o p e r a t i o n i n a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n a l u n i t .

P a r a l l e l o p e r a t i o n s o n v e c t o r s a l l o w t h e g e n e r a t i o n

o f tw o o r m o r e r e s u l t s p e r c l o c k p e r io d . A v e c t o r

o p e r a t i o n e i t h e r u s e s tw o v e c t o r r e g i st e r s a s s o u r c e s o f

o p e r a n d s o r u s e s o n e s c a l a r r e g i s t e r a n d o n e v e c t o r

r e g i s t e r as so u r c e s o f o p e r a n d s . V e c t o r s e x c e e d i n g 6 4

e l e m e n t s a r e p r o c e s s e d i n 6 4 - e l e m e n t s e g m e n t s .

B a s i c a l l y , c h a i n i n g i s a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t o c c u r s

w h e n r e s u l t s i s s u i n g f r o m o n e f u n c t i o n a l u n i t ( a t a r a t e

o f o n e / c l o c k p e r i o d ) a r e i m m e d i a t e l y f e d i n t o a n o t h e r

f u n c t i o n a l u n it a n d s o o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i n t e r m e d i a t e

r e s u lt s d o n o t h a v e t o b e s t o r e d t o m e m o r y a n d c a n b e

u s e d e v e n b e f o r e t h e v e c t o r o p e r a t i o n t h a t c r e a t e d

t h e m r u n s t o c o m p l e t i o n .

C h a i n i n g h a s b e e n c o m p a r e d t o th e t e c h n i q u e o f

" d a t a f o r w a r d i n g " u s e d i n t h e I B M 3 6 0 / 1 9 5 . L i k e

d a t a f o r w a r d i n g , c h a i n i n g t a k e s p l a c e a u t o m a t i c a l l y .

D a t a f o r w a r d i n g c o n s i s t s o f h a r d w a r e f a c i li t ie s w i t h i n

t h e 1 9 5 f l o a ti n g - p o i n t p r o c e s s o r c o m m u n i c a t i n g a u t o -

m a t i c a l ly b y tr a n s f e r r in g " n a m e t a g s , " o r i n t e r n a l c o d e s

b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s [ 6 ] . U n l i k e t h e C R A Y - 1 , t h e u s e r

h a s n o a c c e s s t o t h e 1 9 5 ' s d a t a - f o r w a r d i n g b u f f e r s .

A n d , o f c o u r s e , th e 1 9 5 c a n o n l y f o r w a r d s c a l a r v a l u e s ,

n o t e n t i r e v e c t o r s .

I n t e r r u p t s a n d E x c h a n g e S e q u e n c e

I n t e r r u p t s a r e h a n d l e d c l e a n ly b y th e C R A Y - 1

h a r d w a r e . I n s t r u c t io n i s su e i s t e r m i n a t e d b y t h e h a r d -

w a r e u p o n d e t e c t i o n o f a n i n t e r r u p t c o n d i t i o n . A l l

m e m o r y b a n k a c t i v i t y i s a l l o w e d t o c o m p l e t e a s a r e

a n y v e c t o r i n s t ru c t i o n s t h a t a r e i n e x e c u t i o n , a n d t h e na n e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e i s a c t i v a t e d . T h e C r a y O p e r a t i n g

S y s t e m ( c o s ) i s a l w a y s o n e p a r t n e r o f a n y e x c h a n g e

s e q u e n c e . T h e c a u s e o f a n i n t e r r u p t is a n a l y z e d d u r i n g

a n e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e a n d a l l i n t e r r u p t s a r e p r o c e s s e d

u n t i l n o n e r e m a i n .

O n l y t h e a d d r e s s a n d s c a l a r r e g i s te r s a r e m a i n t a i n e d

i n a p r o g r a m ' s e x c h a n g e p a c k a g e ( F ig . 6 ) . T h e u s e r ' s

B , T , a n d V r e g i s te r s a r e s a v e d b y t h e o p e r a t i n g

s y s t e m i n t h e u s e r ' s J o b T a b l e A r e a .

Comm unications January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 8: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 8/10

Fig. 6. Exchange package.

0 2 1 0 1 2 1 6 1 8 2 h 3 1 3 6 ~ 0

n E l s IH.L , '

n , , eA ~ 8A

°, LA l .

.+ , - I v < l ,

. . .

. . ,

n . " / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / P x

n . ,

SOn + e

h e 9

n + l o

n ~ , l l

n + 1 2

I1 ÷ 13

n ~ 1 4

n + 1 5

63

A O

A I

A 2

a $

A 4

A 5

A a

A ?

S I

$ 2

S3

S 4

S5

S 6

S ?

M - Modes+ Registers

36 Interrupt on correctable S Syndrome bi ts

memory error RAB Read address fo r error

37 Interrupt on fl oat ing point (where B is bank)

38 Interrupt on uncorrectable P Program address

memory error BA Base address

39 Monitor mode LA Limit address

F - Flags+ XA Exchange addressVL Vector length

31 Console interrupt

32 RTC interrupt E - Error type (bits 0,1)

33 Floating point error 10 Uncorrectable memory

34 Operand range Ol Correctable memory

35 Program range

36 Memoryerror R - Read mode (bi ts 10,11)

37 I/O interrupt O0 Scalar

38 Error exi t 01 I/O

39 Normal exit I0 Vector

11 Fetch

iBi t position from lef t of word

T h e C R A Y - I ' s e x c h a n g e s e q u e n c e w il l b e f a m i li a r

t o th o s e w h o h a v e h a d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h th e C D C 7 6 0 0a n d C y b e r m a c h i n e s . O n e m a j o r b e n e f i t o f t h e e x -

c h a n g e s e q u e n c e i s t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h u s e r j o b s c a n

b e r e l o c a t e d i n m e m o r y b y t h e o p e r a t i n g s y s t em . O n

t h e C R A Y - 1 , d y n a m i c r e lo c a t i o n o f a u s e r j o b i s

f a c i l i t a t e d b y a b a s e r e g i s t e r t h a t i s t r a n s p a r e n t t o t h e

u s e r .

E v o l u t i on o f th e C R A Y - 1

T h e C R A Y - 1 s t e m s f r o m a h ig h l y su c c e s sf u l l in e o f

c o m p u t e r s w h i c h S . C r a y e i t h e r d e s i g n e d o r w a s a s s o -

c i a t e d w i th . M r . C r a y w a s o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f

C o n t r o l D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n . W h i l e at C D C , M r . C r a y

w a s th e p r i n c i p a l a rc h i t e c t o f t h e C D C 1 6 0 4 , 6 6 0 0 ,a n d 7 6 0 0 c o m p u t e r s y s t e m s . W h i l e t h e r e a r e m a n y

s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e s e e a r l i e r m a c h i n e s , t w o t h i n g s

s t a n d o u t a b o u t t h e C R A Y - 1 ; f ir s t i t i s a v e c t o r

m a c h i n e , s e c o n d l y , i t u t il iz e s s e m i c o n d u c t o r m e m o r i e s

a n d i n t e g r a t e d c i rc u i ts r a t h e r t h a n m a g n e t i c c o re s a n d

d i s c r e te c o m p o n e n t s . W e c la s si fy t h e C R A Y - 1 a s a

s e c o n d g e n e ra t i o n v e c t o r p r o c e s s o r . T h e C D C S T A R

1 0 0 A a n d t h e T e x a s I n s t r u m e n t s A S C a r e f ir s t- g e n er -

a t i o n v e c t o r p r o c e s s o r s .

70

B o t h t h e S T A R 1 0 0 a n d t h e A S C a r e d e s i g n e d to

h a n d l e l o n g v e c t o r s . B e c a u s e o f t h e s t a r t u p t i m e a s s o -

c i a t e d w i t h d a t a s t r e a m i n g , v e c t o r l e n g t h i s o f c ri t ic a l

i m p o r t a n c e . V e c t o r s h a v e t o b e l o n g i f t h e S T A R 1 0 0

a n d t h e A S C v e c t o r p r o c e s s o r s a r e t o b e a t a ll c o m p e t -

i ti v e w it h a s c al a r p r o c e s s o r [ 3 ]. A n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e

o f t h e S T A R 1 0 0 a r c h i t e c t u r e i s t h a t e l e m e n t s o f a

" v e c t o r " a r e r e q u i r e d t o b e i n c o n s e c u t i v e a d d r e s s e s .

I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e s e e a r l i e r d e s i g n s , t h e C R A Y - 1

c a n b e t e r m e d a s h o r t v e c t o r m a c h i n e . W h e r e a s t h e

o t h e r s r e q u i r e v e c t o r l e n g th s o f a 1 0 0 o r m o r e t o b e

c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h s c a la r p r o c e s s o r s , t h e c r o s s - o v e r p o i n t

b e t w e e n c h o o s in g s c a la r r a th e r t h a n v e c t o r m o d e o n

t h e C R A Y - 1 i s b e t w e e n 2 a n d 4 e le m e n t s . T h i s is

d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a c o m p a r i s o n o f s c a l a r/ v e c to r t i m in g s

f o r s o m e m a t h e m a t i c a l l i b r a r y r o u t i n e s s h o w n i n F i g u r e

1 [ 7 ] .

A l s o , t h e C R A Y - I ' s a d d r e s s i n g s c h e m e a l l o w s

c o m p l e t e f le x i b il it y . W h e n a c c e s si n g a v e c t o r , t h e u s e r

s i m p l y s p ec i f ie s th e s t a r ti n g l o c a t i o n a n d a n i n c r e m e n t .

A r r a y s c a n b e a c c e s s e d b y c o l u m n , r o w , o r d i a g o n a l ;

t h e y c an b e s t e p p e d t h r o u g h w i th n o n u n a r y i n c r e m e n t s ;

a n d , t h e r e a r e n o r e s t r i c t i o n s o n a d d r e s s i n g , e x c e p t

t h a t t h e i n c r e m e n t m u s t b e a c o n s t a n t .

V e c t o r S t a r + u p T i m e s

T o b e e f f i c i e n t a t p r o c e s s i n g s h o r t v e c t o r s , v e c t o r

s t a rt u p t im e s m u s t b e s m a ll . O n t h e C R A Y - 1 , v e c t o r

i n s t r u c t i o n s m a y i s s u e a t a r a t e o f o n e i n s t r u c t i o n

p a r c e l p e r c l o c k p e r i o d . A l l v e c t o r i n s t ru c t i o n s a r e o n e

p a r c e l i n s t r u c t i o n s ( p a r c e l s iz e = 1 6 b i t s ) . V e c t o r

i n s t ru c t i o n s p l a c e a r e s e r v a t i o n o n w h i c h e v e r f u n c t i o n a l

u n i t t h e y u s e , i nc l u d in g m e m o r y , a n d o n t h e i n p u t

o p e r a n d r e g i s te r s . I n s o m e c a s e s , i ss u e o f a v e c t o r

i n s t r u c ti o n m a y b e d e l a y e d b y a t i m e ( i n c l o c k p e r i o d s )

e q u a l t o v e c t o r le n g t h o f th e p r e c e d i n g v e c t o r o p e r a t i o n+ 4 .

F u n c t i o n a l u n i t t i m e s a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e I I . V e c t o r

o p e r a t i o n s t h a t d e p e n d o n t h e r e s u lt o f a p r e v i o u s

v e c t o r o p e r a t i o n c a n u s u a l ly " c h a i n " w i t h t h e m a n d

a r e d e l a y e d f o r a m a x i m u m " c h a i n s l o t " t i m e i n c l o c k

p e r i o d s o f f u n c t i o n a l u n i t t i m e + 2 .

O n c e i s s u e d , a v e c t o r i n s t r u c t i o n p r o d u c e s i t s f i r st

r e s u l t a f t e r a d e l a y i n c l o c k p e r i o d s e q u a l t o f u n c t i o n a l

u n i t t i m e . S u b s e q u e n t r e s u l ts c o n t i n u e t o b e p r o d u c e d

a t a r a t e o f 1 p e r c l o c k p e r i o d . R e s u l t s m u s t b e s t o r e d

i n a v e c t o r r e g i s t e r . A s e p a r a t e i n s t r u c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d

t o s t o r e t h e f i n a l r e s u l t v e c t o r t o m e m o r y . V e c t o r

r e g i s t e r c a p a c i t y i s 6 4 - e l e m e n t s . V e c t o r s l o n g e r t h a n6 4 a r e p r o c e s s e d i n 6 4 - e l e m e n t s e g m e n t s .

S o m e s a m p l e t i m i n g s f o r b o t h s c a l a r a n d v e c t o r a r e

s h o w n i n T a b l e I I I [ 8 ]. N o t e t h a t t h e r e i s n o v e c t o r

A SI N r o u t i n e a n d s o a r e f e r e n c e t o A S I N w i t h i n a

v e c t o r i z e d l o o p g e n e r a t e s r e p e t i t i v e c a l l s t o t h e s c a l a r

A SIN r o u t i n e . T h i s i n v o l v e s a p e r f o r m a n c e d e g r a d a t i o n

b u t d o e s a l l o w t h e r e s t o f t h e l o o p t o v e c t o r i z e ( in a

c a s e w h e r e t h e r e a r e m o r e s t a t e m e n t s t h a n i n t h i s

e x a m p l e ) . S i m p l e l o o p s 1 4 , 1 5 , a n d 1 6 s h o w t h e

Communica tions January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number 1

Page 9: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 9/10

Table 111.

Execution time in clock periods p er result for var ious simple DO loops of the form

DO 10 1 = 1.N

I0 A(1) = B(1)

1000Loo p Body N = 1 10 100 1000

Scalar

1 . A ( I ) = 1. 41.0 5.5 2.6 2.5 22.5

2 . A ( 1 ) = B ( I ) 44.0 5.8 2.7 2.5 31.0

3 . A ( I ) = B ( I ) + 10. 55.0 6.9 2.9 2.6 37.0

4 . A ( I ) = B ( I ) + C ( I ) 59.0 8.2 3.9 3.7 41.0

5 . A ( I ) = B(/)*10. 56.0 7.0 2.9 2.6 38.0

6 . A ( I ) = B ( I ) * C ( I ) 60.0 8.3 4 .0 3.7 42.0

7 . A ( I ) = B ( I ) / I O . 94.0 10.8 4.1 3.7 52.0

8 . A ( I ) = B ( I ) / C ( I ) 89.0 13.3 7.6 7.2 60.0

9 . A ( 1 ) = S I N ( B ( I ) ) 462.0 61.0 33.3 31.4 198.110. A ( 1 ) = A S I N ( B ( I ) ) 430.0 209.5 189.5 188.3 169.1

11. A ( I ) = A B S ( B ( I ) ) 61.0 7.5 2.9 2.6

12. A ( 1 ) = A M A X I ( B ( I ) , C ( I) ) 80.0 11.2 5.2 4.8

[C(I) = A ( I ) )

13. / A ( / ) = a(I)~ 90.0 12'.7 6.3 518 47.0

L B ( / ) = CClJ14. A ( I ) = B ( I ) * C ( I ) + D ( I ) * E ( I ) 110.0 16.0 7.7 7.1 57.0

15. A ( I ) = B ( I ) * C ( I ) + ( D ( I ) * E ( I ) ) 113.0 14.7 6.6 6.0 63.0

16. A ( I ) = B ( I ) ' C ( I ) + D ( I ) 95.0 12.7 5.5 5.0 52.0

Fig. 7. Scalar/vector iming.

COST (CLOCK PERIODS/RESULT)

3 4 0 1 t

3 2 0 1 [

3 0 0 1 1

2 8 0 1 [260"m

240~n220"IU

2 0 0 1 1 1 11804111

160 " ~ cosALOG

140, SQRT

120,EXP

- SCALAr'80 VECTOR~I6?/; ( o ~ L ~ COSLOG

SQRTEXP

1 10 20 30 40 50 60 64

VECTORLENGTH

i n f l u e n c e o f c h a i n i n g . F o r a l o n g v e c t o r , th e n u m b e r

o f cl o c k p e r i o d s p e r r e s u l t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e n u m b e r

o f m e m o r y r e f e r e n c e s + 1 . I n l o o p 1 4 , a n e x t r a c l o c k

p e r i o d i s c o n s u m e d b e c a u s e t h e p r e s e n t c F r c o m p i l e r

w i ll l o a d a l l f o u r o p e r a n d s b e f o r e d o i n g c o m p u t a t i o n .

T h i s p r o b l e m i s o v e r c o m e i n l o o p 1 5 b y h e lp i n g t h e

c o m p i l e r w i th a n e x t r a s e t o f p a r e n t h e s e s .

S o f t w a r e

A t t h e t i m e o f t h is w r i t i n g , f i r s t r e l e a s e s o f t h e

C R A Y O p e r a t i n g S y s t e m ( c o s ) a n d C R A Y F o r t r a n

C o m p i l e r ( c F r ) h a v e b e e n d e l i v e r e d t o u s e r s it e s, c o s

i s a b a t c h o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g u pt o 6 3 j o b s i n a m u l t i p r o g r a m m i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , c o s i s

d e s i g n e d t o b e t h e r e c i p i e n t o f j o b r e q u e s t s a n d d a t a

f il e s f r o m f r o n t - e n d c o m p u t e r s . O u t p u t f r o m j o b s is

n o r m a l l y s ta g e d b a c k t o t h e f r o n t - e n d s u p o n j o b c o m -

p l e t i o n .

c F r i s a n o p t i m i z i n g F o r t r a n c o m p i l e r d e s i g n e d t o

c o m p i l e A NS I 6 6 F o r t r a n I V t o t a k e b e s t a d v a n t a g e o f

t h e C R A Y - I ' s v e c t o r p r o c e s s i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e . In it s

p r e s e n t f o r m , C FT w i ll n o t a t t e m p t t o v e c t o r i z e c e r t a i n

Fig. 8. Front-end system interface.

PHASEMODULATEDLONGLINEi

70Xt06bps 64X106 bps IBM 370/168datar te •24X10~bp$

90 METERS

l o o p s w h i c h , d u e t o d e p e n d e n c e c o n d i t i o n s , a p p e a r a t

f i r s t s i g h t , u n v e c t o r i z a b l e .

H o w e v e r , f u t u r e v e r s i o n s o f c F r w i l l b e d e s i g n e d

t o e li m i n a t e a s m a n y d e p e n d e n c y c o n d i t i o n s a s p o s s i b l e

i n c r e a s in g t h e a m o u n t o f v e c t o r i z a b l e c o d e . B a s i c a l ly ,

t o b e v e c t o r i z a b l e , a D O l o o p s h o u l d m a n i p u l a t e a r r a y s

a n d s t o r e t h e r e s u l t s o f c o m p u t a t i o n s i n a r r a y s . L o o p s

t h a t c o n ta i n b r a n c h e s s u ch a s G O T O ' s , I F ' s , o r C A L L

s t a t e m e n t s a r e n o t c u r r e n t l y v e c t o r i z e d . L o o p s m a y

c o n t a i n f u n c t i o n r e f e r e n c e s i f t h e f u n c t i o n i s k n o w n t o

t h e c o m p i l e r t o h a v e a v e c t o r v e r s i o n . M o s t o f th e

m a t h e m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e C R A Y l i b r a r y a r e v e c-

t o r i z a b l e . B y u s i n g t h e v e c t o r m a s k a n d v e c t o r m e r g e

f e a t u r e s o f t h e C R A Y - 1 , f u t u r e v e rs i o ns o f t h e c o m -

p i l e r w i l l b e a b l e t o v e c t o r i z e l o o p s c o n t a i n i n g I F a n d

G O T O s t a t e m e n t s .

E a r l y e x p e r i e n c e w i t h c ~ h a s sh o w n t h a t m o s t

F o r t r a n l o o p s w i l l n o t r u n a s f a s t a s o p t i m a l l y h a n d -

c o d e d m a c h i n e l a n g u a g e e q u i v a l e n t s . F u t u r e v e r s i o n s

o f c ~ w i ll s h o w i m p r o v e d l o o p t i m i n g s d u e m a i n l y t o

i m p r o v e d i n s t r u c t i o n s c h e d u l i n g .

O t h e r C R A Y - 1 s o f t w a r e i n c lu d e s C r a y A s s e m b l e r

L a n g u a g e (C A L) w h i c h i s a p o w e r f u l m a c r o a s s e m b l e r ,

a n o v e r l a y l o a d e r , a f u ll r a n g e o f u t i l it i e s i n c l u d i n g a

t e x t e d i t o r , a n d s o m e d e b u g a i d s .

F r o n t - E n d C o m p u te r I n t e r f a c e

T h e C R A Y - 1 w a s n o t d e s ig n e d f o r s t a n d - al o n e

o p e r a t i o n . A t t h e v e r y m i n i m u m a m i n i c o m p u t e r i s

r e q u i r e d t o a c t a s a c o n d u i t b e t w e e n t h e C R A Y - 1 a n d

t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d . C r a y R e s e a r c h s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p -

m e n t is c u r r e n t l y b e i n g d o n e u s i n g a D a t a G e n e r a l

E c l ip s e c o m p u t e r i n t h is c a t e g o r y . T h e C r a y R e s e a r c h

" A " p r o c e s s o r , a 1 6 - b i t, 8 0 M IP S m i n i c o m p u t e r i s

s c h e d u l e d t o r e p l a c e t h e E c l i p s e i n e a r l y 1 9 7 8 . F r o n t -

e n d c o m p u t e r s c a n b e a t t a c h e d to a n y o f t h e C R A Y -

l ' s 1 2 i /o c h a n n e l s .

T h e p h y s ic a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a f ro n t - e n d c o m -p u t e r a n d t h e C R A y o l is s h o w n i n F ig u r e 8 . In t h is

e x a m p l e a n I B M 3 7 0 / 1 6 8 is a s s u m e d i n th e f r o n t - e n d

r o l e . N o t e t h a t e a c h c o m p u t e r r e q u i r e s a c h a n n e l

a d a p t e r b e t w e e n i ts o w n c h a n n e l a n d a C r a y R e s e a r c h

p h a s e - m o d u l a t e d l o n g l i n e . T h e l i n k c a n o n l y b e d r i v e n

a t t h e s p e e d o f it s s l o w e s t c o m p o n e n t . I n t h i s e x a m p l e

i t i s t h e I B M b l o c k m u l t i p l e x e r c h a n n e l s p e e d o f 3

m e g a b y t e s / s e c o n d . T h e d i s c i p li n e o f th e l i n k is g o v -

e r n e d b y t h e C r a y L i n k I n t e r f a c e P r o t o c o l .

71 Comm unications January 1978of Volume 21the ACM Number I

Page 10: Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

7/28/2019 Cray1 Russell Cacm1978

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/cray1-russell-cacm1978 10/10

C R A Y - 1 D e v e l o p m e n t P r o b l e m s

T w o o f t h e m o s t s i g n i f ic a n t p r o b l e m s [ 9] e n c o u n -

t e r e d o n t h e w a y to t h e C R A Y - 1 w e r e b u i l di n g t h e

f i r s t c o l d b a r a n d d e s i g n i n g c i r c u i t s w i t h a c o m p l e t e l y

b a l a n c e d d y n a m i c l o a d .

B ui l d i n g the Co l d B ar

I t t o o k a y e a r a n d a h a l f o f tr i al a n d e r r o r b e f o r e

t h e f i r s t g o o d c o l d b a r w a s b u i l t . T h e w o r k w a s d o n e

b y a s m a ll M i n n e s o t a c o m p a n y . A m a j o r p r o b l e m w a s

t h e d i s c o v e r y , q u i t e e a r l y , t h a t a l u m i n u m c a s t i n g s a r e

p o r o u s . I f t h e r e i s a c r a c k i n t h e s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t u b i n g

a t t h e b o n d b e t w e e n t h e t u b i n g a n d t h e e l b o w t h e n t h e

F r e o n l e a k s t h r o u g h t h e a l u m i n u m c a s in g . T h e l o ss o f

t h e F r e o n i s n o t i t s e lf a p r o b l e m , b u t m i x e d w i t h t h e

F r e o n i s a li tt l e o i l, a n d t h e o i l c a n c a u s e p r o b l e m s i f i t

i s d e p o s i t e d o n t h e m o d u l e s . A l u m i n u m a l so te n d s t o

g e t b u b b l e s i n it w h e n i t i s c a s t , r e q u i r i n g a l o n g p r o c e s s

o f t e m p e r a t u r e c y c li n g , p r e h e a t i n g o f th e s t a i n le s s s t e e l

t u b e , a n d s o o n .

Des i gn i n g the Ci rcu i t s

C R A Y - 1 m o d u l e s a r e 6 i n c h e s w i d e . T h e d i s ta n c e

a c r o s s t h e b o a r d i s a b o u t a n a n o s e c o n d w h i c h is j u s t

a b o u t t h e e d g e t i m e o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l s ig n a l s . U n l e s s

d u e p r e c a u t i o n s a r e t a k e n , w h e n e l e c tr i c si g n al s r u n

a r o u n d a b o a r d , s t a n d i n g w a v e s c a n b e i n d u c e d i n t h e

g r o u n d p l a n e . P a r t o f th e s o l u t i o n i s t o m a k e a l l s i g n a l

p a t h s i n th e m a c h i n e t h e s a m e l e n g t h . T h i s is d o n e b y

p a d d i n g o u t p a t h s w i t h f o il ru n s a n d i n t e g r a t e d c i rc u i t

p a c k a g e s . A l l t o l d , b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e

IC p a c k a g e s i n t h e m a c h i n e a r e t h e r e s i m p l y to p a d o u t

a s ig n a l li n e . T h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s o l u t i o n w a s t o u s e

o n l y s i m p l e g a t e s a n d m a k e s u r e t h a t b o t h s i d e s o f

e v e r y g a t e a re a l w a y s t e r m i n a t e d . T h i s m e a n s t h a t

t h e r e is n o d y n a m i c c o m p o n e n t p r e s e n t e d t o th e p o w e r

s u p p l y . T h i s i s t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n w h y s i m p l e g a t e s

a r e u s e d in th e C R A Y - 1 . I f a m o r e c o m p l e x i n t e g r a t e d

c i r c u i t p a c k a g e i s u s e d , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o t e r m i n a t e

b o t h s i d e s o f e v e r y g a t e . S o a l l o f th e C R A Y - I ' s

c i rc u it s a r e p e r f e c t l y b a l a n c e d . F i v e l a y e r b o a r d s h a v e

o n e g r o u n d l a y e r , t w o v o l t a g e l a y e r s , a n d t h e n t h e t w o

l o g i c l a y e r s o n t h e o u t s i d e . T w i s t e d p a i r s w h i c h i n t e r -

c o n n e c t t h e m o d u l e s a r e b a l a n c e d a n d t h e r e a r e e q u a l

a n d o p p o s i t e s i g n al s o n b o t h s i de s o f t h e p a i r s . T h e

f i n a l r e s u l t is t h a t t h e r e i s j u s t a p u r e l y r e s i s t i v e l o a d t o

t h e p o w e r s u p p l y !

f a s t a s t h e C D C 7 6 0 0 . S u c h g o o d s c a l a r p e r f o r m a n c e

is r e q u i r e d i n w h a t i s o f t e n a n u n v e c t o r i z a b l e w o r l d .

A t t h e t i m e o f th i s w r i t in g , C r a y R e s e a r c h h a s

s h i p p e d C R A Y - 1 s y s te m s to t h r e e c u s t o m e r s ( L o s

A l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c L a b o r a t o r y , N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r

A t m o s p h e r i c R e s e a r c h , a n d th e E u r o p e a n C e n t e r fo r

M e d i u m R a n g e W e a t h e r F o r e c a s t s ) a n d h as c o n tr a c ts

t o s u p p ly t h r e e m o r e s y s t em s , t w o to t h e D e p a r t m e n t

o f D e f e n s e , a n d o n e t o U n i te d C o m p u t i n g S y s t e m s

( U C S ) . P r o d u c t i o n p l a n s a l r e a d y a n t i c ip a t e s h i p p i n g

o n e C R A Y - 1 p e r q u a r te r . A s t h e p o p u l a t io n o ~

C R A Y - 1 c o m p u t e r s e x p a n d s , i t w ill b e c o m e c l e a r t h a t

t h e C R A Y - 1 h a s m a d e a s i g n if i c an t s te p o n t h e w a y to

t h e g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r s i n t h e f u t u r e .

R e c e i v e d F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7 ; r e v i s e d S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 7

Acknowledgments. A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s a r e d u e t o

m y c o ll e a g ue s a t C r a y R e s e a r c h . G . G r e n a n d e r , R .

H e n d r i c k s o n , M . H u b e r , C . J e w e t t, P . J o h n s o n , A .

L a B o u n t y , a n d J . R o b i d o u x , w i t h o u t w h o s e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n s , t h i s p a p e r c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n .

R e f e r e n c e s1 . C R A Y - 1 F i n a l E v a l u a t i o n b y T . W . K e l l e r , L A S L , L A -6 4 5 6 - M S .2 . C R A Y - 1 R e p o r t , A u e r b a c h C o m p u t e r T e c h n o lo g y R e p o r t ,A u e r b a c h P u b l i s h e r ' s , 6 5 6 0 N o r t h P a r k D r i v e , P e n n s a u k e n , N . J .

0 8 1 0 9 .3 . P r e l i m i n a r y R e p o r t o n R e s u l ts o f M a t r i x B e n c h m a r k s o nV e c t o r P r o c e s s o r s : C a l a h a n , J o y , O r b i t s , S y s t e m E n g i n e e r i n gL a b o r a t o r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , A n n A r b o r , M i c h i g a n 4 8 1 0 9 .4 . C o m p u t e r A r c h i t e c t u r e I s su e s i n L a r g e - S c a le S y s te m s , 9 t hA s i l o m a r C o n f e r e n c e , N a v a l P o s t g r a d u a t e S c h o o l , M o n t e r e y ,C a l i f o r n ia .5 . C o m p u t e r W o r l d , A u g u s t 1 9 7 6 .6 . T h e I B M 3 6 0 /1 9 5 b y J e ss e O 'M u r p h y a n d R o b e r t M . W a d e ,D a t a m a t i o n , A p r i l 1 9 7 0 .7 . W o r k d o n e b y P a u l J o h n s o n , C r a y R e s e a r c h .8 . W o r k d o n e b y R i c h a r d H e n d r i c k s o n , C r a y R e s e a r c h .

9 . T h e s e c t io n o n C R A Y - 1 d e v e l o p m e n t p r o b l e m s is b a s e d o nr e m a r k s m a d e b y S e y m o u r C r a y i n a s p e e c h t o p r o s p e c ti v e C R A Y - 1u s e r s in 1 9 7 5 .

Summary

T h e d e s ig n o f t h e C R A Y - 1 s t e m s f ro m u s e r e x p e r i-

e n c e w i t h f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n v e c t o r p r o c e s s o r s a n d i s t o

s o m e e x t e n t , e v o l v e d f r o m t h e 7 6 0 0 [ 2]. T h e C R A Y - 1

i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e a t p r o c e s s i n g s h o r t v e c t o r s . I t s

a r c h i t e c t u r e e x h i b it s a b a l a n c e d a p p r o a c h t o b o t h s c a l a r

a n d v e c t o r p r o c e s s i n g . I n [ 1 ] , t h e c o n c l u s i o n i s d r a w n

t h a t t h e C R A Y - 1 i n s c a l a r m o d e i s m o r e t h a n t w i c e a s

7 2 C o m m u n i c a t i o n s J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8o f V o l u m e 2 1t h e A C M N u m b e r 1