Cultural differences in the perceptions of strong and weak arguments

Jos Hornikx

Arbitration and argumentation

Arbitration is a human activity involving reasoning processes

Parties and juries partly rely on arguments to present their cases, weigh the evidence, and settle disputes

Studies underline the importance of strong arguments in deliberation (e.g., Shestowsky & Horowitz, 2004), but what characterizes strong arguments?

Evidence: data presented as proofMore than 60 years of research in communication and social psychology

“Does evidence function the same way in various cultures?” (McCroskey, 1969, p. 176)

Universality of reasoning (Mercier, 2011; Mercier & Sperber, 2011)

Evidence types

Anecdotal evidence: one caseBoys’ performance at school can be improved by putting boys next to girls in class. Since Venkatesh Gupta from Manali does not sit next to Ashwin Paul anymore, but next to Sunitha Rai, his performance at school has improved.

Statistical evidence: numerical information, more casesPlaying slow music in supermarkets raises their turnover. The results of a study among 138 outlets of different Indian supermarkets show that 77% of these outlets have had a rise in their turnover as a result of playing slow music.

Evidence types

Causal evidence: explanationListening to classical music helps students to absorb a lot of knowledge in a short period of time. Classical music stimulates the identification of repeating patterns and intricate structures, through which analytical thinking is increased and a lot of knowledge can be absorbed.

Expert evidence: expert backs upFear of flying decreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. Dr. Trivedi, a specialist in the field of clinical psychology at the University of Chennai, underscores that fear of flying decreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

Methodological approach

• written claims with evidence• claims about novel topics with low involvement• claims have been pretested (in the different countries)

• persuasiveness = (claim with evidence) – (claim without evidence)• 5-point scales: largest difference about .4

• cross-cultural (not intercultural!)• equivalence: back translation, selection of names, universities, etc.

Culture and evidence types

Culture and argumentation: reasoning? values?

Starting point: power distance – expert evidence

France – The Netherlands

• expert evidence used more regularly in persuasive leaflets (Hornikx, Starren, & Hoeken, 2003)

• expert evidence is more persuasive in France relative to other types of types (Hornikx & Hoeken, 2007, study 1)

• difference in sensitivity to normatively strong and weak statistical and expert evidence (Hornikx & Hoeken, 2007, study 2)

Culture and evidence quality

The quality of expert evidence depends on:• relevant expertise• trustworthiness• external consistency

Professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of psychiatry at the University of Toulouse, underscores that fear of flying decreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

Professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of politics at the University of Toulouse, underscores that fear of flying decreases as a

consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

Netherlands: psychiatry > politicsFrance: psychiatry = politics

Why insensitive to field of expertise?

Explanation 1: French did not elaborate enough

Larger effects of evidence quality with central processing (cf. Petty & Cacioppo, 1986)

More critical thinking with incongruent information (Maheswaran & Chaiken, 1991), even for people with low motivation

Incongruent information > mixed evidence

Are French people sensitive to variations in expert evidence quality when claims are followed by evidence and counterevidence?

Material (Hornikx & Kemperman, in progress)

claim + (counter)evidence + (counter)evidence

claim Fear of flying decreases as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

evidence The results of a study among 264 French suffering from that fear show that 77% of them have seen a decrease in their fear as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. However,

professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of psychiatry at the University of Toulouse, underscores that fear of flying does not decrease as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight.

… decrease in their fear as a consequence of taking part in a balloon flight. However, professor Chevalier, a specialist in the field of politics at the University of Toulouse …

Insensitive to field of expertise

Why insensitive to field of expertise?

Explanation 2: cultural-educational explanation (Hornikx, 2011)

““The real keys to the ‘good life’ are obedience, discipline, and sticking to the straight and narrow”

• French were more obedient• More obedience > smaller difference between two experts

Unpacking culture – an unsuccessful example

Dutch-German comparison (Hornikx & Ter Haar, in press)

Uncertainty avoidance > more sensitive to evidence quality?Study 1: no support for this relationshipNo differences on relevant scales: Need for Structure, Need for Precision (cf. Smith & Schwartz, 1997)

Germans are insensitive to statistical evidence quality

A study among 381 (53) Dutch students has shown that 74% (38%) of them had absorbed a lot of knowledge in a short period of time by listening to classical music.

Study 2: • Germans were sensitive to rules of generalization • However, this understanding was not applied to evaluation of claims

Conclusion

• Arguments that one may believe to be strong (weak) may be less (more) convincing in another culture

• Juries should be aware that they evaluate arguments differently than parties from other cultural backgrounds

• Do not overestimate cultural differences in persuasive arguments (and persuasion in general)

• Observed differences are hard to explain empirically

In the heart of Western EuropeThanks for your attention!

j.hornikx@let.ru.nl joshornikx.ruhosting.nl twitter.com/joshornikx