Curs 2 Pp Classifications

7/27/2019 Curs 2 Pp Classifications

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copyright H. Parlog, L. Frentiu

3.2 Classification of

verbs according to their

behaviour in thesentence




1. He should tell

me about it.2. He must tell

me about it.

3. He will tellme about it.

4.

He has toldme about it.

5. He was

telling meabout it.

6. He told me

about it.

1. Should he tell

me about it?2. Must he tell

me about it?

3. Will he tellme about it?

4.

Has he toldme about it?

5. Was he

telling meabout it?

6. Did he tell

me about it?

1. He shouldn’t

tell me aboutit.

2. He mustn’t

tell me aboutit.

3. He won’t tell

me about it.

4. He hasn’t

told me aboutit.

5. He wasn’t

telling meabout it.




3.2.1 Auxiliary verbs.

auxiliary verbs have no independentexistence in the sentence

they help to build various tenses and

moods of lexical verbs or to make up

various verb phrases

they can only occur with the concept of alexical verb attached either explicitly or

implicitly




Auxiliary verbs can be classified1. Auxiliaries of form: to do

He obviously does not understand it.He did not come.

Do not go.

Only then did he tell me the truth.

What does it matter?

2. Auxi liaries of tense: to be, to have,shall, should, will, would

I am thinking of it.

He had never thought of it.

You will come tomorrow.John said he would come tomorrow.

3. Auxi liaries of voice: to be

He was asked a difficult question.

4. Auxi liaries of aspect: to be, to have

I was watching the TV when thetelephone rang.

I have never heard of it.

5. Auxi liaries of mood: should, would,will, may, might, can, could, let

He would do it if he had time.Close the door so that it will be warm inthe room.

Let’s dance now.

I got up early so that I might be there intime.

6. Modal auxiliaries, which expresssuch concepts as probability,possibility, logical necessity, volition,insistence: be, have, shall, should, will,would, must, ought, etc.

The book should be where you left it.They ought to come more often here.




3.2.1.1 Characteristics of

auxiliary verbs1.

Semantically, a distinction has to be made between auxiliary and

modal

auxiliary verbs:

auxiliaries of form, tense, voice, aspect and mood are usually devoid ofsemantic value

modal auxiliaries have a meaning of their own

modal verbs have more than one meaning, and in some cases two or

more (different) modal verbs have some meanings in common

2.

Most auxiliaries have both strong and weak forms depending on whetherthey are pronounced with or (more frequently) without sentence stress.

Be [bi:], [bi]; been [bi:n], [bin], am [m], [m], [m]; is [iz], [z/s]; are [a:],[e]; was [woz], [wəz]; were [wə:], [wə]; have [hv], [həv], [(əv]; has [hz],[həz], [əz], [z/s]; had [hd], [hed], [d], [d]; shall [l], [], [l]; should[ud], [()d], [d]; can [kn], [k()n], could [kud], [kd]; will [wil], [l];would [wud], [wd], [d], [d]; must [mst], [məst], [m(ə)s]; do [du:], [du],[d], [d], does [dz], [dz].




3.

Auxiliaries do not need the help of do to build their interrogative andnegative forms.

Has she been there already? She hasn’t been there yet.Must I do it? You mustn’t say such things.

Auxiliaries are the only verbs that take the contracted form of not.

Certain auxiliaries (can, need) follow the pattern of auxiliary negation,while others (will, shall, must) follow that of the lexical verb negation.I won't forget. ("I promise not to forget") -

lexical verb negation. .

He shan't get it. ("I am determined that he does not get it”) -

lexical verb

It can’t be true ("It is not possible that it is true”) –

auxiliary negation

You needn't do it. ("It is not necessary that you do it”) –

auxiliarynegation

In its "permission" sense, may follows the "pattern of auxiliary negation,while in its "possibility" sense, it follows that of lexical verb negation:

People may not pick flowers in this park. ("People are not allowed to pickflowers”).

John may not pass his examination. ("It is possible that John does notpass...")




4.

They are not inflected in the third person singular of the presenttense, except for do, be, have.

He ought to give an answer.It must be rather late.

5.

Auxiliaries are followed by the infinitive of a lexical verb, which isusually bare (without the particle to) except with used, ought, be,

and

have (all used as modal auxiliaries):They should do it properly.

I do not like it.

But

He ought to leave at once.

He is to leave at once.He has to leave at once.

He used to leave at once.

When be and

have are auxiliaries of tense, voice, or aspect, they arefollowed by the indefinite or the past participle of a lexical verb:

I am studying. He was ordered to leave.I have been studying English for a long time.

John said that he had never heard of it.




6.

Except for be and

have, all auxiliaries are defective verbs:

they have no infinitive, no participles. Auxiliaries cannot be conjugated in all the tenses and

moods. Some of them are forms of the present (may, must, can, etc), others are forms of thepast (could, would, might, etc). Both present and past forms can be used in present tensesequence.

I think it may rain. I think it might rain.

When used with the indefinite infinitive of lexical verbs, they generally have a present or futuretime reference

He may / can / shall / must help you immediately / later.

The use of the alternative forms might, could, should, suggests merely a more tentativeattitude on the part of the speaker; it would be misleading to believe that could is theequivalent in past time of can, that might is the equivalent in past time of may, etc. Of the fourpast tense forms (could, might, would, should) only the first three are used o refer to the pasttime when followed by an indefinite infinitive, and then, only within a restricted range ofmeanings:

He could speak English by the time he was ten.He was very independent, and, would never ask for help.

Try as he might, she couldn’t get the car to start.

In reported clauses, however, the past tense forms of these verbs are automatically used,even if the past tense form does not normally indicate the point

of the present tense meaningin direct speech:

You may be right. He said I might be right.

If a modal auxiliary in direct speech has no past tense equivalent, then the same form remainsin indirect speech:

You must be tired. I said that they must be tired.

If followed by a perfect infinitives, modal auxiliaries are counted as referring to the past:

He may have been right.

(I said that) they must have been right.




7.

Auxiliaries can take a strong stress foraffirmative emphasis.

I háve heard of him. John cán play the piano.He doés pay his debts. I shoúld like a holiday now.

Sometimes affirmative emphasis is used when the listener seemsto assume a negative:

Why don’t you mind your own business?But I dó mind my ownbusiness.

Why won’t you come? But I wíll come.

For negative emphasis, the strong stress is laid on the negation

not immediately following the auxiliary:We have nót heard of him. John cannót swim well.

If the lexical verb is emphasised by means of a strong stress, it isthe meaning of the verb that is being stressed, not its affirmativenature:

She boúght the flowers. (she didn’t get or steal them)

He will gíve her the book. (he will not lend or sell it to her)




8.

Auxiliaries have the ability to form various types of question phrases andto occur in various types of responses.

A. Question Phrases. A question phrase is a question added at the end of astatement, by means of which a speaker wants tomake sure that his / her information is correct.

a) Negative question phrase (tag) added to anaffirmative statement:

You have finished, haven’t you?

That will be enough, won’t it?

John can help him, can’t he?He speaks English well, doesn’t he?

b) Affirmative question phrase added to a negativestatement:

You haven't finished, have you?That won’t solve our problem, will it?

John can't help him, can he?

He doesn't speak English, does he?




remarks

Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries repeat themselves in the tag, while lexical verbs are replaced by do.

If more than one auxiliary occurs in the statement, only the first one is used in the questionphrase:

You have been doing research, haven't you?

The subject of the question phrase must be coreferential

with the subject of the statement. The subjectof the question phrase must be a pronoun or there:

There is someone in the house, isn't there?

Personal pronouns are also used to refer to indefinite pronouns;

they usually replaces everyone,everybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody:

Everything is ready, isn’t it?Everybody will have another try, won’t they?

Nobody called the police, did they?

The tag subject for this, that is it, while for these, those is they:

This is the main course, isn’t it?

Those weren’t your shoes, were they?

If information or confirmation of an opinion is wanted, the question phrase is said with a rising intonation;when the sentence is the expression of an opinion or a statement

of which no contradiction is expected,the question phrase is said with a falling intonation.

Imperatives are made into polite requests by adding a question phrase with will or shall in the affirmativeor the negative.

Sit down, will you / won’t you?

Don’t be late, will you?

Let me have a look, will you / won’t you?Let’s read aloud, shall we / shan’t we?

The positive forms of need and dare are rarely heard in the affirmative with question tags, but when soused, they are treated as full verbs; notice also the long infinitive following them:

You need to write it now, don’t you?

He dared to call me a fool, didn’t he?

Used to has a question phrase with did:He used to smoke a lot, didn’t he?

I am usually has the question phrase aren’t I in spoken English:

I’m going there, aren’t I?




c) There is a less common type of question

phrase, in which both statement andquestion are positive or negative.

(So) John might be late, might he?(Oh), John loves her, does he?

(So) You haven’t been cheeky, haven’tyou?

(So) They didn’t like it, didn’t they?This type of question phrase may

sometimes suggest sarcastic suspicion.




d) A special construction frequently heard in conversation,

which actually combines a short answer and a questionphrase, may be used to express agreement with anegative statement or agreement with an affirmativestatement. The short answer repeats the auxiliary or

modal auxiliary of the statement or, if the latter containsa lexical verb, it replaces it by do.

"You mustn’t spend it all." " No, I mustn’t, must I?"

"I don’t understand you"." No, you don’t, do you?""This chair has been painted"." Yes, it has, hasn’tit?"

"They swam very well"." Yes, they did, didn’t they?"




e) A variant of the construction discussed under d)

is used when one wishes to make an ironical,sarcastic or incredulous comment on anotherman’s statement. This is built by repeating theauxiliary or modal auxiliary occurring in the

statement or, if the verb in the statement is alexical verb, by replacing it with an appropriateform of do, and by adding a question phrase,

both being positive or negative."I’m going home." "Oh, you are, are you?"

"I won’t do it"." Oh, you won’t, won’t you?"

"He felt very sorry for her"." Oh, he did, didhe?"

"I don’t think this is enough"." Oh, you don’t,

don’t you?"

B Sh t d




B. Short answers and responses

The main types of short answers and responses

a) “Yes”

or “No”

answers to general questions:

Are you coming? Yes, I am.

Will you take care of everything? Yes, I will.

Can we meet tomorrow? No, we can’t.

Has it rained lately? Yes, it has.

Did you buy milk? No, I didn’t.Note the possible imperative answers with do or

don’tto questions like:

May I take it? Yes, (please) do.Shall I begin now? No, (please), don’t.

Must I take an umbrella? Yes, do.




b) Answers to special questions introduced by an interrogative word, which isthe subject of the sentence or part of the subject:

Who wants some tea? I do.Who knows the answer? I don't know.

Which of you must leave? We all must.

How many of you can cook? None of us can.

c) Short answers expressing agreement with an affirmative or a negativestatement. The subject of the short answer has to be coreferential

withthat of the antecedent clause.

-

Agreement with affirmative:You like John. Yes, I do. (simple agreement)

There is a hole in your shoe. So there is. (surprised agreement)

You won’t tell me your secret. Of course I won’t. (agreement for

something obvious)

-

Agreement with negative:They say she can’t swim. No, she can’t.

He shouldn’t utter such words. Of course, he shouldn’t.

Tom doesn’t eat meat. No, he doesn’t.




d)

Short answers expressing disagreement with an affirmative or a negativestatement or a special question. (introduced by why or how).

–

Disagreement with an affirmative statement:

You have often been to London. But I haven’t.

They can walk home safely. Oh, no, they can’t.

Why are you staring at her? But I am not.

How do you imagine life without electricity? Oh, I don’t.

-

Disagreement with negative:

He can’t behave like a gentleman. But he can.

You don’t know anything about this. Yes, I do.Why haven’t you read the instructions carefully? But I have.

I won't do it. Yes, you will.

Note that in all these types of short answers, the positive response to

need is usually must, and the negative response to must is usuallyneedn’t (if absence of necessity is expressed). Used to is usuallyreplaced by did.

I needn't go there tomorrow. Yes, you must.




e) Additions to affirmative or negative sentences.

1.

Affirmative additions are introduced by so meaning also; inversiontakes place between auxiliary and subject.

She must go home. So must I.

John has given the right answer. So has Mary.

Peter came early. So did I.She will try to be calm. So will I.

2. Negative additions introduced by nor or neither ; inversion takes place

between auxiliary and subject.

We couldn’t remember his name. Nor/neither could they.

John oughtn’t to be late. Nor/neither ought your sister.

He doesn’t know the answer to your question. Nor/neither do I.I'm not going to clean the mess. Nor/neither am I.

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Curs 2 Pp Classifications