DaCUMENT RESUME ID 283 357 FL 016 785 - ERIC RESUME ID 283 357 FL 016 785 AUTMOR Crandall, JoAnn, Ed.; And Others TITLE ESL_through Content-Area Instruction: Mathematics, Science,_Social

DaCUMENT RESUME

ID 283 357 FL 016 785

AUTMOR Crandall, JoAnn, Ed.; And OthersTITLE ESL_through Content-Area Instruction: Mathematics,

Science,_Social Studies. Language in Education:Theory and Practice, 69.

INSTITUTION Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C.;ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics,Washinetow, D.C.

SPONS AGENCY Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),Washington, DC.

REPORT NO ISBN=0=13=284373-0-01PUB DATE 87CONTRACT 400-86-0019NOTE 140p.AVAILABLE FROM Prentice-Hall, Inc., Book Distribution Center, Route

59-at Brook Mill Drive, Nest Nyack, NY 10994($9.33).

PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) 1052)== Collected Works - General (020) -- InformationAnalyses - ERIC Information Analysis Products (071)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Classroom Communication;

Classroom Techniques; Course Content; CourseOrganization; Curriculum.Development; EducationalStrategies; Elementary Secondary Education; *English(Second Language); *English for Special Purposes;Instructional Materials; Language Processing;Language Proficiency; Lesson Plans; *Limited EnglishSpeaking; *Mathematics Instruction; Problem Solving;*Science Instruction; Second Language Instruction;*Social Studies; Vocabulary Development

IDENTIFIERS *Content Area Teaching

ABSTRACTThree_essays_focus on integrating subject matter and

the English used_to communicate it_as a technique for teachinglimited-English-proficient students. "Integrating Language andMathematics Learning," by Theresa Corasaniti Dale and Gilberto J.Cuevas, discusses the vocabulary, syntaxr semantics, and discoursefeatures of mathematics; the_role of_language learning inmathematics,_including_the relationship_of language_proficiency andmathematies_adhievement_and the_phenomenon of mathematical thinking;learning_mathematics through a second language and_a second languagethrough mathematics; specific instructional strategies forintegrating the two; mathematics-based strategies for theEnglish-as-a-second-language (ESL) classroom; and developingproblem-solving activities to promote_second language learning. "ESLand_Science_Learning," by Carolyn Kessler and Miry Ellen Quinn,examines_the relationship betveen_science processes and language; theethnoscientific perspective and language; language acquisitionprocesses in science contexts; and adapting materials for science andESL development. "ESL and Social Studies Instruction," by MelissaKing, Berbera Pagans_ Terry Brett, and Rod Baer, discusses why socialStudien is or should_be a component of ESL instruction;_aspects ofcurriculum development_and_program_designvstaff_development andteacher training issues; and=effective teaching strategies. Modelelementary and_secondtry_sociaI stuaies_lessons are ihdluded. A13-page reference list is provided. (MSE)

XI}

Language in Education:Theory and Practice

ESLTHROUGH CONTENTAREAINSTRUCTION:MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE,SOCIAL STUDIES

3

ESLTHROUGH CONTENT-AREAINSTRUCTION

MATHEMATICS SCIENCE SOCIAL STUDIESTheresa Corasanitl Dale Carolyn Kessler Melissa KingGilberto J. Cuevas Mary Ellen Quinn Barbara Fagan

Terry BradRod Baer

JoAnn Crandall, Editor

(71: IA publication of Center for Appliad Linguistics

Prepared by Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics

PRENTICE HALL REGENTS Englewood Cliffs, Nov Jersey 07632

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Lb* NCipes CWipinfolikaties Deb

ESL through ocotent-area instructicn.

Eib1icr#41*I. Etigrith IiToguageStudy and_teeYching-nrdreIgn

8P8a8ess_ I. U-andall. .7o Mn. II. Dale. TheresaCorasaniti.PE1128.A2E745 1987 428' .007 87-11563ISM 0-13-284373-0

LANGUAGE IN EDUCATION: Theory and Practice 69

This publication was prepared with funding from the Officeof Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. De art-ment of Education, under contract no. 400-82-009.opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflectthe positions or policies of OERI or ED.

Weed Edema&leseara and InporanneonUS /471retistd&-Atibil

Production Supervision by-Martha MastersonCover design_ by Karen_ StephensManufacturing Buyer: Lorraine Fumoso

Publiehed 1987-by Prentice Halli Inc.A-division of Simonli SchusterEnglewood CIiffsi NJ 07632

All rights reserved._ No part of_this book may bereproduced, in any form or by any-means,without permission in writing from the publisher;

Printed in the United States of America

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5

Language in Education:Theory and Practice

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This publication may be purchased directly fromPrentice-Hall, Inc., Bwk Distribution Center Route 59 atBroolcHillDr., West Nyack, NY 10995, tellpone (201)767=5049At also will be-announced-in the MC monthlyabstract journalResourzes in Education (RIE) and:will beavailable from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service,Computer Microfilm International Corp., 3900 WheelerAve., Alexandria, VA 22304. See ME for ofderinginformation and ED number.

Vor further information on the ERIC system, ERIC/CLL,and CAL/Clearinghouse publications, write to ERICClearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics, Center forApplied Linguistics, 1118 22nd St. NW, Washington, DC20037.

Gina Doggett, Editor, Langaage in Education

Contents

Content,Bawd ESL: An Introduction 1

&Ann cfrwzthill

Chapter 1: Integrating Language and 9Mathematics_Learning_Theresa Corasanifi 1)&14 Gilbertó eL Cuevas

Chapter 2: ESL and Science Learning 55Carolyn Kesster, Mary Elten Quinn

Chapter3: ESL and Social Studies Instruction 89Melissa tring Bkcirri Fagan,Terry Brait, &id Itaer

References 121

7

Content-Based ESL:An Introduction

The- concept of integrating language instruction withsubject matter instniction is_ not new to languageeducators. It has been Attempted for malty years inadult education, in university programs for foreignstudente, and in specialized language courses forscientists, businetimen,_ and other professionals. Tosome degree, it has also been_a part of elementary andsecondary school ESL programs, although actualcontent-based ESL courses are relatively new. Thiscollection of-essaysby classroom teachers, research=era, and teacher educators,-,--describes some of the waysin which English language insteuction is being in-tegrated with science, mathematics, and social sciencesin elementary, secondary, and college classes, andreviews some of the theoretical support for thisapproach.

Writing Across the CurriculumThe Bulloci Report (1975) on English across the

curriculum was the first oveit expression -of a _growingmovement away from the rhetorical, product-orientedwriting_ classlivorced from other subject-matterclassestoward _an approach that views writing as anintegral part of any course 1withiii the curriculum.Although limited attention has long been given tobusiness or technical writing at the secondary or adult/

8

ESL(CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

tertiary level, attention to writing is appropriate in allcontent courses as a valuable means of learning (justastalking represents a way of learning). Although thelanguage arts or writing teather has been accorded aspatial role in helping studenti to fmd their own voiceand to give Thrm to their thoughts and feelings, teachersof mathematics, science, social studies, and other sub-jects also have a responsibility to see_that writing skillsare applied to_ authentic tasks suth Ai lab reports,etplanations of principles and theorems, discussions ofhistorical causes and effects, or comparisons -of reli-gious or cultural institutions. Tchudl and Tchudi (1983)list the following benefits of teaching Writing in thecontent areas:

L Writing about a subject helps students learn.

2, Writing about content has a practical payoff.(Students write better when they spend more timewriting.)

3. Content writing often motivates reluctant writers.

4. Content writing develops all language skills.

5. Teaching writing teaches thinking.

Reading in the Content AreasA similar trend has developed in the field of read-

ing: Language arts and reading specialists urge thatreading ba "taughV' u all_content areas, while they, iiiturn, introduce teits in their reading classes that arerelevant to and reinesentative of those that students willread in their content-area classes. This change hasrequired reading teachers to teach more than litera-ture; and mathematics, _science, and other Subject-matter teathers to teath more than their subject mat-ter. Since reading is a way of acquiring information andlearning, it is a skill to I* addressad in all classes. Thepurposes for reading, the types of tetts presented, andthe kin& or reading skills required differ by discipline

Introluction 3

and task; students need to acquire a variety of skills thatthey can apply to their reading assignments, whetherreading for information, for pleasure, or for guidancein performing a task. Content-area teachers must rec-ognize that they, too, are "reading" teachers; likewise,reading or language arts or English teaChers mustunderstand that their "content" may go beyondliterature.

_A great deal of research has _been published on thetypes of texts and the kinds of skills and strategiesinvolved in reading in the content areas, as well asdescriptions of program models and curricula thatintegrate 1reading with contnt areas -(Dupuis, 1984;lierher, 1978; Vacca, 198I). Dupuis (1984) found that"Over twenty textbooks are currently published to teachteachers how to deal with reading in content class-rooms" (p. 2), although some subject-matter areas suchas mathematics* science, and social studies have re-ceived more attention than other areas, such as music,health, or physical education.

Content in Language InstructionWhil reading and writing theorists and practi-

tioners I e been concerned with using reading andwriting té learn (not just helping students to learn toread and write), a similar trend has been evident inlanguage instruction, where the focus is not just onlearning the_language, but in using it as a medium tolearn something else. Although traditional languageteaching has focused on grammar or _literature, andmore recently, on communicative competence or lan-guage use in_a largely oral and interpersonal sense, amnnber of d ffe tegnentSL of the language teachingprofession have recognized the importance of focusingon content as well as language.

In English-for-specific-purposes (ESP) curricula,the goal of language instruction is to provide access totexts, seminars, lectures, and, btoadly,_ the entire dis-ciplines of such fields as engineeemg, science ortechnology, business or economics, medicine, law, orother professions. In teaching the particular vocabu;

10

4 ESUCONTENT4REA INSTRUCTION

lily, discourse styles, and syntax of science texts,written or oral, the ESP course uses materials andactivities drawn from the field, focusing on the ways inwhich the language ia used to convey or represent par-ticular thoughts or ideas. Within adult ESL programs,the focus often shifts to skilled or semiskilled jobs withspecial-purpose English courses designeti to assistadults in becoming welders, electronic assemblers,technicians, eleriCal *Orkers, and the like. In bothadult ESL and ESP, the integration of language andcontent is accomplished through coordinated efforts ofteachers in both fieldt_and_the language teacher's use oftexts (sometithes simplified or adapted) and activitiesdrawn frém the field of study.

Foreign language (FL) instruction has also focusedon academic content in delivering FL immersion pro-grams in which children receive all or part of theireducation thiOttih the medium of another language,thus acquiring the language simultaneously withlearning the academic content of mathematics, orscience, or whatever portion of the curricuhmi is taughtthrough the language. The desire to develop optimalways_ to present this content so as to keep it under-standable to the student who is only beginning to learnthe language of instruction parallels the concerns ofcontent,based ESL teachers.

Within the field Of ESL, models abound for com-bining language and content instruction. One of these,ESP, was discussed previously. Another model teamsESL teachers in an "adjunct" relationship with aca-demic subject-matter teachers hi a Particular field.Public schoOls offer "sheltered immersion" programs,in which the subjecinatter teacher uses the insights ofthe FL immersion class and the content-based ESL orspecific-purpose ESL _class to provide understandablecontent in English-medium instruction to students withlimited English. In both FL immersion and sheltered-immersion programs, according to Curtain (1986):

1. There is a focus on meaning rather than on %rm.There is no overt error correction.

2. Linguistic modifications such as simplified

11

Intrcduction

sPeec5 and controlled vocabulary that are necessary forcomprehensible input are used.

3. Instructional language has contextual clues tohelp convey meaning.

4. Conversational interactionusually the subjectcontentis interesting and real to the students.

5. Languages of instruction are kept very carefullyseparated.

6. Students are allowed a silent period and do nothave to speak until they are ready.

Why Content-Based Instruction?The bases for the increasing interest in content-

basefilanguage instruction are varied. Develop Ments insecond language acquisition theory and insights frompractice within the various fields of language instruc-tion have both fueled the interest.

Within second language acquisition theory, perhapsthe most important influence has been an emergingemphasis on the role that meithifieul, understandableinput plays in the acquisition of another language.Krashen (1981, 1982) has drawn parallels between firstand second language acQuisition and has suggestedthat the_ kinds of input that children get from theircaretakers ("caretaker speech") should serve as a modelfor teachers in the input they provide to second lan-guage learners, regardless of age. Input must becomprehensible to _the learner (at or just above thelearner's level) and be offered in. such a way as to allowmultiPle opportunities to understand and use thelanguage. Krashen's 'Monitor Model" suggests that ifcomprehensible input is provided and the student oraccplirer does not feel a great deal of anxiety, thenacquisition will take place.

One way of reducing the anxiety and also increasingthe potential relevance and meaningfulness of theexperience is to provide interesting texts and activities.

12

6 EsucoNTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

Krashen has recently emphasized the importance ofextensive reading for pleasure as a means of languageacquisition, as well as Ahe role of writing. He rec-ommends uSing texts and activities that are not gram-mar- or drill-based, but instead are inthresting andauthentic, dealing with real-world ideas, problems, andactivities.

&ashen posits a dichotomy between acquisition andlearning, with one (acquisition) serving to initiate alllanguage and the other (learning) serving only as amonitor or editor, activated when the learner has timeand is focusing on the correctness of_ his or herlanguage. Thus, he stresses natural acquisition op-portunities that are structured only enough to makethem comprehensible to the_acquirer.

In another dichotomy,_Cummins (1979, 1981) hashypothesized two different kinds of language pro-ficiency: basic interpersonal communication skills(BICS),_ which are language skills used in interpersonalrelations or in informal situations whose extra-linguistic and linguistic context provide _relatively easyaccess to meaning; and cognitive academic languageproficiency (CALP), which is the kind of languageproficiency required to make sense of and use academiclanguage in less conlextually rich (or morecontext-reduced) situations. Cummins suggests that BICS arerelatively easy to acquire, taking only 1 to 2 years, butthat CALP is much more difficult, taking from 5 to 7years and necessitating direct teaching of the languagein the academic context.

Given Cummins hypothesis, it is somewhat easierto understand why students who have left ESL classes toenter mainstream classes (where English is themedium of instruction) often _have difficulty_ and fallfurther and further behind in their academic work.Their seeming communicative competence and fluencyis deceptive; although they can talk with their peers,engage in informaL conversation with their teachers,read simple narratives, or write informal notes _orletters, they are not able to deal with the more abstract,formal, contextually reduced language of the texts,tests, lectures, or discussions of science, or math-ematics, or social studies.

1 3

Many content-based ESL programs have developedto provide students with an opportunity to learn CALP,as well as to provide a leas thrupt tninsition_from theESL classroom to an all-English-medium academicprogram. Content-based ESL courseswhether taughtby the ESL teacher, the content-area teacher, or someconthinationprovide direct instruction in the speciallanguage of the subject matter, while focusing attentionas much or more on the subject matter itself.

This CollectiohThis combined focuson the subject matter and the

English that is used to communicate itis the basis forthis collection of easays. The authors of the three essaysrepresent a broad_range of experience as practitionersand researchers. They share a commitment to explor-ing the ways in Which content _and language instructioncan lye best integrated, and they are all relative pioneersin this endeavor.

The_authors of "ESL and Science" are a teacher edu,cator (Kessler) and a secondary school_ science teacher(Quinn). Together, they have undertaken a number ofexperimental or pilot science programs, developing cur-ricula and_ activities to enable the limited-English-proficient (LEP) student to undexstand_and take part inthe science program and documenting the kinds ofprogress made.

Dale and Cuevas, the authors of "IntegratingMathematics and Language Teaching," _have workedtogether on a number of mathematics projects Thr LEPchildren, with Cuevas bringing the mathematics in-sights and experience (as well as sensitivity to languageissues in mathematics), and Dale bringing the lin-guistic insights and experience. Both have taught at anumter of levels: Cuevas is a teacher educator and Dalehas worked with both elementary school children andcollege freshmen and sophomores._ Much of their workhas involved the investigation of linguistic barriers_ tomath problem-solving and to the development of ma-terials and curricula to deal with them.

The authors of "ESL and Social Studies Instruc-

14

8 ESUCONTENT=AREA INSTRUCTION

tion" are all ESL specialists and teachers who worktogether in one school system. They have developed oneof the first secondary school ESL programs to addressboth the cultural and linguistic requirements for ESLstudents_ to function efrectively in American socialstudies classes. Besides the practical experience ofhaving to develop curricula and materials, severalmembtrs of the team have also been involved in teachereducation, providing another source of insight into thekinds of problems inherent in integrating language andcontent instruction.

These three essays provide an excellent introductionto the _rationale- for integrating language and contentinstruction, and offer concrete examples of ways inwhich this integration can be accomplished. Althoughthe focus is on ESL, the insights can be applied to otherlanguages as well and may lead the language teacher toconsider the materials and activities ofother fields as akind of contentto be used alongside the focus onlanguage structure and the culture(s) of people whospeak the languageadaptable for use in the languageclassroom.

The use of content from other fields offers the lan-guage teacher an opportunity to enrich the languageclassroom. By providing a more interesting class,teachers motivate students to master the more abstractand difficult language that characterizes the variouscontent areas. Communicative competence is morethan appropriate informal use of the language, it alsoincludes the ability to read, discuss, and write aboutcomplex and abstract ideas drawn from history,science, mathematics, or any educational field.

15

Integrating Languageand Mathematics

Learning

Theresa Corasaniti DaleCenter for Applied Linguistks

GI Reno J. Coosa% Ph.D.UnWersity of AlMmi

Picture a seventh- or ei&th-grade classroom in whichabout half the students are normative English speakerswith varying degrees of English proficiency. Theteacher is 1abut to present a mathematics lessondealing with the properties of equality. She begins bywriting the following on the blackboard:

(6+5)+4E6+(5+4)

She points to the number sentence on each side of theempty square and asks the class: "Are they equal?" AnEnglish-proficient student answers: "Yes, they are."The discussion continues:

Teacher: (Pointing to a limited-English-proficient(LEP) student) How do you know?

LEP Student: They equal.

Teacher: Yes, we know. But, tell me, why are theyequal?

16

10 ESI/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

LEP Student: It is equal.

Teacher: O.K. They are equal because both numbersentences have the same sum. Now, whatsymbol can we wilte in the empty square?

Native English-Speaking Student: Equal sign!

Teather Right! Very good! (now pointing to an LEPstudent) Please wilte the equal sign inside thesquare.

LEP Student_ (Obviousty not quite sum of what it isshe is supposed to do, she goes to the board andwrites the answer to each number sentence.)

Teacher: Good! Tell me what symbol do we write inthe square to say that this side (Pointing) is equalto this side?

LEP Student: (Appears embarrassed, lowers herhead and does not answer.)

After class, the teacher wonders how to reach LEPstudents like the one in this scene. She knows thesestudents are intelligent and eager to learn, but she feelsfrustrated because she cannot get them to express themathematical_ knowledge she thhiks they know. Herconcern is compounded when she tries to devise ways toteach LEP students whose knowledge of mathematics isalso weak.

This is just one illustration of the fact that teachinginvolves frequent communication between teacher andstudents. When the dialogue is conducted in a languageunfamiliar to the students, difficulties _are likely toarise. Morris (1974) describes the nature of the problem:

The problems of teaching in a second lan-guage are accentuated when mathemat-ics is the context of the dialog. This is dueessentially to the abstract nature of math-ematics and the difficulties which arisein absorbing abstract concepts. Also, the

17

Integrating Language and Mathematics 11

language used has to be precise, consis-tent, and unambiguous, if mathematicalideas are tobe explored and described ef=fectively. And for dialog to_ become pos-sible, the child must be equipped s*ith abasic repertoire of linguistic concepts andstructures. (p. 52)

Moris' statement underscores the importance ofteaching the "special" language skills required formathematics learning. Mastering "mathematicslanguage" skills is essential for all students, 1butltisPafticularly crucial for students learning mathematicsin English as a second language (ESL). This chapterdiscusses the integration of mathematics and languageskills in two c_on_texts: (a) incorporating mathematicscontent into ESL instruction, and _(b) incorporatingEnglish teaching strategies into mathematicsinstruction. The following topics will be addressed:

_the nature of the language used_ in mathematics,including some of the features that may be problematicfor LEP students;

_a_ bnef overview of the role language plays in thecontext of teaching and learning mathematics, withspecial emphasis on learning mathematics through asecond language; and

suggestions for practical _instructional_ strategies_ andactivities for promoting mathematics and Englishlanguage skills development with LEP students in boththe ESL and the mathematics classroom.

The Language of MathematicsWhat is meant by the language of mathematics?

How is it different from the language used for everydaycommunication tasks? The English languagerepresents a universe of language skills, and certainareas of language are used for specific purposes.Natural language, the language used in everyday

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12 ESUCONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

communication, is one of the components or "subsets"of this universe. The ianguage used to discusscomputer technology or that used for scientific topicsare two other subsets. Linguistically, these subsets oflanguage are referred to as "registers."

The ianguageregistèr for mathematics is composedof meanings appropriate to the communication ofmathematical ideas together with the terms orvocabulailr used in expressing these ideas and thestructures or sentences in which_these terms appear(Halliday, 1975) Like other registers or styles ofEnglish, the mathematics register includes uniquevocabulary, syntax (sentence structure), semanticproperties (truth conditions), and discourse (text)features.

Vocabulary

Mathematics vocabulary includes words that arespecific to mathematics, such as divisor, denominator,quotient, and coefficient. These words are new to moststudents. However, the mathematics register alsoincludes natural language, exeryday_vocabulary thattakes on a different meaning in mathematics. Thesewords, such as equal, rational, irrational, column, andtable, must be relearned, this time in a mathematicscontext, since they have a different meaning inmathematics.

ln addition to isolated vocabulary items, themathematics register uses its special vocabulary tocreate complex strings of words or phrases. In thesephrases, often two or more matkematical conceptscortthine to form a new concept, compounding the taskof comprehending the words. The phrases, leastcommon multiple, negative exponent, and even anapparently simple phrase such as a quarter of the_apples, are good_ examples showing the complexity ofmathematical terms.

A subtler and much more difficult aspect ofmathematics vocabulary involves the many ways inwhich 1the same mathematics operation can besignaled. As students progress through the hierarchyof mathematics skills, manipulation of this vocabulary

19

InWgrating Languap and Mathematics 13

becomes crucial for understanding the teacher'sexplanations in class and for solving word problems.Crandall, Dale, Rhodes, and Spanos (1985) haveidentified groups of lexical items-in beginning algebrathat indicate certain operations. _For example, studentsmust know that addition can be signaled by any of thesewords:

edd andplus sumcombine increased by

Similarly, subtraction can be signaled by these words:

subtract from minusdecreased by differ_less less-thantake away (aless"sophisficated" le=

commonly used by dikken)

It is important to remember that when talking aboutthe vocabulary of the mathematics language register (orany register), the_meanings of the terms are related tothe context in which they are _used. Bence it is notenougth for students to learn lists of words. They mustlearn what they mean in a particular mathematicalexpression. For 1examplc, students are taught early intheir mathematics edue.ation_that the word_ by signalsmultiplication as in the expression_3 multiplied by lo.However, they later encounter algebraic expressionssuch as a number increased by 10 and discover(sometimes the hard wayl) that by in this case _is part ofan expression _that signals addition. In fact,prepositions in general and the relationships theyindicate are critical lexical items in the mathematicsregister that can cause a great deal of confusion.Another exampleAs divided by as opposal to divided into(Crandalli Dale, Rhodes, &Spanos, 1985, p. 11)-

In addition to words and phrases particular to themathematics register, some examples of which havebeen given, there is also the set of mathematicalsymbols usext in expressing mathematical concepts andprocesses. These items are automatically associated

; I 20

14 ESUCONTENT;AREA INSMUCTION

with the symbolic language of mathematics- Assymbols that stand for a particular meaning inmathematics they can be thought of as mathematicsvocabulary. The symbols used for operations (adding,dividing, _etc-) are the most commonly known._ Asstudents move through the mathematics curriculum,the number of symbols used increases, and theirmeanings 1:mcome more conceptually dense. Studentsmust learn to relat4 symbols such as z, andparentheses and braciets to mathematics concepts orprocesses (usually themselves cou&ed in mathematicslanguage) and then translate these into everydaylanguage in order to express the mathematical ideasembedded In the symbols.

It is important to remember when discussingmathematical symbols that some symbols play differentroles in different countries. In a number of countries,for example, a comma is used to separate wholenunibers_ from_decimal parts,the function A:)f thededmal point in the United States, While the decimalpoint is used as the comma is in the United States, toseparate hundreds from thousands, hundredthousands from millions, and so on.

Syntax

The mathematics laliguaga registerincludes, as allreesters do, special syntactic structures and specialstyles of presentation. Knight and Hargis (1977) pointout that since mathematics is a study of relationships,comparative structures are an essential and rwurringpart of "mathematics language." They are difficultstructures for many students to master. The followingare some examples:

greater than/ as in all numbers greater than 4less than

n times as much as in Hilda earns six times as much as I do.Hilda earns $40i000. How much do Iearn?

as in Wendy is as old as Miguel.

21

Integradng Language and Mathematics 15

-er than as in Miguel- is 1three years1 older thanFrank. FranA it 25. Row ad is Wendy?

Munro (1979) cites a number of other freqentiy usedstructures _in mathematics that are also potentiallyconfusing. They include 1the following stkuctures withexamples taken from Crandall, Dale, Rhodes, andSpanos (1985):

numbers usedas nouns(rather than adjectives)

prepositions

passive voice

Or,

Or,

as in Twenty it five times a certainnumber. What is the number?

as in eight divided by four andeight frito four

as in two multiplied by itself two times(multiMicatbn) aridx exceeds two byseven

as in ten (is) divIcWd by Mo.

as in x is cbffnFaci to be equal to zero.

as in When 15 is ackkd to a number,the result is 21. Firid the number.

One of the principal characteristics of the syntaxused in a mathematical expression is the lack ofone-to-one correspondence between Anathematicalsymbols and the words they represent For example, ifthe expression eight divided by 2 is translatedword-for-word in the order in which it is written, theresulting _mathematical expression 8472_would beincorrect. The correct expression is 24-1T. Similarly, tocorrectly translate the expression, the square of thequotient of a and b, students must know that the firstpart of the expression, the square at; is translated lagand that_ the phrase starting with quotient requires theuse of parentheses to signal the squaring of the entirequotient. The correct mathematical expression in thiscase: is (a/b)2.

This Jáck1 of one-to-one 1CÔC8pöid1CIiCC posesconsiderable difficulty kir students, particularly LEPstudents, who tend to read and write mathematical

22

ESVCONTENT4REA INSTRUCTION

sentences_(presenthd_either ini_symbois or in words_ orboth) in_ thesame manner in_ whith_ they_ read__ and wiitestandard orthography (Kessler, Quinn, & Hayes, 1985).Understanding that there is no- one-to-one correspon-dence-between mathematics- symbols. -and their Englishtranslations __becomes micial- for students wko_ areattempting_ to make progress throu& the _hierarchy ofmathematical -concepts.- In_ their_ work with LEP highschool and college students -in basic -algebra classes,Crandall, Dale,' Rhodes, and Spanos (1985) have docu-mentedLIrecurringlerrorslinl thmslations ___of_ the len-guage _of problems into _solution equations; __Theyfound that-students-tend to duplicate the surface syntaxof_ the problem statements in their algebraic- restate=ment- For examplei_students .often incorrectly trans-late& thesentence, The nuritheri _a is_rawless _than_ _the_number _b as _a 5 - b; when the correct translationshould ix: a = b - 5.

Another major characteristic- of the syntax of thelanguage _ofimathematics _is its _frequent _use of logitelconneders._ Dawe'_s. (1983) study of LEP_ students _showedthat the correct use -of-logical connectors was the onefactor that- -differentiated those- -students who couldreason mahematically in English from. -tho&-e whocOnl&not._The restIte were consistent for both LEP andnative-English_ speaker&

-Logical connectors -are- one -linguistic devicemathematics texts use to-develop and link abstract ideasand concepts. Some of these iconnectorsindlude_.then; if aiid._on1y_ifi_becauseiithat_isi for _examplei_ suchthati_buti consequently;_ and either ... or. As Kessler,Quinn, and Hayes (1985) point out:

Logical _ conneetorS_ are mord& -or phaseswhich carry_out the funetion ofmarking alogical _relationship between two or morebasic -linguistic structures. Primarily,logical connecters serve a semantic,__ co,hesive __function __indicating _the_. nature ofthe relationship between parts of a text._

(p. 14)

When students read mathematics texts, they must

g3


be able to recognize logical connectors and thesituations in which_ they appear. They must knowwhich situation is_ signaledsimilarity, contradiction,cause and effect or reason and result, chronological orlogical sequence (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman,1983). On the level of syntax, they have to know wherelogical connector& appear in a sentence (at thebeginning, middle, or end of a clause), and they must beaware that some connectors can appear in only oneposition, while others can appear in two or all threepositions, and that change in position can signal aChange in meanin&

Examples abound in algebra text& of logicalconnectors used in definitions and to characterizepropertiesconcepts that students must understandand_apply in order to solve algebraic problems. Theseconnectors most often appear in complex statementsusing both words and symbols, as in the followingexamples:

In a beginning algebra text, the Axiom ofOpposites is stated as:

For every real number a there is a unique realnumber -a, such that

a + (-a) = 0 and (-a) + a = 0.

The text then offers the following elaboration ofthe axiom:

1. If a is a positive number, then -a is a negativenumber; if a is a negative number, then -a is apositive number; if a is 0, then -a is 0.

2. The opposite of -a is a; that is, - (-a) = a.(Dolciard & Wooton, 1970; p. 77)

It is not hard1 1t o imagine native-English-speakingstudent& having difficulty_ piecing together_the logicalstatements in this iëétiôii of text. Clearly, LEP studentsmight have even more difficulty with it.

This complex example is taken from a level of

24

18 ESL/C ONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

This complex example is taken from a level ofmathematics _that most students generally do not faceuntil they are at least in junior high schooL It isimportant to note that LEP students' ability tomanipulate logical connectors appears to ba tied_ into adevelopmenta sequence. It is_vez7 possible that youngerLEP :students categorically have more problems withlogical connectors than older students (Piaget, 1926;Tfitch, 1984; as_ quoted in Kessler, Quinn, & Hayes,1985). Younger students- often seem mystified by The useof logical connectors such as Win relatively simPle wordproblem& Some _students may, for example, haveconsiderable difficulty solving the following problemstated using a hypothetical situation signaled by if:

If Frank can type ma page in 20_minutes, howmuch time will it take him to type two pages?

However, the same students may be able to solve theproblem when it ill stated using a declarative sentenee,as in:

Frank types one page in 20 minutes. How muchtime dfts it take him to type two pages?

Semantics

The preceding discusssion shows that correctlymanipulating the_ special vocabulary and phrases aridthe word order found in "mathematics language" isintricately tied to students' ability to infer the correctmathematical meaning from the language. Makinginferences in "mathematics language!' often dependson_ the _language user's ImowIedge of hoW reference isindiCated. iü algebra, for example, the correct solutionof a word problem often hinges on the ability to identifykey words and to determine the other words in theproblem to which the ley words are linked (Le.,knowing how to determine the referents of key words).Problems involving the numb...r,a number, and the likerequire such inferencing. For example:

Five timei a number is two more than ten times

25


To solve this problem, students must realize that anumber and ths number refer to the same quantity.

The sum of two numbers is 77. If the firstnumber is 10 times the other, find the number.

In this problem, student& must know that they aredealing with two numbers. Further, they must knowthat the wayreference is used in the problem links eachnumber with information about itso that the firstnumber and the infbrmation given about it refers to oneof those numbers; and the other refers to the second ofthe two numbers, the number whose value the problemasks the student to find. Finally, students must knowthat the translation from the words of the problem intothe symbolic representation of the solution equation ilIbe based on only one variable and that each of the twonumbtrs will be expressed in terms of that one variable.Given all this, the correct translation and solution ofthis problem would be:

Phraw

first numbersecond numbersum

Symbolic Translation

1 Cbc

77

Thexefore, On the basis of information from theproblem:

1Lt = 77 and= 7

A _common mistake is for students to write solutionequations with two different variables. Not surprisingly,because they see no relationship 1between the twoequations, they cannot solve the problem.

These examples point out another reference featureof the language of mathematics, specifically to thelanguage of algebra: the referents of variables.Identifying variables' referents is essential to correctlytranslating the words of a problem into the symbols of

26

20 ESUCONTENDAREA 1NSTRUCTION

its solution equation and vice versa. Vaiiables stand forthe number of persons or things, not the persons orthings themselves. The following classic word problemillustrates this point:

There are five times as many students asprofessors in the mathematics depart-ment. Write an equation that representsthis statement.

Many students typically write the incorrect equation58 p, which follows the literal word order of thenatural language sentence and, uses 8 to represent"students" and p to represent "professors: The correctequation is 5p =8; whieh can be determined only ifstudents know that the variable (or any other variablethey choose to use) must represent the number ofstudents and that the_variable p _must _represent thenumber of professors. This kind of "reversal error" hasbeen the subject of investigation by a number ofresearchers interested in the language of mathematics,including Clement (1981) and -Mestre, Geracei &Lockhead (1982)- Firsching -(1982) points out_ thatrecurring reverse errors_ could result from students'previous repeated exposure in "beginning"-levelmathematics to word problems that feature a one-to-onecorrespondence between words and symbol.Experienced with such word problems, they incorrectlyexpact _that all problems can be solved in the samemanner.

Discourse Features

On a level above vocabulary and syntax, known inlinguistics as the discaurse level, mathematicslanguage also has distinctive characteristics. Looselydefined, _mathematics discourse refers to the "chunks"of languagesentences or groups of sentences orparagraphsthat function together as textual units,each with a specific meaning and purpose inmathematicsTim definition 1öLthS communicativeproperty of addition or the explanation of this propertyin a mathematics textbook are examples of

Integrating language and Mathematics 21

mathematics discourse or "texts." Any word problem isan example of a specialized type of mathematicsdiscourse or text.

AILof the_lerical, syntactic, and semantic_features of"mathematics language" discussed earlier can beconsidered discourse features of a mathematics textBut instead of looking at isolated features from the"bottom up," discourse views how all the distinctivefeatures of a mathematics text work from_the "_topdown" to form a cohesive, coherent unit thatcommunicates a particular mathematics meaning.This meaning is expressed not as a result of the simplesum of all of its lexical, syntactic, and semanticfeatures but rather as something al3ove and beyondthese features. To understand a unit of mathematicaldiscourse, students must not only be profici.ent in"mathematics language," but they must also have abackground in mathematics in order to construct thecontext _needed to process cognitively complex'mformation. At the discourse level, the integration oflanguage and mathematics skills is essential for totalcomprehension.

Mathematics disc ourse, especially writtendiscourse, presents considerable difficulties for manystudents, native English speakers as well as LEPstudents. Unlike natural language, mathematics textslack redundancy or paraphrase. Bye (1975) hasenumerated_ a aumber of additional characteristics ofmathematical discourse found in the language ofmathematics textbooks. According to his analysis,written mathematics texts:

are conceptually packed;have high density;require up-and-down as well as left-to-right eyemovements;require a reading rate_ adjustment because they mustbe read more slowly than natural language texts;require multiple readings;use numerous symbolic devices such as charts andgraphs; and

contain a great deal of technical language with

28


contain a great ded of technical language withprecise meaning.

These_ language_ Matures; when _combined with themathematics content -of the- written text; require thestudent -to apply- -mathematics concepts; procedures,tra appliations they_have- Eilteady_leArned._(Stu_dentswith_a wet& _mathethitioi baeligi'ound As well as poorlanguage skills are doubly handicapped here.) Thestudent must also recognize which previously- -learnedmathematics:_concepts, procedures, or _applicationsmust_ be applied:to the_ tekt_at_hand.In_addition;_thestudent__ must _have __had enough expeiience__ withmathematics texts -to know when everyday backgroundknowledge -should be applied to the readingcomprehension': protess and _when it _must -besuspended; _Finally; the_ student must he familar with(have had experience _with) the processes involved inmathematical-thinking.

Mathematical word problems provide some of themore_ _cogent examples of_ mathematics discoursefeatures_ at_ work; along with_ illustrations of thedifficulties these features present to LEP students, whoare for the moat part unfamiliar with mathematicsdiscourse _in _Engligh (anti sometimes_ in: any: language)._

_Kessler; Quinn; and _Hayes (1985) offer the exampleof the following- word problem; which many of theirsecond-grade LEP students could not solve correctly:

Sue _has 32 cards; _She_gave Jim 15 cards; Howmany cards does Sue have?

The:authors report thatAnany: students :respondedWith_ 15_ rather _than 17; They_ theorize that' _thesestudents -may not have been _familiar with _therepresentative function of word problems, by which theymail& have perceived that having 32 cards and giving 15of _them_ away _representa or _sets up a mathematicssituation,- not theleginning_ of a narrative or story.

It could be argued that the language of this problemis: unclear _and_ ambiguous. -Sophisticated problem-selizers__ have learned_ how_ tO4eal: _with_ such Ambiguitybecause they know that the ftinction of the language of

22

Integrating Language and Mathemalks 28

word problems is to direct them toward a mathematicalsolution. They suspend the natural tendency to demanddetails that they might normolly require for readingnarrative texts. Consider the fellowing problem, forexample:

Food expenses take 26% of the average family'sincome. A ththilyi makes $700 a month. Howmuch is spent on food?

Students who can solve this problem generally arenot bothered by the fact that the_probleM does_not specifydiretl the amount that is being asked few-, that is, theamount per month? the amount per year? Since onetime reference occurs in the problema monthstudents who know how word problems work infer thatthey must find theitmount spent_ per month. Studentswile are net profident in the language of word problemsprobably would demand a paraphrase or repetition ofthe time reference to clar* the problem question. It isclear that LEP students, often literal readers_ at theearly stages_ of their English_ development, would havegrave difficulties with word problem texts such as thisone.

It appears that good problem-solvers are the stu-dents who fan _discover the discourse properties of wordproblems that provide them N-vith both a real-world con-text and a mathematics context in which to approaththe pr Further, Kessler, Quinn, and Hayes (1985)point out that proficient problem-solvers "make use oflanguage for thillAring purposes in a real world context"(p. 18). Students need to acquire the skills to integratecomplex linguistic and mathematical processes in or-der to be good problem-solvers.

The ROle Of Language Learningin Mathematics

The jreviàuà section lists, by no means exhaus-tively, the linguistic items and language skills _requiredfor mathematic& learning Identifying the special styleor register of mathematics is the first step toward de-

.30

24 ESL/CONTENT=AREA INSTRUCTION

students that integrate language and mathematics. Thenext step must beta provide a broad framework or a per-spective front which to view how language in generaland mathematics language in particular relates tomathematics learning.

Language Proficiencyand Mathematics Achievement

Results from extensive research with monolingualEnglish speakers point to a close relationship betweenlanguage proficiency and mathematics achievement.Research reviews by Ailen_(197I), Corle (1974), andSuydem (1982)_ reveal hi& positive _correlations between(English) reading ability and mathematics achieve-ment.

Itesearch Avith students learning mathematics inESE is limited. However, thea researcli_that is availableshaws similar positive correlations between languageskills and mathematics achievement. Cossio (1978)found a positive correlation between mathematicsachievement and second _language ability. Duran (1980)also found_ a strong positive correlation between thereading comprehension scores of Puerto Rican collegestudents and their performance on deductive reasoningproblems in English and in Spanish, with a similarpattern =Baba& languagesCuevas (1984) has shownthat language is a factor both in the learning and theassessment of mathematics._

Although the exact relationship between languageand mathematics is not clearly understood, results ofavailable research certainly_point toward close inthrac-tion. On one level, it cola be add that proficiency in thelanguage in which mathematics is taught, particularlyreading proficiency, is a prerequisite for mathematicsachievement. The reading of mathematics texts and thesolving of mathematics word problems obviouslyAle-pends on a prerequisite language proficiency. Thestudent must be able to read the text in order tounderstand the mathematics concept or processexpressed init. _By the lame token, a student must beable to first read a word problem before attempting tosolve it. However, being able to read the text or the

31


problem does not guarantee understanding of theconcept or process or being able to solve the problem.

Eatly research by Macnamara (1966)_appears to bearthis hypothesis out In his studies of English-Irish bi-lingual students, Macnamara found that students hadgreater difficulty solving word problems in Irish, theirweaker (second)_language, than in English, theirstronger (fifst) language, even when they knew_ all thewords and structures of the problems. _Macnamarahypothesized that his subjects lacked what he called a"good _grasp" of the weaker language. When closelyexamined, Macnamara's_ concept of "grasp" of the lan-guage appears to encompass the ability to use languageto interpret the problem-solving task

At this juncture, however, knowledge of and ex-perience_with the mathematics concepts and processesbecome critical. It is very laely that these fetters willultimately predict success in mathematic& In partic-ular, the ability to think mathematically appears to bethe cru1 element in mathematics achievement. Itmay be at_ this cognitive and metacognitive level thatlanguage and mathematics are most intricately related.

Mathematical Thinking

Kessler,- Quinn, and Hayes f1985)- preseat-a strongarvment _that the_ role of mathethatical thinking_ andmetacognition must be considered_ When_ _discussing_ themathematics performance of- LEP -students. Theseauthors_ discuss Burton's model .(1984) of mathematicslearning, which_ involves_ not_ only: the cogniti ve tasks _ofcarrying out particular eperations,_ processes,_ anddynamics connected with the study of mathematics, butalso a_ special style -of thinking-that is different from thehody_of knowledgeleontent and_ techniques) traditionallyidentified as mathematics; This _style_ Of thinking in,volves metacognition, which Garofflo and_Leater (1985)define as "choosing -and- planning- what -to do _andmanitering what is-being done"- (p. 164). -Metacognition,then,_ as Kesaler, Quinn, andi_liayes (1985) point out,refers _to "both awareness of _thinking: arid _regulation ofthinking. In mathematics (as in all learning), both of

32

a; ESL/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

these factors affect the outcome of cognitive activities"

Affective-factors are also involved in the process ofmathematical thinking Students' mathematical think-inuand metecognition must be driven by a curiosity anda willingness to investigate the unknown. Studentsmust also be patient and persistent These qualities, to-

er with _a knowledge of mathematics _concepts, oper-ations, and processes, no doubt all contribute to successin mathematics.

Learning MathematicsThrough a Second Language

In school, students must use language, written andspoken, to express their thoughts and to demonstratetheir 1uiiderstaiding and mastery of academic tasks.Simply put, language is the vehicle of learning andinstruction. As Cummins (1981) has thecrized, thelanguage used for academic tasks is quite differentfrom the language used for basic_ communication.Cummins' 'Iasie interpersonal communication skills"(BICS) refer to a proficiency in the contxt-embeddedlanguage found in face-to-face conversation, wherespeakers rely strongly on extralinguistic and situation-al cues for meaning.

Cognitive academic_ language proficiency (CALP),on _the other hand, refers to a proficiency in the con-text-reduced language related to cognitive tasks. WithCALP, meaning is inferred essentially from_ the lin-guistic or literacy-related features of the spoken or wfit-ten text._ The meaning is more or less complex depend-ing on the level of cognitive demand presented by theacademic task being expressed through the language.

Cummins argues that CALP is cross-lingual, thatis, students can acquire CALP, part of what he calls "acommon underlying proficiency, ' via any language aslong as they have reached a certain level or "threshold"of proficiency in the language. Once acquired, CALPcan be accessed and used via any language, again oncethe threshold level of proficiency in the language hasbeen reached.

Intftrating Language and Mathematics 27

The concept of threshold in Cummins' model mayhave important implications for LEP students facedwith The task of learning mathematics and otheracademic subjects._ If LEP students already possess_ athreshold proficiency in CALP (in mathethatics, forexample, learned through their first language), theyhave a basis on which to develop CALP for mathematicsthrough their second language. Hence their chances 1tosucceed in_ academic tasks, in this case mathematicstasks, are enhanced, given enough time and motivationto learn their second language.

However, it may be the-case that LEP students whohave little or no_CkLP in their first language will haveconsiderable diffieulty developing CALP through theirsecond language. Although it is not explicitly stated byCummins, their difficulties may have to do not onlywith learning second language skills but also withlearning the _cognitive, academic content expressedthrougii the second language. Thus the threshold thatLEP students must reach is both a certain minimallevel of language skills and a certain minimal knowl-edge of the academic area.

Dawe's woA (1983,1984) with bilingual students inmathematical reasoning appears to agree with re-search conducted by Mestre, Gerace, and Lockhead(1982) with Hispanic engineering students in collegealgebra courses. These researchers report that _Hispan-ic students were much more likely than nonmincultystudents to misirpret word problems in English andthat slower reading speed and comprehension contrib-uted significantly to a greater number of problems notbeing _completed (and consequently "missed") in theword problem tests they administered. Mestre (1984)recommends that problem-solving instruction for His-panics (and other LEP students) should therefore in-clude extensive practice emphasizing speed and_ accu-racy in translitting the language of word problems intomathematical notation. He argues that LEP studentswho are given a chance to grapple with problems thatdemand considerable linguistic processing would learnhow to get information from a problem and set it upcorrectly.

In summary, the role of language in learning is not

34

ESUCONTENT-ARRA INSTRUCTION

yet clear, although it is likely that its role is Crucial inthe following ways.

1. There appears to be a high correlation betweenreading skills and mathematics achievement, particu-larly when the taskt involve reading texta or solvingword_problems. Preliminary research evidence appearsto indicate that this correlation may be even stronger forLEP students performing tasks in ESL.

2. -On a "deeper" level, language works as a medi-ttor for mathematical thinking and metacognition.WXether the thinking defines the language or the lan-guage defines the thinking remains to be _answered.Probably both occurThe important_point is that math-ematical thiating, mediated by linjuistic processes, isa prerequisite fbr mathematics achievement.

3. LEP students who must._ karn matheniaticsthrough their second language Must reach a minimallevel (Cummins' threshold) Of Proficiency in the cogni-tive, academic skills required of mathematics and inthe language skills used to express the mathematicalskills.

4. The language used in mathematics is intricatelyConnected to the mathematical concepts, proceSsek andapplications it expresses. Therefore, mathematic& in-struction, particularly for LEP _students learning intheir second language, should integrate mathematicsand language skills.

Learni a Second LanguageThrough Mathematics

Another _aspect of the relationship between languageand Mathematics is critical for LEP students. Math-ematics instruction for LER students carkbe a source Ofopportunities to acquire and learn English, their secondlanguageIn_ other words, mathematics can be alangtage-learnhig experience in both the mathematicsand the ESL class.

35

Integrating Languagv and Mathematics 29

Recent researcb and practical experience appear tosuggest that the forms, functions, _and uses of languagecan be best acquired and learned in context_ Secondlanguage acquisition theory, notably that of Krashen(1982), points to the importance of context to provide lan-guage experiences, or "input: that students can com-prehend. it seems obvious that the language input stu-dents need most in school must come from experiencesfrom their academic subject courses.

Traditionally, mathematics has not been 1one of thesu 'ect areas educators use toprovide second_ languageexperiences and practice for LEP students. It is possiblethat the _myth that mathematics requires minimallanguage proficiency may have kept mathematics fromlming a logical choice as the academic content base ofsecond language activities. PerhapaLthe_fact that manylanguage teathers feel unprepared and reluctant to getinvolved with any topic related to mathematics has alsoaffected the "popularity" of choosing mathematicscontent.

It is essential, however, that the classroom en-vironment in which ESL is taught through math-ematics content be carefully structured so that secondlanguage acquisition can occur. For both the ESL andthe mathematics classroom, this means that in-structional activities should_ promote second languagedevelopment through a natural, subconscious processin which the focus is not on language per se but oncommunicating the concepts, processes, and applica-tions of mathematics.

Mohan (1986L points out that an instructionalenvironment that promotes second (and first) languagedevelopment must be carefully structured to providestudents with a range of opportunities to communicatesubject matter. His general framework for teachinglanguage_and content suggests that ESL activities basedon mathematics content make use of graphics, manip-ulatives, and other hands-on concrete experiences thatclarify and reinforce meanings in mathematics corn-municated.thougk language.

It is not enouA, however, to include instructionalactivities that provide linguistic and nonlinguistic en-forcement for communicating mathematical ideas,. As

36

30 ESUCONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

with any instruction, teachers must constantly monitortheir studenta for _comprehension, svhich may requirespecial_attention in mathematics given the cognitivecomplexity of many mathematics tasks and the ten-dency for mathematics to be a silent, individual actity(Cazder4 1979). 'Teachers therefore need_ to provide bothqualitrinputtaored toile language and mathematicslevels of their students and ample opportunity for stu-dents to respond (i.e., talk), again commensurate withtheir level of language and mathematics proficiency.Given the cognitive demands of mathematics tasks,teachers_must _also provide students with extensive andvaried expeiiences in Which to apply the_ mathematicalthinking techniques and the metacognitive behaviors(i.e. the self=monitoring of mathematical processes)thewill need to develop to be mathematics achiever&

Whenever possible, instrUctional activities, in boththe ESL and thc mathmiatics classroom, should bebuilt on students' real-life experiences and prior knowl,edge of mathematics, and offer situations in which stu-dents ran interact with the teacher and_fellow students(both LEP and English-speaking) Sucl activities stimu-late both second language acquisition and learning.Wilson, De Avila, and Intili (1982) and De Asila andDuncan (1984) have shown that when LEP students areprovicted_ witli_a _classroom environment organizedaround interactive activities, they can acquire bothmathematics and English simultaneously. De Avila'sprogram provides hands-on experiments that fostercritical thinking skills for mathematics and science.Because the activities naturally emphasize process,they Fend themselves well to promoting verbal interac-tion. Similar evidence for the simultaneous develop-ment of language and mathematics_ and science can- beftnind in studies_ by Kessler _an& Quinn (1980, 1384),Quinn and Kessler (1984), and Rodriguez and Bethel(1983).

Affective factors also play a crucial role in the km.;guage acquisitionivocess described here._ Many stu,dents,_not justLEP students, decide for one reason oranother that they "are not good in .mathematics." Formany LEP students faced with the formidable task oflearning mathematics through a second language,

37

hdegrating Language and Mathematics 31

mathematics instruction can be doubly traumatic.Mathematics teahers can do much to _reduce the trau-ma by giving LEP _students opportunities to eirPerienceSlimes/Alt mathematica through activities they canundeistAnd. Positive experiences in mathematics buildan themselves and can consequently lower whatKrashen (1982) calls "the atUctive filter" in languagelearning. The result is_that LEP students find them-selves _learning mathematics, while at the same timethey are acquiring language skills used both in every=day communication and in the academic setting ofmathematics. _

_Results from the worlc of Hayes and Bahruth (1985)and Hayes, Bahruth, and Kessler (1985) bear this obser;vation out These researchers report extraordinaryprogress in fifth=grade LEP students' Englisb,readingskills as a result of ettensive_experience in reading andwriting their own matheniatics word problems. Bothstudies eMphasize that students' success was due notonly to exposure to great quantities of interesting Andrelevant language input, but also ta the students'changes in ilttitudes_toward_school and learning.

It,_should be_ emphasized that ESL teachers candesign mathematics activities as simple as learning toread and write the names of numbers in Engliah tomore complex wark such as talking about how to sólVéword problems.J.fauch activities are tailored to the lan-guage and mathematics proficiencies of the students,they will have numerous oportunities to experiencesuccess in completing both language and mathematicstasks, and they will be able to _do so in a lest; threateningatmosphere than the mathematics classroom, wherethey are often at a disadvantage both in language and inmathematic& It is not unrealistic to think that poSitiveexperiences (not to mention_ the_mathematics and lan-guage skills_learned) In mathematics/language activi-tied in _an _ESL_setting can be carried over to the regularmathematics classroom.

Instructional sttategie6The background that teachers need hi order to devel-

38


op strategies and_ activities thatintegrate language andmathenaticsskiIlfór LEP students has been presentedin the previous sections. In this section, suggestions aregiven for the development of instructional activities.TWo instructional settings will be addressed: (a) themathematics classroom, and (b) the ESL classroom.

Language-Based Strategiesfor the Mathematics Classroom

The mathematics eurriculum at any grade level _isgenerally composed of four basic areas: concepts, com-putation, applications, and problem-solving. For thepurpose of illustrating the differences in language re-quirements that exist in these four basic mathematicsareas, following are two short "lessons."

Lesson 1: StatisticsThe Concept of Mean

Teacher: We have on the board two lists of numbers; let'ssay the numbers represent scores on tests. Add the scoresin the first list or distribution; after you have obtained a sum,divide the total by the number of scores in the list. Let'ssee, first what is the total?

Student 1: (Gives the correct total.)

Teacher: Now, what is the result of the division?

Student 2: (Gives the correct quotienL)

Teacher: Repeat the same operation with the second list ordistribution. (Answers are checked before proceeding.)Please tell me where in each distribution the final quotientis located. (Students locate the quotient or "average" onthe board.)

Teacher: Give me a word or expression that tells where thisnumber is in the distribution of scores.

Student 3: Middle.

39

Integrating Language andIttathematics

Student 4: Center.

Student 5: The other scores are around this answer.

Teacher: I see we pretty much agree that this result orquotient is somewhere in the "center of each distribution.We call this number a "measure of central tendency? Weknow that the calculations we did had to do with theaverage of each of the distributions. Can someone give mea definition of "average"?(The students give a number ofplausible definitions.) In statistics, this average has aspecial name. It is called the "mean."

Lesson 2: StatisticsThe Computation of StandardDeviation

Teacher: (The students have previously been presentedwith the concept of standard deviation.) Now we are readyto learn the sets involved in the computation of thestandard deviation of the distribution.

First, subtract the mean of the distribution from each of thescores in the distribution.

Second, square each of these differences.

Third, add these squares.

Fourth, divide the sum of the squares by the number of:mores in the distribution.

Fifth, take the square root of this quotient.

(The students have followed each of the steps and haveresponded with answers to each as the teacher developedthe algorithm.)

In analyzing these two sample lessens, mathemat-ics teachers can readily distiguish the mathematics

)

0

34 ESL/CONTENDAREA INSTRUCTION

content: Lesson 1 doals with the development of a con=cept, in this case, the idea of arithmetic mean; Lesson. 2covers the_presentation of the algorithm to compute thestandard_deviation. As for the language demands of thetwo lessons, teachers can observe a fairly clear differ-ence in the "scripts" for each lesson. Generally, Lesson1 contains a larger percentage of natural language,while _Lesson 2 _emphasizes the_ technical vocabularyand_ structures of the mathematics register. The natureof the mathematics content in each lesson defines thekind of language used to teach it The introduction of aconcept requires the teacher to communicate ideas inlanguage &lunar to the students (i.e., through naturallanguage) to TaCilitate comprehension. In the devel-opment of algorithmic procedures, the instructor as=sumes understanding of the concept and uses very"tecluiical language" from Ahe mathematics register topresent the steps involved in the computation of thestandard deviation.

Second Language:Approach' -

to Mathematics Skilit (SLAMS)

Mathematics teachers tan start with general ob-servations on the language content of mathematicstasks (such as the ones just given) and from themdevelop1 an expanded mathematics/language approachfor LEP atudenta thatincludes &language component.Cuevas (1981, 1984) has developed such an approachcalled Second Language Approach to MathematicsSkills (SLAMS), which incorporates language develop-ment activities into tha "regular" mathematics lessonsplanned by_teachers. This approadh_ was initially de-veloped far grade K through 12 but can be applied to ar.kylevel of mathematics instruction. It is based on theassumption that in order for a student to master themathematics concepts presented in class, the languageof the concepts must be addressed and mastered . isalso assumed that by teaching the language togetherwith the content, understanding of the material will befacilitated (Cuevas, Mann, & McClung, 1985).

The approach is composed of two strands, one fo-cusing on mathematics content and the other empha-

41

Integrating Languaw and Mathematics 35

sizing _related language ikillS. The actisities developedfor ea& strand are based on identified instructionalobjectives from the mathematics curriculum.

7he Content Strand

The content strand encompasses strategies foranalysis and diagnosis of mathematics skills, followedby preventive or prescriptive activities. Since thisapproach follows a "standare diagnostic-prescriptivemodel fOrt teaching, its components are desibed onlybriefly here.

1. Analysis of Concept/Skills: This eomponentL dealswith what needs to be taught, i.e., the basic math-ematics concepts and skills determine& by the in-structional objectives. At this point, the teacher mayalso wish to analyze prerequisite skills necessary formastery of the objectives.

_Diagnosis: This process encompasses 1assessment(formal and infermal) of the level of skills masteryandlor the extent and nature of mathematical errors;Diagnosis must involve data,collection activities inwhich the teacher focuses_ on patterns of behasior.Mese patterns are essential for the instructional de=cisions made in the next- components of the diag-nostic-prescriptive process. As a result of the analysis ofthe instructional objective(s), the teatherneedS to ask:"Does the student have the prerequisite skills necessaryfor mastery_ of_the mathematics objective(s)?" For ex=amplei before teaching how to apply the basic arith;metic operations to problem situations dealing Aitithmoney, the teacher needs to know tO what degree thestudenti have mastered the operation(s) they are beingasked to use;

3. Preventive Strategies: This component addressesthe activities designed to review or reinforce skills thatare prerequisite to the mathematics objective(s) beingtaught.

4. Lesson: Based on the student's strengths and

42

36 ESL/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCIION

weaknesses, the teacher develops instructional activi-tiesi designed_to teach selected mathematics_concepts orto develop certain skills. In constucting these activi-ties, care should be taken to select from various ap-proaches such as the use of manipulatives, small-groupwork, individual tasks, and tutorial sessions with otherstudents as tutors.

As is common in a diagnostic-prescriptive ap-proach, an assessment is made of the level of studentmastery of themathematics content presented in class.The cycle is then repeated or other activities are de-signed if remediation is necessary.

The Language Strand

The language strand of the SLAMS model follows apath parallel to the content strand. The components ofthe language strand include:

1. Analysis of the Language Used: For this com-ponent, teachers need to be aware that at least two lan-guages are present in the mathematics curriculum- the"objective _language," or mathematics register, and nateural language. Vocabulary and other terms the teaCherfeels are important- in the communication of ideas to thestudent must be identified. For example, in a wordproblem_ such_as, "If Marta buys 3 pencils at $6.15 each,how mucl change will she rezeive from _UAW?" stu-dents need to determine which terms and what syn-tactic and other textual clues will indicate the correctsequence of operations.

Diagnosis of Language Skills: On the basis of thelanguage skills identified in the first component, theteacher must answer the following questions:

a. Does the student recognize the symbols/termsthat pertain to the skill?

b. Can the student pronounce them? Writethem?

43

tegrating Language and Mathemalics 37

c. Can the student define the terms used?

d. Is the student knowledgeable of the structuresused se that ideas and relationships areunderstood?

3. Preventive Language Strat tes. Many LEP stu,dents have received mathematics instruction in theirnativelanguage an& are proficient in the mathematicsregister of that language. Preventive language activitiescould focus on:

a. a review of the mathematics content, pre-sented this time in the students' nativelanguage;

b. structured ESL actMties designed to increasethe_ students'Aevel of competence in the Eng-lish-language skills needed to master themathematics content in English.

4. _Lesson: Instructional language activities formathematics should involve listening comprehension,verbal production, and reading and writing of the lan-guage features identified by the teacherThese activitiesmust be incorporated as an integral part of themathematics content lesson.

The mathematicsilanguap approch of SLAMS out-lined here is recommended _for mathematics teachers

generat The approatli proVides a framework foradapting adtiVities the tea&er needs to develop to focuseh the language needs of LEP students. As can be seenin Figure 1.1, mathematics teachers must analyze eachmathematical task Into mathematics and languageskillsAnstitictional activities that integrate both kindsof skills must then be devised for the prescriptive andevaluation phases of the approach.

*4 4

38 ESUCONTIMARFA INSTRUCTION

WO ,ZP RIM UP MB 1

I MATHEMATICS CURRICULUMSCOPE AND SEOUENCE

SIOLL

a

IANAISSISiOF14ELANGUAGE USED

DIAGNOSIS OFCONTENT LANGIAGE

SKILLS

PREVENTIVE-STRATEGIES FOR

CONTENT LANGLAGE

ANALYSIS OF IMATHEMATIO6

SKILL

DIAGNOSIS-OFMATHEMATICS

SKILLS

PREVENTIVESTRATEGIES FOR

IMTHEM-ATICS

figure-1.1, c-ond Language Approachto Mathematics Skills (SLAMS) Instructional model

45

bite-treating Lantirage and Mathematics 39

English Language Ski HS for Basic Algebra

The model suggested by SLAMS provides a generalapproacl few integrating mathematics and languageskills in the mathematics clatassraomUsing thiS ap-proach, teachers can develop a sequence of language-based mathematics _activities for LEP students. (Theseare the materials suggested for the prescriptive step ofthe SLAMS model.) One such set of materials (Cran-dall, forthcoming) was developed to assist_ LEP collegestudents in basic algetra. The Mathematics content andthe language-based activities stem from extensive re-search at_ a number of postsecondary institutions in theUnited States in which the authors _observed_ basic al-gebra classes, interviewed_ LEP students and mathe-matics facay and_reviewed mathematics textbooks andcurricul& The _resulting materials are the collaborativeeffort of language and mathematics specialist& The fiveunits of activities include four units addressing thefollowing topics fixtm beginning algebia: (a) numericaland algebraic expressions, (b) equations and inequali-ties, (c) word problems, and (d) defmitions and theor-ems. The fifth unit is a glossary of bitsic algebraicterms. Examples appear as Figures 1.2 through 1.5.

TUTOR PAGE

TUTOR: Reed each algebraicexpression to your partner.Your partner will repeatListen-to see that he or sherepeats correctly.

STUDENT PAGE

STUDENT: Look at the algebraicexpressions telow. Listen asyourlutor reads the expression.Repeat after your tutor or thetape.

Example: Example:

Student sees: x 4. 2You say: "x plus two"Student repeats: "x plus two"

You see: x +_2You hear "x plus two"You repeat "x plus two"

Figure 1.2. Working with numerical and algebraicexpressions.

The first four units are organized to supplement andreinforce traditional activities tOnducted in beginning

4 6


algebea courses. They are tlesigned_ta be used by stu-dents in pairs, in a peer-tutoring approath that enablesstudents ta take on the roles of tutor and tutee. hi thisway, students can work one-on-one in tutoring sessionsitt the mathematics classroom or in tutorial centers.Since the materials follow a_ progressionfrom easy todifficult for both mathematics and language proficien-cy, they 1provide students working in pairs of smallgroups with numerous opportunities for the debate andffiscussion that are crucial for the development ofmathematical thinking. The instructional envinmmentthus created can offer students extensive "comprehen-sible mathematics/language input." Algebra teachershave also used the units with entire classes to introduceor reinforce topics.

TUTOR PAGE

TUTOR: Loo* at the equationsbelow. Certain steps are left outand explanations are given for themissing step& Listen as your_partner fills in themissing stepsin tile equations by reading theexplanations, Check_his or heranswers with the underlinedanswers below.

STUDENT PAGE

STUDENT:An the_equations_thatfollow, certain_stepsan left out,and explanations are giveeforthe missing_steps. Fill in _themissing steps in the_equationsby_reading the correspondingexplanation& Then read youranswerout loud to your tutor.Observe how the equation issolved in the example.

Example: Solve 7a - 2 = 3a + 9

.511421

7a-2-3a+9

7a-2+ (-3a). 3a + 9+ (-3a)

EXP.61011611211

The given problem.

Add -3a to both sides to isolatethe variable on one side.

FIgure ations and Inequalities

Aithou peer tutoring is 1theldeal framework forthese materials, they can also be used by students in&vidually, with the "tutor" sections serving as answer

47

lategrating Languap and Mathematics 41

sheets and a the& on students' progress. The materi-als have been used in this manner as homewoik sup-plements and as materials for individual practice intutorial centers.

TUTOR PAGE

MDR: Listen to your partnerread and answer the followingparaphrase and inferamce ques-tions. He or she should circle theletter of the correct answer.When henr she_is finished, check_the answersandgivaexplanationsfor those that are incorrect.

STUDENT PAGE

STUDENT: Read the_follmingparaphrase and inference queer-tionsout loud. Circle the letter of_the correct answer. Refer to thedefinition above.

1. Whichaf thafollowing is_ 1.closest in meaning to the sub-traction equation?

A) No. Check the definition again. A)

B) YES

Which of the following isclosest in meaning to the sub-traction equation?

a over b, Rims c over b, is thedifference between a-c into b.

B) a over ty, fess c over b, is equalto the difference batween aand c over b.

Figure 1.4. Understanding definitions and theorems

The glossary offers students a reference tool forbasic algebra that provides definitions of algebra vocab-ulary; a list of symbols along with their names, func-tions, and the vocabulary and phrases that expressthem; definitions_ and_ examples of the types of numbers;and finally, a list of words and phrases commonly usedin typical algebra word problems. The glossary's entrieswere carefully constructed to provide both the technicallanguage that students would find in_ their mathemat-ics_ texts and definitions and explanations written_ innatural language. In this way students can understandthe meanings of terms, symbols, and expressions asthey are exposed to the technical language they ulti-mately need to learn to function in algebra class.

48

TERM

CommutativeMinn', ofmultiplication

complexnumber

ESI/CONTEN7-AREA eifsntUCTION

EXAMPLE MEANING

4 x 8 = 8 x 4 If eand b are integers, then M3 baHint The wordammidi means toexchange, so the integersfachaaga positions in this property.

-3+4i Complex numbers have the forma +Li, wtere a and b are realnumlnrs. The a is mIktd the realpart and the bi is called theimaginaty Raft.

composite 4 ,

number

countingnumber

Sym-bol

RelatedWords

addaddition

plus;increasedby

SUM

A counting number that is ofprime .

the numbeis we use to countwith.They are also cailed naturalnumbers.

ADDITION

Examples Explanation

3 + 4 03 4-4" means add 3 and 4;do the operation of addition.

4"maybe read03 plus4"-or"3 increasedby 4"

"Eincl_thesum_of3 plus 4"

The symbol for addition isthe plus sign: +

Theanswer to_an additionproblem is called the atmof the twonumbers._CAUTION: Do not confusethe_word auin(requiringaddition) with thewordpad= (requiring multi-plication).

Figure 1.5. A glossary for basic algebra.

49

Vate listing Language and l'Orathematics 43

Finally, it is important to note that language-basedmathematicsmaterialivsuch_as these can be used by allstudents, not just LEP students. Since acquinng themathematics register appears to be difficult for moststudents, the algebra activities designed to teach themeanings and_ fiinctions of mathematics language areprobably beneficial for any student

Mathematics- ased Strategiesfor the ESL Classroom

Mimy of the mathematics/language activities sug-gested for the mathematics classroom can be adaptedfbr the ESL classroom. However, the ultimate goal ofthese activitift is different In the mathematks class,the goal is _to learm mathematics, but in the ESL class-room, the goal of every activity is to foster languageacquisition and learning. As discussed earlier in thechapter and elsewhere in this volume, the introductionof content-based ESL activities_servesto_shift the con-scious focus of ESL students from the me6anics of lan-guage learning to the fimction of language, that is, thecomunglication of meaning. In academic settings,then, one of the contexts ESL instructors can use toteach students how_language communicates academicmeaning (i.e., to teach fundional English) is that ofmathematics.

To develop mathematics-content language activitiesfor the _ESL classroom, ESL teachers must ascertain themathematics objectives and skills of the mathematicscourses their LEP students are (or will be) required tocomplete along with some idea of the mathematics theirstudents already know. Unless the ESL or bilingualteacher is _also the studentie mathematics teacher, thistask requires the advice and assistance of mathematicsinstructors, pEuticularly those who teach the same LEPstudents who are in ESL classes.

Together, mathematics and ESL teachers mustassess LEP students' mathematics needs and skills.This diagnosis is then incorporated into an assessmentof students' language proficiency. The resulting profileprovides ESL teachers with an overall picture of the two

, 50

44 ESIJCONTENDAREA INSTRUCTION

sets of skilla (mathematics and language) on whichthey can develop mathematics=based language activi-ties.

At this point, it is_prObthly obvious thatESL teadherswho_wantto incorporate mathematics content into ESLlearning are &ced with the sizable task of compiling amathematics-based section for their ESL curriculum, acurriculum that is already packed full with language(listening, 1speaking, reading, and_writing) objectivesand activities. The key to making this task manageablemust be in selecting which mathematics content toinclude. Depending on the goals of the ESL_program, onthe basis of student needs, ESL teacherscan_ selectmathematics content _according to two broadly defmedamoaches. The objective of the first approach is to pre-sent a complete sequence of mathematics tasks. Theresult of this approach is a mathematics component ofan ESLcurriculiun thatconcentrates on teething aca-demic English. The objective of the second approach isto include a few mathematics-based activities amongother more traditional second lanvage learning activi-ties. The _approach resulta in an ESL _curriculum thatintroduces but does not necessarily concentrate on theacademic language used for mathematics task&

A discussion of each of these mathematics-basedapproaches for ESL follows. It should be noted thatthese two approaches are two extremes ofa continuum.ESL teachers can develop many variations of the aP-proaclies that fall somewhere in the middle, accordingto the needs of their students and the time and re=sources available.

Developing a Sequenced Componentof Math-Based Language Activities for ESL

If ESL teachers find, after consultation withmathematics instructors and the students themselves,that their LEP student& are havinuserious_difficultieswitIparticular parts of the mathematics curculum,the ESL teacher may choose to include mathematics-based language activities sequenced to the mathematicscurriculum as a regular part of ESL instruction. Thefollowing suggestions are offered.

51

Integrating Language and Mathematics

ESL teachers, again ilith the help of mathematicsinstructora, need to analyze the objectives and activitiesof the mathematics curriculum identified as difficult todetermine the language features that contribute tostudents' problems. These features and the mathe-matics content from which they originate will form thebasis for mathematics-content language activities.

ESL teachers again_ must narrow tlown the math-ematics content to a component that can be realistically

TUTOR PAGE

TUTOR: Listen to the untenceyour partner reads.-8e sure he orshe reads the number arrectly.The sentences are billow.The numbers are underlined.

Example: There_were_five hundredpeople at the meeting;

1. His father is six feet tall.

2. The electric bill was gunhundredlandl thkfDen dollars!

3. My car holds taftguxiinitat (twelve and five tenths)gallons of gas.

4. There arelyeltimandkafthil0fht&Li1M8Alai*fiet in a miW.

7. My phone numbAr is bysEthree-two-four-fitv-one-sk.

8. Over one million people livein New York.

STUDENT PAGE

STUDENT: Fwad the followingsantences out loud. Ere sure toway the numbers correctly.

Example: You read: There were500 people at the meeting.

1; His father is 6 feet tall.

2. The electric bill was $313!

3. My car holds 12.5 gallonsof gas.

4. There are 5,280 feet in amile.

7. My-phone number is232-4516.

8. Over 1,000,000 people livein New York.

Figure 1.6. Math-based ESL lesson: Using numbersIn everyday contexts.

52

46 ESI/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

incorporated_ into the daily schedule._ Ideally, mathe-matics and ESL teathers should work together to pri-oritize all the mathematics areas identified and to en-sure that the mathematics material students need mostwill be covered.

To date, few materials specifically offer a componentof mathematics-based ESL activities. In the absenw-ofsets of ESL materials dedicated to mathematics, ESLteachera must adapt and _compile (perhaps with thehelp of interested mathematics specialists) sequences ofactivities for the particular areas of mathematics (gen-eral mathematics, algebra, geometry, etc.) their LEPstudents are studying.

Figure 1.6 (p. 45) shows how mathematics/languagematerials originally written for mathematics class-rooms can be adapted for ESL instruction 1forliighschool1 or _college student& _The example is based onactivities from the series of materials described earlier,*hi& were primarily written for use in algebra class-es. The mathematics content comes from the first unit,which treats numerical and algebraic expressions.

The_example in Figure 1.6 illustrates how parts ofmathematics-based language activities can be incorpo-rated into the regular daily or weekly schedule of ESLinstructionwith efforts made to parallel the objectivesbeing addressed in the mathematics classroom. It isalso_ possible to build an entire sequence of mathemat-ics-based language activities as a type of English forspecial purposes (ESP) section of an ESL course.

Developing Problem-Solving ActivitiesThat PromoteSecond Language Acquisition

In many cases, ESI,programs cannot devote anentire_ component_of the _ESL curriculum to mathemat-ics_ content. The brief outline even earlier shows thatsuch a process requires extended time and effort on thepart of ESL and mathematics instructors, especially

53


since materials are needed. In addition, many ESL pro-grams may find that their LEP students may not needintensive instruction in mathematics-based languagelearning either because they already have a sound basein mathematics in their native language or they havestrong support from their regular mathematics teach-ers, who pay special attention to the language needs ofstudents in their classes.

Even if students are liking relatively well in regularmathematics classes, ESL teaChers may still want toinclude some kind of stimulating, thought-provokingmathematics-based language instruction to stimulatesecond language use and acquisition. One of the bestsources _in the mathematics curriculum_ TOr _suchenrichment activities is problem solving, specificallysolving word problems. Furthermore, word problems,by virtue of their "language format," are a naturalchoicelor language practice.

ESL teachers can develop sets of activities usingword problems selected to fit various themes or instruc-tional objectives. For example, lessons for elementary-level students can be built around word problems thatgive students practice with mathematics skills such as:

each of the four basic operationsaddition, subtrac-tion, multiplication and division;

basic operations with fractions and mixed numbers;

basic operations with decimals;

applying the concept of inverse operations; or

estimatingfrounding off the answer.

Lessons can also be built around specific languageskills such as:

learning sets of vocabulary that often designate thesolution operation in word problems, both mathematicsterms and natural-language words (e.g., take away,decreased, have left, and lost are some used withsubtraction);

54

48 ESUCONTENT-ARFA INSTRUCTION

learning sets of vocabulary that indicate comparisons(e.g., fewer/more than, less/greater than);

learning how to read and understand problemswriUen as hypothetical situations (i.e., practicing howto read and write if clauses);

learning how tv read and understand problems whenthe question is at the end, the beginning, or somewhereelse in 1the problem; or practicing English compositionskills through rewriting problems_ using different timereferences, changing singulars to plurals; or, at a moreadvanced level, writing paraphrases of the problems.

ESL teachers can simplify the_ job _of finding wordproblems with the particular mathematics and/orlanguage "specifications" they need for each activity bykeeping a running file of problems on index cards.Word problems can be collected from mathematicstexts, newspaper ads, and so on, or teachers and stu-dents can wilte them themselves. Suggestions follow forlanguage-based activities using word problems.

Activity #1: Practice special mathematics vocabf.:(1.1y.

Materials needed: Food containers, or any other group ofitems for a "store."

Procedure: Set up a store with as rnany1 items as possible,each with aprice dearly marked on it. The grocery store isalways a good choice. Develop questions that refer tothese marked items using terms such as more than, lessthan, as much as, most, /east, equal to, as many as, all

together, twice as much as, fewer than, greater than, add,subtract, and so on.

Sample questions based on a grocery store situation:

Name one item that costs more than $0.25 each.How many apples can you buy with $0.50?

r

t r

I

%Whiting Language and Mathematics 49

What costs more at this store, 3 apples or 3 oranges?

Activity #2: Problem PuzzlesRead all of the pieces of theproblem &nd then put them in the order needed to make a"good" problem.

Materials needed: Word Problem file, index cards or sen-tence strip, markers or rmns.

Procedures: Select problems from your word problem file.Use any Criteria you wish according to your activityobjective. Type each piece of information (usually inelementary school, this means each sentence) on a strip ofpaper. (For primary grades, you may want to use sentencestrips.) identify each part of a problem with a number. Askstudents to put the parts of the problem in order. You canmake this as hard or as easy as you wish by varying thenumber of problems you mix up or put into the pool ofpieces. You can also make this sulf-correcting by puttingthe correct puzzle number on the back of each strip.

Activity #3: Read the problem and tell whether there is toolittle, too much, or enough information to solve it.

Materials needed: A set of word problems with preferablythe swne number each of problems with too much informa-tion, not enough, and exactly enough. These can be put ona work sheet, on the board, or on index cards.

Procedures: From a group of word problem cards, havestudents read the problem and decide whether there isenough information to solve the problem, not enough, ortoo much. This aclivity can (and should) have a second orthird step: If the problem has enough information, solve it; ifthe problem does not have enough information, addinformation that makes sense and solve the problem; ifthere is too much Information, take out (or cross out) theextra information and then solve the problem. Since theexercise may be time-consuming, you may want to startwith just one group of these problems such as those with

56

ESI/CONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

too much information and work up to doing a group ofmixed problems.

Samples:

77-0 PROBLEM CONTAINS ENOUGH INFORMATION:

Margo bought 7 books last week. This week shebought three times as many books. How many booksdid she buy this week?

7111S PROBLEM WAS TOO MUCH INFORMATION:

138 fifth-waders are going on a trip to the zoo. Theywill take 3 buses. 72 of the students are boys and 66are girls. There must be an equal number of studentson each bus. How many students will ride en eachbus?

THIS PROBLEM HAS NOT ENOUGH INFORMATION:

Peter Wught 3 pounds of meat at $1.39 a pound. Howmuch change did he receive?

-1Adtiiiity #4: Read the problem and fill in the missinginformaffon.

Materials needed: Sets of word problems, indek cards orsentence strips, or dittos.

Procedure: Select a variety of problems (or select oneparticular set of problems). Go through these problems andleave out key words, phrases, whole pieces of information

sentences), the problem questiom Make sure theproblem is rewritten with plenty of space for the left-outportion. Have students fill in the blanks with whatever theythink will make sense in the problem. To Check whetherstudents' "fill-ins" make sense, let the students try to solvethe problem after the information is added.

5 7


Sample:

Mese problems omit some information:

There were 2 basketball teams. How many childrenwere on each team?

Alfred bought 4 models for $1.75 each. How muchchange should he receive?

This problem omits the question:

Mrs._ Nguyen llought 3 cassette tapes for $7.98 each,including tax. She gave the clerk $30.00.

Activity # 5: Write a word problem from a word problemoutline.

Materials needed: Word problem cards with the problemoutline and paper and pencils (if for a written exercise).

Procedure: Write word problems based on problemoutlines. You can use the outline format used in manymathematics texts in which just the bare, base phrases ofinformation are given. Or you can make up your ownoutlines according to the kinds or problems you wish topractice or the language you would like to use.

Sample:

Problem outline:

9 tablesa people at each table.How many people in all?

Word problem written from the outline:

There weTe 9 tables in the school lunchroom. Nine peoplesat at each table. How many people in all were sitting at

58

52 ESL/CONTENT-ARK& INSTRUCTION

the lunchroom tables?

Activity 6: Wrfte a wordproblem from a number sentence.

Materials needed: Index cards with 1the number sentencesets, or a blackboard. Use paper and pencil or a worksheetformat if students are writing the problems.

Procedure: Select sets of number sentences. This activityworks best if "families" of number sentences areusedthose indicating inverse operations. For example, 3x 4 = ?, 3 x ? = 12, 12 divided by 4 . ?, ? divided by 3 = 4,etc, Have students select a situation for each numbersentence set and then have them make up a problem to fiteach number sentence. The problem "fits" the numbersentende if the number sentence is the one you use tosolve the problem.

Sample:

Number sentence:

6 x 4 =

6 x [ ] = 24

Corresponding word problem:

Alex has 4 friends. He wants to buy each friend 6 cookies.How many cookies does Alex need to buy in all?

Alex has 24 cookies. He wants to divide the cookies evenlyamong his 4 friends. How many cookies will he give toeach friend?

The word problem activities offered here are beaused with small groups of three or four students. ESLteachers can organize their classes into_ groups ac-cording to students' _language proficiency or mathemat-ics baclground. In this way, problems can be select;ed to

Integraeng Language and Mathematics 53

fit the ithility of eacil group in order to keepi interestlevels high and fustration levels low. Teachers_ canalso place more proficient students (in Englieh ormathematics) in the problem-solving groups to act astutors for their _peers. However the groups are ar-ranged, it is often best to start with problems that re-quire easy mathematical solutions so that students_canconcentrate on the language of the problem While theyget used to the process of problem solving (which isoften new_to them).

The advantage of using word_problem activities inthe manner described here is that they can be incor-porated easily into most ESL curricula. Word, problemactivities can be built around almost any theme orilletillctionaLobjective the__ESL teacher might need totea&. The Came spent on the activities can Nary_from aregular period each week coveemg many problems to 10or 15-minutes per day or per wcek to work on onespecific problem. Most importaut,_ time spent doingword problems is never wasted, even if students do notget around to actually solving the Rroblems untillater.From the mathematics point of view, LEP students_ cangain experience in doing different types of wordproblems in _English and consequently become familiarwith the general processes required_for any kind- ofproblem solving. At the same time, they are_ providedwith numerous opportunities to use their secondlanguage for basic communication and communicatingmeaning in mathematics.

Closing RemarksThis chapter has provided mathematics and ESL

educators with background information and instruc-tional strategies_ that address the educational needs ofLEP students. Ta this end, a bzief overview of the natureof the language used in mathematics was given, as wellas the role language plays in mathematics teachingand learning. On the basis of this information, sugges-tions for the adaptation or development of instructionalstrateties that integrate mathematics and second Ian-gmage learning in the mathematics and ESL classroom

60

54 ESUCONTENDAREA INSTRUCTION

were illustrated. eunderifrg goal has been to assistteachers in the communication of mathematical con-tent to students in order to develop mathematical andsecond lang-iage skills.

ESLand Science Learning

Carolyn Kessler and Mary Ellen Quinn

After a few minutes the sow bug die because it ishot to them and when they die they look Ince acircle. Putting the sow bug in the projectormicroscope and it is see big. They have hairs inthe legs they look like tires in the back. The sowbug look_like &armadillo.

(21fother Nedure's nny Wonders, 1984; P. 26)

Francisco, a Hispanic child of migrant workers inrural Texas, wrote these results from observationsmade whuleL 1loOking at a sow bug under an ovetheadprojector microscope during his fifth-grade scienceclass. Like all of his classmates, he had entered the fifthgrade in the fall unable to read or write English. Hishome language was a nonstandard variety xof Spanish,and 1Englisk was his second_ ianguage During hisprevious years at school he _had acquired an adequatelevel of English proficiency for carrying out socialinteractions with his teachers and peers. Academically,however,1 his competence in English was _extremelylimited. Scores on a standardized reading test indicatedthat he was fufictioning at the first-grade level. The beststudent in the class read at the second-grade levetothers were at a preprimer stage. Schooling for thesestudents, up to the start of _fifth grade, had brought nosuccess and very limited English-language proficiencyfor school purposes.

A sensitive fifth-grade teacher who understood the

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56 ESL/CONTENT-ARM INSTRUCTION

culturaLsetting of his students,their _level of cognitivedevelopment, their language needs, and the negativeeffects of prior school experiences challenged Franciscoand his classmates to become readers and writers ofEnglish before the end of the school year. Using thecontent of science together with that of mathematicsand social studies, Francisco and the other fifth-graders made an average gain of more than 3 years inreading levels and developed considerable enthusiasmfor writing in English, their second1 language. Theexcitement of learning about culturally relevant sowbugs and armadillos in rural Texas became apparent.More important for long-range gains, however, was thefact that these children had developed English-lan-guage proficiency for_academic purposes to_the extentthat they could know school success. Specifically,among other aspects of schooling, they had discoveredthe wonder of science inquiry and, simultaneously, haddeveloped English competence needd for engaging inthis inquiry (Hayes & Bel:truth, 1985; Hayes, Bahruth, &Kessler, 1985). A process-oeiented science class usingan inquiry approach is among the optimal sourtes ofsocial interaction and language input for facilitatingacquisition of IL liecond language (Kessler & Quinn,1984; Malian, 1986;Rodliguez & Bethel, 1983).

This chapter explores relationships between learn-ing science and acquiring English as a second lan-guage (ESL) in relevant sociocultural contexts. Specific-ally, it considers ways in_ which science helps studentswithlimited English proficiency (LEP) to develop in allaspects of language use at school: listening, speaking,reading, and writing.

Science Processes and Language

Science is generally defmed as 1a set of concepts andrelationships developed through the processes ofobservation, identification, description, experimentalinvestigation, and theoretical explanation of naturalphenomena.

ESL and Men( le Learning 57

Approaches to SdenceWhen science is taught from an inquiry-based,

problem-solving orientation, students learn to define ascience problem, state a hypothesis, gather data, ana-lyie deta,_and maim statements_relating the hypothesisto the data. Throu0 &lend& inquiry,students developlearning processes inherent in thinking: observing,classifying, comparing, communicating, measuring,inferring, pr&licting,_ and finding space and time re-lationship& These_thiniring processes, applied in aprOblOm-soMngfbrmat lead to the development of theconcepts -of science.

A distinction batween an inquiry approch to scienceeducation_ and a textbook-oriented approach is critical inany examination of the role of science in second lan-guage development Emphasis on inquiry leads eta-dents to learn more about the "how" of science than the'1what"_ and to understand that science is not a staticbody ofknowledge but &dynamic quest_ Overdependenceon textbooks reduces the science class to exercises inliteracy and develops a fundamental misunderstandingof the nature of science. For second language learners,dependence on textliools in_ preference to hands-on in-vesfigation _seriously constrahrs the conditions that fa-cilitate language development If students cannot un-derstand the language of the textlxok and have little orno_opportunity to interact with others to gain meaning,their second language proficiency will not improve.

A lab-bieed inquny approaeh to science must also liedistinguished from science pro...rams that rely largelyon_ demonstrations by the teed zr, promoting inquiryprocesses and languageinteractions only to a verylimited extent SCience holds a unique position_ in theETchool curriculum in that it is one of the few contentareas that emphasizes hands-on experimentation. Animportant dimension _of science instruction is recog-nition of the learner's cognitive characteristics _and howthey interact with particular strategies to determine theoverall effectivenees of instructional programs. Currentscience inquiry programs stress the cognitive processesof observing, inferring, predtcting, _hypothesizing, _andexperimenting. These and similar programs provide a

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rich environment for simultaneous_ cognitive and lin-guistic development._ Confronted with observable natu-ral events_ that set up a disequilibrium or cognitive con-flict, in the inagefian sense, children work hard to re-solve the conflict if given the time to investigate and theopportunity to discuss their work

In problem4o1ving,_ students must select and ordervaried types -of data, using concepts that they alreadyblow to guide their search for answers to questions.This process leads to an understanding1 ofnew conceptsand their relationships. Associated with this processare the efforts students_ make to convert these experi-ences_taIantuage. Francisco, in his lab report on obser-vations about a sow bug, saw relationships btween_ thebug's physical appearances and other phenomena inhis world, He saw that a dead sow bug looked like acircle and_that the hairs on its legs together with itsshape made it look like a tire or even an armadillo.

The Language of Science

In a science textbook, abstract ideas an logieallydeveloped and linked through a number _of _linguisticdevices: repetition of key words, use of paraphrase orsemantically sunilar terms, and use of logical connec-tort; such as because, however, consequently, and_ forexample. These connectors indicate theAlature of therelationship Wtween the parts_of a tett They can carryout a 1nunibe rOfsemantic kuietions. Science texts typi=cally include connectors that shgnal addition or similar-ity, contradiction, cause and effect or reasomand_result,and chronological or -logical sequence (Celee-Murcia &Larsen-Freeman,_1983). Althou& little research hasbeen done to ident* the difficulties that logical connec-tors present to ESL students in the context of sciencelearning, a study of 161530 _studentaemolled in grades7=10 in Australia _showed that _substantial numbers ofstudents experience d iculty with connectives used invarious types of logial reasoning (Gardner, 1980), Otherlogical connectors in the language of science may beexpected to pow particular problems for ESL students.

WAs_cliildren pass through the Piagetian stages ofintellectual development, they learn first to make dis=

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ESL Ahd leilee Lean**

coveries through sensorimotor activity, then to- askquestions_of_adtilti,_and_finally to ask questions .of them-selves. An impoftant component ef _science instinction,especially with- older- learners, aims to- promote activi-ties in--which students are -actively engaged in discus.;sion with one another over the truth of hykotheses -pre-sented _and_theineaning_lif data gathered. The ability .toask questions, generate _tentative answers,_ make predic-tions, and then evaluate- evidence as ixupperting orrejecting the answers develops-as a result of attemptingtO carry oni discussions with_ others,

StUdents __gradually_ internale_ _the_ linguistic ele-ments _necessary far hypothesis-testing and argumenta-tion. Such internalization appears to be a -prerequisitefor aspects of proportional reasoning anii other -types-ofpilvFtneed _reasoning used in_iscience._ The_ability,_ for

to raise questions _about a problem,_ generate-es,- make predictions, -and design an experi-

the-hypotheses-rests on the gradual inter-_ the___linguittic elements involved_ (A.

D.I. Lawson; & C.& Lawson, _1984); _To. _theit that x .ience students do_not have-access to these

44g..1fltic abilAies, they cannot successfully engage in8dt:ice- inquiry that. demands -this kind of reasoning.Thus, _ESL _et-Aunts _who_ do net_ yet_ _have _the neaessarylinguistic _elements in _their firit language_ _or_ who_ areunfamiliar with their use _in the second language maybe expected to have particular difficulty in sciencere a soning.

In a study of factam aftcting_ academic: achievementin_ a second_ language,_ SaVille-Troike _0.984) _found_ thatknowledge of vocabulary is the most important aspect ofsecond language- competence for learning academiccontent threugh that language.. Knowledge of vocabula-ry _is more_ important thtui knowledge of _English_ morph,ology such_ as plural markers on nouns or past _tensemarkers on verbs, and even knowledge of syntacticstructures for-sentence-patterns. Furthermore, itis onething tele ablett, use language socially,and another touse_ it_ academically; Linguistically, _the _most _importantaspect of language the ESL student needs is vocabulary.

Specialized vocabulary is_ closely tied to the specificcontent of science. In a study of science tettbooks that

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are widely used in grades 6 through 9, Hurd, Robinson,McConnell, and Ross (1981) found that more than 2,500new words were introduced each_year._ They point outthat thit figure-is twice what is commonly expected in aforeign _language Class of the same grade level. Termi-nology nevertheless, is a central feature of the texthooksthat most science classes use as major determiners ofwhat students must do and _learn inscience (Yager,1983). While the heightened importance of terminologyis a general problem of science education, the abun-dance of new terms poses particular problems for ESLlearnera. Recognition of such problems is uncial _in

ht of the growing evidence that_knowIedge of vocabu-laryis essential to learning academic content through asecond language.

Students' ability to recognize scientific conceptd e fi n i t i o n s and their v e r b a l labels is &feature of sciencecommunication. Lynch, Chipmat and Pachaury (1985)studied a set of key concept words used in defining thenature of matter (e.g., atom, solid) element). In admin-istering equivalent tests to 10th-graders in Australia,using English, and in India, using Hindi, they foundidentical scores_for both groups. Item analysis of thetest, however, showed considerable variations in theDrder of recognition for specific terms. In one paradimdealing with spatial and relational notions, for ex,ample, the -order for English speakers was_area beforemass; for _Hindi students the corresponding order wasnass before area. In another ptradigm on the physicalrorm of matter, English students scored consistentlyligher on the set of terms about the states of matter

solid, liquid, gas). Hindi students, on the otherDand,_ showed _higher socres for terms dealing with the;ubstructure of the atom (i.e, electron, proton, neu-;ron). Differences in the order of development forwience vocabulary are attributed, at least in part, toinguistk and_ cultural variables in the home lan-pages. Findings such as these have implications foreaching science in ESL. Differences in first languageaid culture may play a role in the development oficientific language to an extent that is generallyiverlooked.

The language of seience is complex, and much has

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ESL and Science I.earning 61

yet to be analyzed in its relationship to the needs of theESL student studying science. However, several basicprinciples should be kept in mind when working withthe LEP student:

1. Students'_ acquisition ofnew terminology or newstructures requires the presentation of these items inscience contexts, not in lists of isolated items;

2. The more1 students are physically engaged inhands-on activities that involve talking about -concepts,the sooner the language of science will be acquired;

3. Simultaneously, language in general will developfrom. the communicative context in which it is used(Mohan, 1986).

Fortunately, much of the terminology and symbolsystem used in science is recognized internationally, afacilitating factor_for the older ESL student with_priorscience instuction in his or her first language. Never-theless, the development of the language of science, orthe scientific register, is a major consideration in usingscience content with ESL students.

Ethnoscience and LanguageCulture, as a term in social science, refers to

learned and shared standards for ways of thinking,feeling, and _acting (Erickson, 1986). Teaching scienceacross _cultures require& ?Airing into account culturaldifferences and considefing how they affect conceptdevelopment.

All cultures have well-developed theories about howthe physical world operates without studying formalscience. Even young children before _beginning instruc-tion in science have knowledge that they use to explainand make predictions about their physical world.Ethnoscience refers to theories and procedures forlearning about the physical world_that have evolvedinformally within cultures th explain and predictnatural phenomena. Children, through membership in

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a cultural group and_ thriougli constraints of develop-ment, bring their theories of etlinescience to the study offbrmal science in the school setting. These folk or naivetheories provide culturally satisfactory explanationsand predictions and by and large_permit successfnlfiinctioning in the physical world. They are, however,difficult to replace or modify in fOrmal science instruc-tion (Champagne, 1986).

One major difference between formal science andethnoscience is in_ the meaning of tkrms.Art example isin use_of the teims velocity and acceleration, From thestandpoint of ethnoscience, these terms are synony-mous. In formal science they are rigorously distill;guished: velocity is the rate of change oUposition,acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Evezi_afterformal science instruction, however, many individualscontinue to confuse these terms in talking about for-ward motion. A further illustration of persistent beliefsabout motion is commonly found in accounts of whathappens to_a ball dropped by _a person who is running.In spite of formal science study, mnriy remain con-vinced that the ball falls straight down, failing to adoptthe basic principle that the ball will continue to move ina-forward as well as downward motion (McCloskpy,1983)

Ethnoscientific thnoHes are generally applicable to amuch narrower range of natural phenomena thanthose of formal science. Formal science, for example,has one theory to explain_both the motion ofa ball in freefall and Ihatof one rolling down an inclined plane.Ethrioscience may have two_ separate theories to explainmotion in these different settings.

In another example of ethnoscieme, M. Smith (1986)points out that Native American Cree and Objibwaypeople traditionally classify plants and animals accor-ding to their function and use. Formal science classifiesthem according to structure. While children univer-sally carry out the process of classification, the systemof classification _made available to them is arbitrary.The classification systems of ethnoscience and formalscience in this case tee both valid, just different.

Ethnoscientific perspectives can influence all of thethinking activities of sciencefrom observation and

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ESL ai4d letiee Leafinibg 63

Classification to _inference and_prediction. Although_fOr,mal_science_typically_presenta_concepta as If all studentaconceptualize _their physicaLenvironment in the sameway and ethnoscience recognizes that students--fromdiverse cultural backgrounds may, in fact, differ inscien ce-r_elatedi _thinking_ _process es,_ the exact _natureand ext&_47- _of _these differences_ is_not _fully understood;In a study_of spatial thinking processes for_Navajo 6th7.and lOtivitratle students, H.G. Cohen (1985) -found -nosubstantial-differences in the -development of-selectedspatial abilities for. American_ _Indian thildreniliving_inthe_ traditional culture_ of _the __reservation when com-pared with- non-American Indian students.

The extent to which science- programs -should- beredesigrped to _make them ethnically_ relevant_ is _a matterof _idebate._ For ESLiand_science _teachers; howeveri_thepiinciple_ remains_ _that _all_ thildren share _a_ _set ofuni-versa! thinking abilities, regardless of first language orculture.- At-the same time,- teachers must be-aware thatcultural- differenvesmay frame the_view_ of _the __worlddifferently for LEP studentsTlie_ learner's _ethno,scientific_ theoiies prosiide _the_starting point for_ scier._-einstruction- and, consequently, for the ESL stutient'alanguage development inscience contexts. Thi, ESLteacher anti_ the_ _science _teacher _both snterinto _thecomplex _role _of bridging_cross-culturel differences andmediating intercultural understanding.

Science and- ESL- -teachers -who -fail to -take intoaccount -ethnoscienctific viewpoints, both. -mAture- andage-related,__caneasiIy_misinterpret the _LEP__student'sability to _understand _the language_ of science instruc-tion; Although-the surface form of the language may- beunderstood, the underlying cognitive -restructuringneeded to change _ a naive_ theory_ may not have occurred.Comnumication _breakdowns_ may _afise, then, _not-fromlanguage but _from conceptual notions about the phya-ical world. The neressary cognitive change may nottake-place unless -or until students :experience a_ socio-cognitive _conflict Sixth _a_conflicti is: triggered by_ a_ _com-bination of _social interaction_ and the use _of manipula-tive materials- for observing- physical events.

Sociocognitive conflict also facilitatea -the acquisitionof a second language. Engaging LEP children in social

64 ESI/CONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

interaction not only creates internal conflict for re-structuring ways of thinking about the physical world,but also provides the language environment needed forlinguistic development.

Language Acquisition Processesin Science Contexts

"Doing science" is a risk-taking activity. Experi-menting With physical realities does not offer preset,error-proof outcomes. It often involves many falsestarts, modifications, restatementS, and the need togather more data as input Thr reformulating hypoth-eses, Laewise, "doing language," or acquiring a newlinguistic system, is e risk-taking activity. Experiment-ing with linguistic elements does not guarantee suc-cessful -communication. Negotiating meaning duringinteractions, oral or written, also involves false starts,editing, paraphrases or restatements, and the need formore input to reorganize or reformulate hypothesesabout the developing language system._ Risk-taking, inscience inquiry orlanguage use, involves hypothesis-testing processes- Such processes necessafily hold ele-ments of uncertainty and the possibility of error orfailure. The science student makes guesses aboutphysical outcomes; the languagstudent makes themabout communicative outcomes. For language learners,guesses apply both to meaning, or what is said, and toform, or how it is said.

As Beet* (1983) observes, nearly all of the attempts touse a new language productively are risk-taking acts.Successful language learners are willing to take theserisks in spite of possible negative consequences. Fran;cisco,fori example, took risks in writing his science labreport. He made many errors in form, including omis-sion of required past_ tense markers, incorrect preposi-tions, pronouns maOxed for wrong number, an incor-rect article, errors in the verb phrase, omission of asentence subject. For Francisco, the consequences werepositive. The teacher praiseJ his efforts and understoodhis intended meaning. EfforWsuch as these graduallyfacilitated the aevelopment of English as he moved from

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ESL afld Meth* Leanthig

the Ai-Wel absence of atademic competence in Englishat the beginning of the year to a level at which hefunctioned with considerable success.

Acquiring a second language is a sociocognitiveprocess resulting from efforts to take paft in com-municative interactions. As the exchange and negotia-tion of conceptual, smimultural, and affective content,science provides a form of social interaction thatqualifies as genuine language use and _thus_ a contextfor language acquisition. Defining language acquisiti3nas a natural, subconscious process that takc.s placewhen the focus is on communication or mt;. ing,Kres1- (1982) argues that this process II ,enttal tosecond language development. The amount raalityof language that the student receives and understandsare critical factors in determining language proficiencyoutcomes.

Science meets _requirements for an optimal source ofrelevant, comprehensible language input, effectivelypositive conditions of high interest and low anxiety, andopportunities to engage in genuine communicativeinteraction. Tapping the thinking processes associatedwith _science sets _conditions for the simultaneousdevelopment of scientific concepts ead language. Insummary, the interaction between science and ES'.74development is threefold:

providing language input to engage thinkingprocesses;facilitating positive affective variables; andstructuHng group interactions in an academ-ic setting.

Language Input

&knee offers a_ j iCularly rich source of input forthe ESL learner. For elementary school students suchas Francisco, it prollides expefieme in the elements ofscientific concepts and basics in the language ofscience. The same could also be said for the secondaryschool and college or university science student; theoverall pFmdples are not age-dependent. Extensive use

72


of gimPhics, definitions of new terms, use of fairlysimple syntactic structures, and explicit and easy-to-understand directions br carryinuout investigationiall contribute _to theiransmission of meanings Inputsucl as this corresponds closely to Krashen's (1982)view of optimal inputcomprehensible, meanintful,and relevant Pictures, diagrams, graphs, and othervisuals typically found in science _teits_and laboratM3,manualt _supply extralinguistic contexts for helpingLEP studenti grasp the intended meaning. Vcwabulary,new to native speakers as well as ESL students is oftengiven with a bold-famd definition or a visual. This eon-tributes to clarifying meaning and provides opportuni-tiet_for the acquisition of terms and related language&rms. EfTecTive science instruction draws extensivelyon a variety of devices, linguistic and extralinguistic, toensure compreheLsion.

Science,in many ways, _helps the ESL learner getthe input necessary for language acquisition. To theolder student with prior science instruction, the basictypes of scientific discourse may already be (muffle;descriptions, reports, instructions for labordtery _proce-durei, accounts of expeliments, and statexnents of con-elusions and generalizations. Recognitioi: of these dis-course forms in a new language draws on imsic scien-tific reasoning processes and helps to make the fie*language input _understood. For youngel studenta notyetfamiliar with these discourse uses of language.,science texts and laboratory manuals present newmeanings in clear, comprehensible language.

In addition to the science te'..cher, the teits, and thelaboratory manuals, the inters, *ion of the ESL studentwith peers also serves_ to generate input. Interactionsdui'mg science investigations cr" for a wide range oflanguage functions, including requesting, informing,seeking clarifications, and making observationg. Fol-lowing directions, tarrying out investigative proce-dures, observing results, and drawing conclusions con-stitute aspects of the genuine_ use of language found inscience. Language used in science conteits suchthese provides a rich source of input for the ESLlearner. The oral language used in science experiencesand the literacy demands in reading textual material,

ESL and Sdence Learning 67

following procedures for conducting investigations, andwriting follow-up reports contribute to the overalldevelopment of ESL.

Affective Variables

High interest and motivAtion, intrinsic to itcientificinquiry, are major contributors to second languagedevelopment. Affective variables such as motivation,self7confidence, and anxiety promote or hinder themental promsses governing language development. Aiieffective language development environment providescomprehensible input in a low-anxiety setting; Sciencemeets these requirements.

When students are actively engaged in science, thefocus Is _on_the_physidalieventa taking place; Languageuse revolVes around relating observations or commu-nicating other aspects of the investigation. Becausestudents taa focusing on what is being saidmeaning4hey are not, paying eXplititattention tO how messagesare expressed-7their form. Errors in language form arepassed over as long as they do not disrupt com7munication. If understanding does break down, variousstrategies may be -used to determine the meaning andcontinue the _activity; Looking_puzzledi_asking_what aword means, and iOpOãtiiig a sentence or phrase with aquestion intonation are various strategies learners useto cope with not understanding. Such coping meeh,anisms, often referred to as strategic competencei areused in abundance_by good_ language learners._ In_ asupportive classroom setting, use of such strategiesdoes not cause learners to become overanxious or feelthreatened. Because science experiences are intrinsi-cally interesting, language:learners:readily use thesestrategies while maintaining positive attitndes andcontinuing to receive the input needed fo-: languagedevelopment.

Affective variables play a critical role in secondlanguageidevelopment for learners of all ages. Attitudestoward the new language and culture may intersectwith the affective climate set in the classroom; Negativeresponses in any of these dimensions can inhibit secondlanguage development, just as very positive ones can

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promote it (Fillmore,_1979).A major role of the teacher, science or ESL, ia to

make certain that students understand intended mean-ings. The teacher also keeps anxiety levels lowered bynot demanding language production preMaturely orrequiring error-free_ production when students try touse the language. Correction is focused on the truthvalue of the language used in terms of scientificaccuracy, interpretation, analysis, creativity, and eval-uation. Many errors in form_ are naturally _eradicated asthe learner develops more of the language system.Errors in weitten activities, including lab reports, maybe addressed through nonthreatening techniques suchas those used in teaching writing, including peerediting and teacher conferencing (Calkins, 1986).

Learner Interactions and Classroom Structure

The classroom structure; which includes instruc,tional style and student composition, can inhibit or pro-mote second language acquisition.

In a longitudinal study of young_thildren acquifingEnglish_ as_ a second language, Fillthore (1983) foundthat a relatively open class structure works only ifenough native English speakers are-in- the class leenable sustained interactions With the ESL learners. Inan open, interactive setting; _the amount of languageinputto :any individnal student depends on the student!sown ability to seek out others in the class who speakEnglish and to initiate some kind of meaningftilexchange with them. Because of_eachilearner's uniqueset of personality :iaradteristics, not all students can dothis equally well. Ifor_ _classrooms with a high concen-tration _of second language learners, a more teacher-centered approach may be necessary, particularly ifAheESL students share the same first language. Theteacher must_then structure and manage the activitiesin such a way as to ensure that each student hasadequate access to second language input.

Science presents extensive opportunities:for studentinteraction. Laboratory workis_a type: of open classroomthat protides enough structure and management tomake conditions for second language development

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FSL and acienee Learning 89

possible even when the concentration of ESL students ishigh.__Science labs normally require students to work

together in small groups. ESL learners doing scienceinvestigations together receive language input andparticipate in meaningful negotiations- Even when theinteraction_ is between _nonnative speaker- of English,the quantity and variety of language practice and theQuality of the process for arriving at an understandingof meaning through group work continue to facilitatesecond language acquisition (Long &Porter, 1985)-

Science labs also provide language learners helpfulvariations fbr getting input. Students often have oppor-tunities in a lab to act as peer tutors. In a study withMexican-American LEP and1 monolingual English-speaking students, Jolmson (1983) found that struc-tured peer-tutor'mg sessions focused on the natural useof English led to significant increases in vocabulary forthe LEP children. In carefully structured setting&signed for exchanges of information_ in English, LEPstudentsfunctioned as tutors for the non-LEP studentsin this study. Science labs provide a similar structure inthe sense that the role of tutor may alternate within thegroup. The ESL student may at times be a tuto_r as thegroup completes all the steps_ necessary for the lab, andat other times be the one tutored. Benefits are derived ineither case.

Peer interaction must also take into accoimt factorsthat can potentially alter its ef&ctiveness. As Cohen andAnthony (t982) explain in detail, classroom socialstattu3 affects the frequency of student interaction.Interaction itself affects the amount of learning. Theyfound that children with higher social status have moreaccess to interaction and that children not fully pro-ficient in English are perceived as having lower status.For peer interaction to be effective, status effects must betreated. One program that has reported effective resultsin modifying status effecti is the Finding Out/Descubrimiento curricultim developed by De Avila andDuncan (1984). This bilingual science/mathematicsprogram makes use of learning centers in whichchildren take turns at various assigned roles. Theygradually understand that new learning draws on not

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just a-single ability but a number of unrelated ones.This multiple-ability approach to peer interactionreduces negative status effects, allowing all students toexperience the significant learning gains from groupiliteractions- Student& learn to use_ one another ASresources _regardless of linguistic differences. Interac-tion in this type of heterogeneous grouping facilitatesconceptual learning for all students. When classroomsare organized so that LEP students have access tointeractive settings, students can acquire both scienceand English simultaneously (De Avila, 1983).

Cognitive Benefits

For children developing a second language atathool, access to two languages appears to_have positiveelfeets on cognitive functioning once students reath acertain threshold level of bilingual linguistic com-ptence (Cummins, 1976). Studies from a wide range ofsociocultural contexts indicate that children who knowtwo languages may _have an advantage over monolin-guals on various measures of cognitive abilities,consistent with Cummins' hypothesis. Positive effectsappear even before the second language learner hasfully_balanced proficiency in_twols.nguages._

In a science education program compafmg mono-lingual English-speaking sixth-grade children withbilingual peers using ESL, Kessler and Quinn (1982,1985) found that bilinguals performed significantlybetter than monolinguals in formulating solutions toscience problems. For this study, physical scienceproblems were presented through 3-minutx film loops.Students then coaftted data by asking yes/no questionsof the teacher. The film session ended with studentswriting as many hypotheses as possibl, in a rigorouslycontrolled 12-minute period. In disvAssion sessionsfollowing presentation_ of the film loops and the writingof hypotheses, children Iearned_low to judge their ownhypotheses and how to make use of their observationsand inferences to generate hypotheses of higher quality.The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problemillustrates an aspect_of divergent thinking. In addition,children using ESL were superior in convergent

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ESL and theienee Learning 71

thinking, as_ seen in the linguistic process of metaphorformation (Quinn & Kessler, 1986). The Similes inFrancisco's lab report relating sow bugs, circles, tires,and armadillos give evidence of this proCeini. Researchon the interaction_ of cognitión and language withscience suggests that bilingual children may enter intodivergent and convergent thinking more fully thantheir monolingual peers.

Drawing on_ interaction between cognitive structuresand cultural experlences, seience provides the externalevents to challenge existing cognitive systems_ bypresenting inconsistencies to existing systems. Effortsto use two languages can alsoL function as a source ofdisequilibrium because competing linguistic codes areavailable to the learner. This conflict leads bilingualindividuals to build new cognitive systems_ at higherlevels. Affect,ve disequilibrium triggers the feeling that"Something is wrong" or that "it _doesn't fit" andcontributes to the _process. For bihngual children, eventhose not fully proficient in the second language, effortSto "make things fit" cognitively, effectively, and linguis-tically in science problem4olving engage brain meths-nismitthat stimulate both language and cognitive devel-opment. This interaction facilitates positive gains lin-guistically and cognitively for all chiltIren, butpossiblymore fully for dual-language users (Kessler & Quinn,1982).

In_ a tudy of 64 Mexican-American LEP third-graders, Rodriguez and Bethel (1983) found that_scienceinquiry facilitated the1 development oL classificationskills and English oral language conithunicatien si-multaneously. In a series_ of SO science lessons thatintroduced seientific concepts by requiring the manip-ulation of concrete objects such as rocki, buttons,blocks, and shells, children learned to make obserVit-tions, comparisons, and descriptioni. They eventuallylearned_ to _group objects on the basis of perceived andinferred attributes. Each lesson introduced srcificterms appropriate to the objects, such as solubility,texture, and permeability. In_ developing the languageof science, children_ Iearned_new vocabulary in context,word meanings, and operational definitions of terms.They learned how to use the precise and descriptive

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languzge of science. Manipulating and classifyingobjects gave children opportunities_ to talk about some-

_they_were doing. _Interactions with peers and theteather were an important _part of carrjmg out theclassification tasks. Having something new, different,and interesting to talk about contributed to oral lan-guage development in ESL. As a_result of the sciencelessons, scores improved_ significantly on a test of clas-sification skills and on a test measuring oral languageskills. The inquiry approach used in this studyspecifically identifies contributions of the following tothe successtuLsimultaneous development_ of cognitiveand linguistic processes in a science context:

use of manipulative materials;teacher's interaction with the children;peer interaction;independent work; anddiscovery of relationships through activity.

The Finding OutiDescubrimiento curriculum men-tioned earlier (De Avila & Duncan, 1984) is a bilingualscience and mathematics program that has beeneffectively implemented in a number of sclools withSpanish-dominant children acquiring English. De-signed for use with small groups, the 130 activities aredivided_ into 17 units covering principles of physics_ andmathematics in a way that_ relates them to thildren'sinterests and experience. By structuring activities toencourage collaborative problem-solving, the programis directed toward development of higher-level cognitiveskills. At the same time, activities also make use of bothoral and wiitten language in Spanish and English.Through concrete experimentation and interaction withthe teacher and peers, students are actively involved incompleting their tasks as thertalk and work together.

A lroject using the Finding Out materials withmvre than 300 children in nine bilingual classrooms inSan Jose, Calif, uades two thrtnk-Th four, indicates anumber of gains (De Avila, 1983; De Avila, Cohen, &lfitili, 1981); The linguistically heterogeneous sampleincluded monolingual Spanish-speaking and English-

79

Eff CM' Acme Leaftiflg

sptaking child vether-with others atvarious levelsof bangual_pforiciency in Spanish and English., Resultsfrom Multicultural Improvement of CognitiveAbilities (MICA) project show that participants madeimprovements not only in cognitive and academicachievements but also inlanguage proficiency.__Successis attributed_to factoraincluding a classroom organiza-tion encouraemg students to talk with each other whiledoing intellectually challenging activities and theavailability of a wide variay of linguistic subgroup& ForLEP children, the availability of peers_who _can provideEnglish_ language input is an important resource.Language proficiency gains are a by-product of prob.lem-solving interactions in linguistically heterogeneousgnmps such as those of the MICA. project The positiveeffects_ of one groupon the other argues for not dividinga class into separate linguistic subgroups for instruc-tional purposes.

A typical activity for the Finding Out curriculum isthe followinLactivity taken from the unit on electricity(De Avila & Duncan, 1984). The teather's guide and allmaterials are given in both Spanish and English. Forpurposes of illustration, the English portion is providedhere.

Title: CONNECT A BULB

Purpose: To investigate circuits

Materials: Variety-of mll-hatteries, insulated wire (with 3 cm ofinsulation removed at ends), flashlight bulbs, pencils,worksheets

Corresponding Operations (Concepts)

Inference: predicting_ which _bulbs_ will_ light _on the basis of priorexperience with batteries and bulbs

Multiple classeWInclusion-excluslon:_ identifying_ working andnonworking ways to connect batteries and bulbs

Infernc: understanding why some arrangements work, some don't;grasping concept of circuitry

30

74 ESUCONTENT-ARIM INSTRUCTION

(Students_working in small groups complete a worksheet to show theways to connect_cfrcuits that will_work.-They are asked to draw circuitsthat work in_the box_on_the left-hand side of the page and those that donot in the box on the right-hand side.)

Suggestions for Teacher-Student interactions:

1. What did you think about when you made your predictions?

2. What did you notice about all the ones that worked? How about theones that did not work?

3. In what other ways do we use circuits? House, school, towns,phones ... ?

Vocabulary: connect, battery, bulb, wire, predict, circuit

The teacher's role is one of facilitator and manager,asking appropriate questions and guiding the chil-dren's experiences as they work in small groups, pairs,or even individually at the learning centers. ESL de-velopment takes place naturally as LEP children do theactivities that emphasize how children think througb aghren problem.

Science Learning andSecond Language Acquisition

Evidence indicates that ESE students can simul-taneously develop new science concepts and acquire anew language. As De Avila (1983) points out, LEP stu-dents will develop science concepts as readily as main-stream students while they acquire English proficiencyprovided that certain conditions are met This point iscritical because it argues against models of languageand science instruction that require certain levels oflinguistic proficiency before the introduction of newscientific concepts. Such models may use science forlanguage development but tap basic, _prior scienceknowledge as a source of input for language acquisi-tion, dealing with new scientific concepts in the stu-dent's first language before introducing them in thesecond language (Penfield & Ornstein-Galicia, 1981).

81

ESL and Silence Learning

In conceptualizing an Integrative Language Devel-opment Approach as a counter-model in which bk.-language proficiency and academic content can developtogether, Milk (1985) identifies two &ideal elements:integration of second language development into regu-lar content-area instruction and creation of appropriateconditions for providing input. SucCess for this model,as Milk suggests, rests_on cooperative learning inheterogeneous small-group settings. This entails:

grouping strategies;alternate ways Tor providing input;_techniques fbr making subject matter compre-hensible; andopportunities to develop language proficiencyfor academic purposes.

Given the necessary conditions, the result is thedevelopment of_ cagnitive/academic _language profi-ciency (CALP), the literacy-related aspects of languageuse necessary for school success (Cummins, 1981,1984).

Evidence suggests foitat LEP student& can developnew scientific concepts in either bilingual or monolin-gual English environments. ESL is used in either case.When the conditions necessary for second languageacquisition are present,English develops along withscientific concepts for LEP students.

ESL and Secondary School Sdence

Ho (1982) tonducted a study of -the relationship.between physics' achievement an-4 the-- language _ofinstruction :with _10th,graders: . Hong Kong;__ Chinesestudents_ who_ were_ taught physics_in _English, theirsecond- language, by. a- nonnative _speaker of Englishlearned the-content of physics as well as peers who wereinstructed' in Chine se,_ their_native_ languagei_ Achieve-ment in physics_ was _not _impeded by_ using _the_ secondlanguage as a- medium of instruction. On an -Englishproficiency test that assessed listening comprehension,English_ structurei v_ocabulaly,_ _reading_ comprehension,and wilting ability, the mean percentile for the Chinese

82

78 ESLICONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

ESL students was 54, an intermediate proficiency level.A case study of the acquisition of ESL by ri native

speaker of Gujarati conducted by Kessler- and Quinn(1984) vrovides evidence of_ substantial English-lan-guage development in the context of a physical sciencecourse. Data from lab reports show that during anacademic year the student moved out of a beginningpreproductive stage, systematically and extensively ac-quiring vocabulary, syntactic structures,- and themechanics of writing. Language development occurredwithout the teacher correcting language forms. Evalua-tions of work rested on the scientific accuracy of thereports. Data ior the case study were 20 lab reportscollected in a physical science class along with personalletters to the teacher in an ESL class during the courseof the year. The Ecience class and the ESL class seretaught by the same teacher. Written data for the labreports_ provide_a source for analyzing the developmentof form-function relationships with emphasis on fol-lowing written directions, identifying materials, de=scribing procedures, making observations, stating hy-potheses, and drawing conclusions. In addition _to anal-ysis of the linguistic system, students' handwilting andthe mechanics of written Englishspelling, punc=tuation, and capitalizationwere examined to gaininsight into acquisition of _English literacy. Letterswritten in the ESL class corroborated language profi-ciency shown on the lab reports.

The students followed a format prescribed by theteacher for all science reports, giving:

the title of the science experiment as stated inthe text;the problenlas synthesized by the student;the materials as listed in the directions;the procedure as summarized from the de-tailed version in the text;the presentation offindinguor observations asdetermined by the actual lab expeeience; andthe conclusions drawn from the data gath-ered.

With this fcrmat, lab reports typically generated lan-

83

guage that in some parts was copied from the text andin others was produced creatively by the student Thefollowing example of a report on the force of fricticmbased on directions found_ in the science text (Bickel,Eigenfeld, & Hogg, 1973) represents the early stage ofEnglish development:

Title: The force of friction and the waight of a Body

Babelm: what happned to the force book.

Materials spring scale; loop of thread; 4 Textbook

Procedure fourtextbook will be_ needed far this_experiment_soshould work_ in groups of four. Find the weight of book by means ofa spiring Soalei And record the weiet

number of book weight of Bookin newton

4

9 N18 N27 N36 N

force of (Friction)in newton

31/-2 N

6 1/4 N1 0 N

12 N

Congusenel the bob* differce neWten and tWice time

The student dearly understoo-d and followed the pro-cedures in. recording the weights aTid _calculating theforce of friction, a&iving at a reasonably appropHateconclusion even though verbalizatik posed problems.Errors are present for both copying i, d productive lan-guage use, but the main meaning ia conveyed._

Du:ing the year the student generated increasinglymore productive language, and the quality of languageLiewi in writing lab reports showed marked changes.The following reporLon the solubility of _sodium chlorideshows the level of ESL development reached by the endof 'he year.

Titals= To Find the Solubility of S idium Chioribe by Evaporating aSaturated Solution

Problem: find soluNity of sbdium chloride

78 ESIJCONTENT4REA INSTRUCTION

MateriaIs 1fla ml graduate; evaporating dish; equal-arm balance; stand;4-inch ring, wire gauze; burner

procedure: 1) find the mass of the evaporating dish, pour the solutioninto the dish

data:

2) Attach_the ring_to the stand so that the ring is about 10cm above the top of the burner

3) When the salt appears to be dry, heat the dish stronglywith the full flam of the burner

1) mass of empty dish 44.2 g2) mass of dish pkis solution 63 :3) mass of solution 21.8 94) mass dish plus salt 51.45) mass cf Salt 7.26) mass of water 14 .6

7) voluma of water (ml) 14.68) solubility of NaCI 49 3

x 100volume of vater

Congulsen: Salt is very solubilq in water.

By this_ st -.ge, the_ student_ paraphrases and_sum-marizes mucL- mire extensively than at the beginningof the year, relying much-less on copy_ing from the text,ELIA fewer errors appear in langaL4gc forms and writingmechanics;

ESL and Elementary School Science

In FranLipico s fifth-grade bilingual class inPearsall, Texas, science was an integral part of thecurriculum. :Lvfdents, usually working with partners,regularly designed their _own investigations. On_thepattern of the high scheol phytkii,al science reports, theyalso wrote up their investigations. Since all students inthe class were classified as LEP, science activities inEnglish were simultaneously ESL activities._ A majorproject of the year was to write, as a class, a series of

85

ESL and &cience Learning 79

books, including two on science. Students wrote andedited their material, adding illustrations where ap-propriate. The teacher provided examples and served asa resource person, but did not correct the work before itspublication.

A typical science report produced by late March ofthat year is the following on using an overhead pro-jector microscope to study insects.

A flea

MATERIALS: one flea; paper, projector miscroscov , two glass slides

PROCEDURE:

1) Getadoracat.2) Than ge1 ti ddrA earand you-can find a bunch of fleas.3) GOt ihi,lVéa with your finger nails and pull it out,4) Rd it in a smalI bag iaioUt-tha size of a cigaz bag.5) Put thin tea ori a glas4 slide and then put the other glass slide on

6) PUt , on the projector microsope.7) Turn on Toe !,2,roleclo! miscrosope.8) Pottit.

RESULTS:

First the flea was little and then the flea was bie. And the flea had like ano44dIs on front of his head. TN; flea had like hair on there feet and onthere back. And the flea is fat but when ifs cut of focus it looks skinnyand little. (iltusfraffon given)

Having started the year basically as nonreaders ofEntlish: these fifth-graders literally wrote their way toreading through this process (Hayesi Ba ith, &Kea-der, 1985).

Researe 4rwidence from teaching, science in Englishto LEP stwieiAs indicates that- both science andlanguage can develop at_thesame_time _when conditionsfor_ effective science inquiry and seconi languageacquisition are met through the classroom structureand management. This goal entails adjustments in thematerials to meet language needs, extensive peer andteadher interactionsi_And intrinsically interesting andcognitively enfiching adivities for the ESL student.

ao ESL/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

Materials for Scienceand ESL Development

MateHals designed specifically for the simultaneousdevelopment of scientific concepts and ESL are not yetwidely available. Io most cases, teachers are left withthe taak of trying to adapt_ texts_and activities designedfor native sp091.-- - of -2anglish. Knowing how to use themateHals E. however, can lead to successfulexperiences . ',,th science and language learning.The physical science investigations by a high schoolstudent, the_ examinations of the environment bymigrant children, the classifications made by third-graders, the hypotheses formulated by sixth-graders,all discussed in this chapter, indicate that science andESL can develop together even_ without uniquely pre-pared materials provided that they are used under ap-propriate conditions.

To help teachers make appropriate adaptations forscience materials, many school districts have developedscience curriculunguides that _serve as 1a resource inworking with LEP students. Written by classroomteachers in many cases, these guides typically givespecific objectives for a lesson, identify relevant vocab-ulary, and _present a met of activities to carry out theobjectives. Following isan example of a lesson tiesignedfor use with kindergartners adapted from a scienceguide for the Northside Independent Schcol District inSan Antonio, Texas (Hayes & Pearce, 1985). It is inten-ded 1for use with a wide range of English proficiencylevels.

Physical Science Strand: ENERGY

Sample Activities:

1) Shake coffee cans and dedde if the sound is loud or soft

2) Listen to a sound made by_ the teacher or leader with_anunknown instrument out of sight of the children. Have studentsidentify the object

3) Listen to a rhythm clapped. Identify it as loud or soft.Reproduce the rhythm.

ESL and &knee Learning 81

4) Make a telephone See what will carry sound vibrations.

5) Make drums Irom_empty _coffee cans-and-oatmeal boxes.Compare the sounds and discuss why one is louder than theother.

Make a xylophone from jars to see and hear how vibrations aremade .

thildren acquiring English, these activities hr:lpto develop concepts associated vrith sminds_along withrelevant vftabulary presented in a meaningful experi-ence- Manipulating objects such as cans or jars, ac-quiring datathrough the senses by listzning to variouskinds of sounds, Classifying sounds into loud or soft,and developing the concept of sound vibration are allpart of scientific inquiry. Communicating data byidentifying objects and describing and contrastingsounds are activities that contribute to_language_devel-opment at the same time Activities au& as Clapping 1.:areproduce a rhythm or following the teacher's direc-tions to make a telephone are similar to those of TotalPhysiCal Response, a methodology for second languageteaching (Aiher, 1982).

For older children who can read in their first lan-guage, Lppiementary matc.rials for the scie ace textmay heili) develop language necessary to participatemore fully in Class_ activities and tit the _same timecontri-te t3 understanding of the science conterli.Kessler and Fathman (1985) developed one su,it setmaterials to1 accompany a commercially avail:. ci-ence _series. Designed te help_students get inefaliingtulinput_ from reading thA science text and from inter-acting with the teacher and peers, the activities draw ona variety of cognitive and language activities.

The following exercise for the unit on electricity andmagnetism for sixth grade illuStrates how_ the text itsintegrated into the reading and welting activities(Kessler & Fathman, 1985, p. 35).

Unit: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Exercise F: Read about conductors t:of electricity on pages 160 and 182of your lioo*. I:Cock4 If eazil of the following things is a geed or a poor

88:

82 ESIJCONTENT-ALTIRk INSTRUCTION

conductor of electricity. Write it in the correct 1:tix balow.

aluminum cxYpp-er wire paperrubber bcfrion eras4r gold:silver plastic

GOOD CONDUCTORS POOR CONDUCTORS

(box for list) (tiox tor list)

1. Why are some_things good conductors of electricity?2. How are poor conductors .Jseful?

The items listed for classification are pictured andlabeled either in the text itself or in the ESL workbook.Before this exercise, students_have completed a _numberof others that contribmte to the gn:Oual buildup of thevocebulary associated with electric currents, circuits,and conductors. As they acquire vocabulary for theseconcepts they can engage- in class inquiry huilt_aroundthese notions. In linguisticanylieterogeneous classes,peers can_servo_as tutors to help ESL learners success;flilly complete the exercises. The teac'ier, peers, text=book, and workbook all serve as sources of -input forlanguap acquisition in the context of science_lessons.

At the secondary school level, a text by Farman andQuinn (forthcoming) is designed to provide ESL orscience teachers with a series- of ideas specifically for14:aching scientific concepts to LEP student& Organizedaround a unifying theme of energy, the text consiste of acohesive set of seini-,e discovery lessons together withsuggested language exercises. All students participateiii e investigations, but the teachcr's exglanations,vocabulary, and language exercises can_be_ direct9:d tothe specific needs of _students at varying Englishlanguage _proficiency levels. The language exercisesfollow a notional/functional approach, relating -lan-guage functions with specific scientific concepts. Eachchapter includes descriptions and directions fOr _threekinds of activities: a teacher's demonstration, a groupactivity, and an individual activity. The teacher'sdemonstration gives students the opportunitr to listenand observe before producing any language. _For thegroup activ:ty, students wo& together in setting up and

.89

ESL and Science Learning 83

group actMty, students work together in setting up andcarrying out a simple investigation. Student interactionis encouraged through observing, recording, and inter-preting the data obtained. For the individual activity,specific directions are given for what to use and what todo. Following each type of activity, suggestions aregiven for language exercise, inchiding vocabulary,what to discuss (listening and speaking), and what torecord (rk:ading and writing). Worksheets accompanyeackof the _physical or life science activities, providingexercises for ESL students at_varying proficiency levels.Drawing on current approathes to both language andscience teaching, the text is intended for use by ESL andscience teachers working individually or as a team. It isdesigned for botb experienced and inexperienced teach-ëi s to give assistance in teaching language while pre-senting content related to the science curriculum.

The following sample activity from the text isexcerpted from the chapter on animals. The scienceconcept for this chapter is to _show _that animals areliving things that move from place to place on their ownpower. Related language functions emphasize male gsuggestions and expressing opinions. Science and lan-guage notes to_tbe teacher_are included 1to provisle anynecessary background in doing the áctivitiës1 Sciencenoix summarize the basic concepts around which thechapter is organized. Language notes give the linguisticbackground for the form and function relationsh;psused in the science content.

Titke: ANIMALS THAT MAKE TRACKS

Activity: Teacher demonstration

Topic: Observing how wme animals make tracks when they move

What to Do: Listen to the tlacher and follow directionts as the teachershows you how tracks are made.

Words to Study:

Beginning: animal; human, tradcs, newspaper, clay, MOW; walk; print,across, sand, mud

Advanced: characteristic, energy of motion, pattern, a set, a series,

84 ESL/CONTENT-AREA INSTRUCTION

What to Discuss:

1) Make suggesticas_to_youuclassmates on how to look-for traCks inplaces outside _of_your classroom_ For example, you migh!. "Whydon't you bok in srmd for tracksr or "If I were you rd Idok in niiid."

2) Suggeitt wiiere you think the best tracks might be found.

3) (*Sabo different track patterns.

4) Ditosss the questions. What are someanimals _that nuake-tractcs? Howare-tracke tilik*? What other tngs besides animals_make tracks? Whatdo tracks-Of dftrent sizes anti shapesiell us? Where are tradis oftenfotitid? Why are tracks evidence of energy of motion?

What to Rikord:

1) Draw a picture of the tracks that some of the students made whenthey we!ked in thett pOwder.

2) Wto the mynas of anirnalt that make tr&ks and the best place to findthe tracks.

(Appropriate forms for making these recordings aregiven.)

Activities continue with a variety of languageexe- vises. Among them are drawing circles aroDndtzriro, identifying and writing the most polite sugges-

: I Set LuidAvritin4 answers to questions based on,restigation of animal tracks.

In subsequent activities, students work, in _smallgroups and, later, independently on further elaborationof the concepts involving the motion of animals and thelanguage functions of suggesting and expressingopinions.

Whether designed for kindergarten, upper elemen-tios,, or secondary schwlstudents, the sample activitiespresented_here are illustrative of how science and lan-guage development can take place together. It ean occurunder the direction of the ESL teacher or the scienceteacher. Successflil implementation, however rests ona number of factors. In addition to classroom structureand management and providing a climate for languageinteraction and input, a key factor is the ESL teacher's

91

ESL and Science Leaning 85

*illingnessi to_ handle basic science concepts or thesilence_ teacher's sensitMty to basic notions of secondlanguage acquisition. For both, it is important to under-stand that the oral exchanges in the science olassroomor laboratory contribute to the-development of listeningand speaking, or spoken discourse. Writing to learnscience (Johnston, 1985) can develop literacy for bothreading and writing. The written discourse found intexts, lab manuals, or student-generated material iscrucial_ for the development of the ability to finictionacademically in ESL

Key Factors for ESL and ScienceCurrent approaches to science and second language

education _based on results of both research andclassroom practice indicate a set of central notionA forrelating science and ESL. Evidence presented in thiSchapter eves particular emphasis 1to the followingreasons why science inquiry can facilitate developmentOf ESL:

1. Science provides the sociocognitive conflict thatspurs 6 ,ivelopment of a new language system.

2 Science provides a source of meaningful andrelevant language input, using hands-on materials andtexts with extralinguistic deAces (diagrams, charts,pictures, other visuals) to clarify meaning.

3. Science provides the positive affective conditionsof high motivation and low anxiety.

4. Seience labs provide extensive opportunities fersmall-group interactions in which students negotiatemeanings and receive comprehensible language input.

5. Silence provides opportunities ibr heterogeneousgrouping with t' t role of peer tutor alternating amongstudentc factors that contribute to input interaction,ard .1 positive affective climate.

ESUCONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

6. Science provides experience with a wide range ofiRguage functions.

7. Science lead L.-) extensive vocabulary develop-ment needed fbr se success.

8. Science Integrates all modalities of languageuse: listening, speaking, reading, and wilting.

9. Science provides literacy-related tasks for devel;opment of cognitive/academic language proficiency.

10. Science uses prior cultural and edueatiolialeiperiences for developing new concepts.

All of these factors taken together reflect -the optimalconditions provided through science for ESL develop-ment. However, classroom integiation of science andlanguage education will necessitate changes in currcntapproaches to teacher preparation. For science educa-tion to affect ESL as fully _as possible, science teachersneed an understanding_ of basic principles in secondlanguage acquisition; ESL teachers need experiencewith basic processes in science inquiry. Althoughinquiry experiences are integral to effective scienceprogr:ims, they ma7 require structural adjustments ina mr ofAvays xder to proMote lafieuage develop-mem.. P.,_th ESLai cience teachers need awareness ofhow rerognize anc make nse of conditions that

acquisition in a content area.Scik:oce gives a rich context for genuin,c: language

use. From a language acquisition PerspectiVe, scienceasinquiry can serve as a focal point around which orallanguage and hteracy in ESL can develop. In seitnce,the ESL teacher can find the content and tonditions toencourage language acquisition. Specifically, from theESL perspective, science offers:

interesting, r.levant. c.id challenging content;opportunitier )r students to negotiate meanings;an abandan otappropriate language input;conditions few keeping students involved;

93

ESL and Science Learning

material fbr de---elopment of readiactivitiesior development of writing; andexperiences with the forms and functions ofEnglish.

3ESL and

Social StudiesInstruction

1161Msa KIngi Barbara Fagani Terry-Bradt & Rod BiorArlington aluntyi Vfrginiii Public &boob

The_ ultimate goal of Engliah as a second language(ESL) programs in the elementary and secondaryschools is to prepare limited-English-proficient (LEP)students fer success in mainstream classes_To a_chievethis goal, the scope of instruction should be broadenough to embrace the languaore and the concepts ofcontent-area subjects. Teaching English is not an endin itself; but only_ a means to an enk the caticaloutcome is bow well teachers equip students to succeedin schml (Saville-Troike, 1984). It has been documentedthat second languao students can develop andstrengthen language skills while acquiring knowledgeand academie skills that are crucial_ for success incontenatea subjects (Lambert & Tuéker, 1972). Usinglanguap as a vehicle to focus on subject-matter contentis an effective way of providing natural exposure to thelank-nage.

This chapter addresses the following areas as theyrelath to ESL and social studies instruction:

why social studies is or should be a component ofESL instruction;

95

ESUCONTENTAREA ThISTRUCTION

curriculum development and program design;

staff development and teacher training; and

efrective teaching strateties and model lessons.

Lanuage and ContentThe lantuage used for academic instruction is

dearly different from the language _used for socialcommunication. Cummins" (1980) two aspects oflanguage _proficiency are: context-embedded, or face4o;face _communication, and context-reduced, or academicceannumicative proficiency. The former_is critical inestablishing sucial relations out-aide the Classroom andincludes paralinguistic aids to comprehension such1 asgesture-- intonation, objects, and people. The latter(conteu-reduced) is essential for achievement inacademic subjects in school and relies on cognition,conceptual development, and the more formal languageused in tettbookt and lectures. Research conducted inCanada_(Cummins, 1982) revealed that LEP childrencan reach native-speaker ability in context-embeddedprealciency within 2 years. That is, within 2 years ofexposure to the target ianguage English), most chit;dren were able_to interact socially and affectively withpeers and_adults. Success in a social context, however,does not guarantee success in an academic environ-ment. For children to perform at a_ level comparable tothat of their English-spealing peers required 5-7 years.There is a considerable gap between the time secondlanguage learners are capable11of communication andwhen they are able to finiction effectively in content-areaclasses.

I. many ESL programs, LEP students aremainstreamed after reaching the "threshold" leveLbydemonstrating social communicative_ proficiency. Thethreshold level is the _degree of language proficiencyneeded for survival in a second language environment.It distinguishes between the language skills mcessaryfor basic oral communication an(' the academic,literacy4elated skills used for instructional purposes

96

ESL and Sodal Studies Instrueion 91

(Chamot, 1983) (see Figure 3;1); For LEP students,academic subjects may pose particular problemsbecause they may not have been adequately prepared todeal with the language_ and skilIS 'necessary forcontent-area subject matten Clearly, ESL programs canplay an active role in promoting the academic languageproficiency of LEP students, thereby increasing the rateof success of mainetreamed second language learner&ESL teathers should try to intkgrate :language _andcommunication skills with adademic skills and criticalthinking. The secona language classroom should beviewed as more than a place for children to developlinguistic competence. It should be recognized as aplace where:students learn how to manipulate, apply,and expand language in order to increase theirknowledge of content-area subject matter. It should berecognized as a place where students develop anincreasing awareness of how to use what they know inorder to understand relationships and &ohm problems;

It is also evedent that mainstream teachers need tobecome more "language=sensitive" in conductingclasses that include nonnative English speakers. Beingaware of ESL1 methoida would_ help_ these teathersincorporate activities that enhance language develop-ment, both oral and written, into content-area lessons.The need for teacher training in content-based Englishinstruction was substantiated by a survey of secondaryteachers wlio onsielered their top priority to bestrategies for ESL instruction in the content areas(McGroarty, 1985);

Chamot (1983) has designed a second languagelearning model based on Bloom's_ taxonomy 1Bloora:&Krathwohl, 19_77) of cognitive domains. In this model(see Fig; 3;1, p; 92), each of the six cognitive levels ismatched with corresponding _linguistic processes, eachsuccessive level building on the concepts end skills ofthe previous one. Both internal (receptive)_ languageskills _and external (productive) language skills areoutlined for each level; The first three levelsknowledge, comprehension, and applicationcomprisethe survival language skills developed by secondlanguage learners as they approath the thresholdlevel.At these stages, students memorize, recombine

, 97


elements, and uie language for real communication.The next three levelsanalysis, synthesis, and evalua-tioninclude the academic language skills that arecritical in content-area instruction. At these stages,Students give and receive information, give explana-tions, make comparisons, relate ideas, draw conclu-sions, express judgments, ana make decisions.

CognitiveDomainTasonomy

1En-oiled&

'.lomprebension

3Application

UnodatioProem

Recalling

ltecoWag

Internal Language MIL

DaciiiiiinatiOn of and nonage toKula', wo rder.. end unanaYsedatnrci: in lanai*. Identifies-tiowlof Weis, letairs, phirian inreadag;

Reeognitiow of and reiptinit tonew': cotions of:- knownwords :and Wrest% in 'latchingand_oralAuttd141. UWtnial frail=lation to and from Li.

--Soda In

irtice:W Limon* eking

Production of single Words andformulaw; imintion of models.liandwritft, ensiling, writing ofknown eeTna from dietitian.

liergance of interianguage/tale-graphic speech; code-swathingaid Li Waster. Writing fromruidelines and recombination dic-tation.

UnctionConunundation of Meaning,fteling and Intention M socialand Jilghlyicontextualized situa-tionsEmergence iof exposiWryand creative wzitinx

UnditraWiding- ninning of whatCommutticatMg is listened to in informil situa-

tionaEmergece Of silent read-ing for basic eomprension.

4Analysis

5Syntheiii

6ESIIIMUOn

Informing

Generalizing

Acquisition of factual informationfrom listening and reading indetonteituilixed situationa.

Use -of information:wetlandthroudi roadiniyandliatening: tofind relationships; make infer-ences,draw conclusions.

Evaluation of accuram_milue,Judging atit:Nlicability of ideas at:wired

reading and listening.

Applintion of actual informationaiMuired M formal, academicspWe*1 and Writing tetanal.

Explanation of reatiataipi,iizference8i and conclusionsthrough formal apse& andwriting.

Of judgments throughineiteh and writing, nae of rhe-

conventioni.

Figure 3.1. Setond Language Learning ModelNofe_From "Toward a Functional _ESL Curriculum in the ElementarySchoor by A.U. Chamot 1983. TESOL Quarterly; 17, p. 462. Copy-right 1983_by Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.Reprinted by permission.

ESL and &vial Studies Instruction

Chamot's Second Language Learning Model if;developmental in nature and provides a basicframework for skills progression. The designatedthreshold level _separates social from academicproficiency. Going beyond the threshold level, there is ahi&_ degree of correlation between the highest threelevels and the critical thinking1 1skiIls that areemphasized in socie studies instruction. Students areoften required to_ draw conclusions, make inferences,determine relationships, and make comparisons inhistorical contexts. Furthermore, the vocabulary andconcepts presented in social studies lessons provide anatural means for developing _higher-level thinkingskills. The terminology and factual information becomethe vehicles &r building concepts and stimulatingdivergent thinking in social studies lessons.

!ntegrating Language and Content_Learning is a holistic process that cannot be

compartmentalized. Too often, specific skills areisolated and taught outside of meaningful _contexts,making it difficult for the learner to "reassemble" thewhole picture in_ applying the slills for real purposes.Language teaching and learning should be1 anintegrated and systematic -process that providesmeaningful content (Titone, 1981). Integrated_ languagearts instniction develops_ oral and written communica-tion_ simultaneously, festering the development of alllanguage skills in meaningful contexts. In contrast,ESL lessons that facus only on structural patterns, forexample, appear to contribute little to students' eventualsucwssin_academic programs (Saville-Troike, 1984).

Furthermore, subject-matter content can andshould be interwoven into languwe lessons. Anderson,Hiebert, acott,_ and Wilkenson (1984) state that the mostlogical place 1forinstructioninreading and thinkingstrategies is in social studies and science, rather thanin_ separate lessons about reading. Although theintegration of reading and subject-matter instruction isnot a new idea, there is little indication that suchintegration is commonly practiced.

99rs.

94 ESI/CONTENT-- INSTRUCTION

Ataher (1982) and Carroll (1967) have documentad thebeneficial effects of natural language exposure forsecond language acquisition._ Social_ studies contentprovides opportunities for natural language learning,allowing ihe learner_to focus on the content or meaningrather than on the structure of the language. Forexample, after students have learned Wout the_voyagesand discoveries of various European explorers, theymay be asked to express points of comparison amongthem both orally and in written form. Using flashcardsthat give key information about each explorer, theteacher can help students form specific sentenceconstructions to axpress comparison. Following aresome sample sentence patterns:

Columbus was a apanish expbrer, and so was BalbmColumbus was a apanish expbrer,and Balboa was too.Both Columbus awd Balboa were Spanish explorers.

Students see_ an immediate application of the linguisticstructures and be able to make similar compari-sons in future lessons.

New information presented in social studies lessonsis often acatalyst for further academic and languagelearning. The motivation for language learning Arisesnaturally as students become involved in understand-ing concepts of history, geography, culture, and_so on.At the same time, socialstUdies knowledge strengthensand enriches an increased awareness of self; the com-munity, and the environment A lesson on westwardmovement in the United States in the_ 1980s, forexample, may activate 4:Auden-tie interest in migrationpatterns throughout U.S. history. This knowledge mayalso lead them to discover more about recent immigantsand where they have settled, and eventually to explorehow they themselves fit into these patterns of movementas newcomers to the United States;

The Role of Background KnowledgeSocial studies plays an important_ role in the

acculturation process of LEP students. When they firstcome to the United States, they are expected to

100

ESL and Social Studies Instruction

participate in classroom settings and th operate withina society that they do not fully understand. Because theymay not be aware of American i=ules and behavioralexpectations, language-minority students are at adisadvantage. LEP students bring with them theircultural framework for social interaction, as well assubconscious assumptions about Acceptable behaviorand_ belief systems. Culture is the context within whichpeople think, exist, feel, and relate to others (Brown,1980), representing a blueprint for personal and socialexistence. People unconsciously learn what to notice,what not to notice,how to divide time and space, how torelate to other people, how to handle responsibility, and,to some extent, whether experience is seen as whole orfragmented. Because their values may be dramaticallydifferent from North American values, foreign studentsmay encounter confusion and conflict trying to adjust tolife in the United States. A social studies class can giveLEP students an introduction to the American exper-ience, helping them to1 understand American valuesand_mlationships with the outside world.

LEP students, naturally, are as unaware of theirassumptions as anyone; each culture has its ownreality (Hall, 1976). These students can neverparticipate fully in American society unless theyunderstand the American reality. It is not anexaggeration to say that one of the ESL teacher'sgreatest responsibilities is to give students tools thatenable them to function effectively in society.

An ESL/social studies class should be concernedwith more thaw historical facts, geography, andterminology. It can promote the development of criticalconcepts of American history, thereby helpingculturally different students to Amderstand their newcountry and its origins. In an ESL/Social studies class,students can learn about the spirit of independence andthe sense of individualism that characterizes Americanbehavior. They can study U.S. laws and institutions thatare, in fact, a reflection of American people. They canidentify with the colonists' struggles for freedom andappreciate the significance of the Bill of Rights as aprotection of this freedom. Students can discover howthe U.S. government functions and what is expected of

1

1 01

ESLICONTENTARFA magritucnoN

responsible citizens. Indeed, the ESL/social studiesclass can b&a_suPPort system for LEP students who aretrying to_ adjust to a new culture. In expanding theirImowledge, the students envision_ a more realisticpicture of the new culture and how they might operatewithin it A more positive attitude and concept of self inturn enhances language proficiency (Oiler, Baca, &Vigil, 1978).

Curriculum Developmentarid Program Design

At the elementau and secondary levels, the ESLcurriculum must reflect the mainstream curriculum.If students_are to be prePared to cope with the academicmainstreaM, they must acquire not only the languageskills, but also the critical thinking and study skillsrequired in content-aret classes. The locally designedcurricula of most school_ distdcts cormlate with adoptedtexts. Generally, sclools set grade-level objectives bysubject area that students must master as they progressthrough the system. School _districts with large LEPpopulations have experienced difficulties in efforts totailor contentearea instruction to meet the needs ofsecond-langnage students. The fbllowing problems havebecome evident:

LEP shy:lentil may not have had social studiesinstruction in their native countries.

Sodal studies concepts may not have been adequatelydeveloped in classes LEP students have attendedpreviously.

The content of American sociaL studies instructionmay differ greatly from that of other countries (theremay be gaps in students' knowledge).

LEP students may lack the English-language skillsneeded to participate on grade level in social studiesclasses.

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ESL and Social Studies Instruction

Social studies materials are often too_ difficult forbeginning and intermediate LEP students (textsassume a specific reading level for each grade).

Teachers may feel unprepared to integrate ESL andsocial studies-instruction (mainstream teachers needtraining in ESL methodology, and ESL teachers needcontent-area preparation).

LEP students are unfamiliar with social_studiesvocabulary and have trouble keeping pace withnative-English-speaking students who have a broadvocabulary base in social studies.

The cumulativenabire of social studies often createssituations in which LEP students fail to grasp conceptsor ideas because they have missed previous instruction.

Integrating ESL and social studies instruction is ivno means easy, but the advantages are dear. LEPstudents who progress in both language andcontent-area skills simmItaneously will make asmoother transition into the mainstream. Programsthat make a firm commitment to integrated ESL andsocial studies instruction may find that LEP studentsdemonstrate greater gains overall and require lessactual time in special English-language classes.Results from additional research are needed to verifythis generalization.

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is a major concern ofproponents of ESL/social _studies instruction. Admin-istrators and teachers need to find ways to createmeaningful learning situations that build on previouslyacquired knowledge and are realistic for the culturallydifferent and LEP student. Through meaningfullearning, new = material becomes an integral part ofexisting cognitive structures (Ausebel, 1963). F. Smith(1975) contends that a learning situation can bemeaningful only if the learner can relate the newlearning task to prior knowledge and if the task itself is

103

ESLICONTENDAREA UsISTRUCTION

related to_ an: existing knowledge Structure.__For :theteaCher -of social studies,-__thiti idea is eitremelyimportant For the-teacher of Social studies classes withLEP studentS__ *he _come from : a widf variety ofbacklroundS, developing this idea-becomes an awesomeChallenge._ Is there a viable solution?_ One_of_the moiteffective approaches -seeing to be_ one _that _makes fewassumptions about Ottidenteprior_knowledgc of socialstudieS Tetteheri Should start with the most baSidconcepts_and gradually develop related ideas intobitader _units of study,

_Rather than adapting ai_fiftli-grade textbook- forfifth7grade LEP Ottidentii, the teacher may want tOdevelop_ii:_Seriei_ of lessons that- incorporateimportantconcept-6_ frem_ grades one through fourorrive,Sttidentswho_ have not yet _grasped- concepta-introduced_ at_ anearlier level -may etpetience_ _difficulty with thefifth7grade_Bodial_ttUdies curriculum. To ensure 'moredepth:of iniderOtanding, particularly as_ -_it_ relates __tohistoriCal _developments and social _studies:coneepts;teachers may need _to_iadopt an approaCh that iscomprehensive and enmulative in nature; This does not

"watered.down7 _approach, but_ stresses theneed: ler_ the: _learner_ to be given an= opportunity_ _toacquire fie* kneWledge in- a meatingfuLand releVaritfathion, rather -thanin tLpiecemeal_approach,

Many_ of the Significant__ events arid historicaldevelopmenta_ &Wavered _in socialstudies lessons can__berelated to fundamental concepts that-may_ apply to avariety of _situations and settings, Before _beginning aunit on the -American CiViLWar, __for example, theteacher should ditentis_the idea_ that differences tkileventually: lead to_ conflict Students may __Wellunderstand this concept from their__own___per6ozialexperielices. This understanding_canibe_extended intoan exploration- of their thilitkOness of social political:_ _ -and economic differences among -groups of people andnationalitiet__The teieher can then focus: on__specifiefacta related_ to_ differences between the _Muth and Senthiii _the antebellum period, whieh_eventually led_ to- theCivil War. A basic tondept tan thus become the startingpoint for a sOtialattdies unit An appreciation of suChfundamental toneePts and their role throughout hiOterY

104

ESL and Social Studies Irsmtclion

is an essential component_of social studies instruction.Students who memorize facts and figures, but fail tocomplizend the important concepts, will not reallymaster the content of social studies. In addition, byrelating the current unit of study to the students' ownbackground knowledge, the teacher promotes under-standing and stimulates enthusiasm for the topic. ESLstudents, for example, may not be keenly interested inthe Confederacy in the 1860s, but they will probably beanxious to- discuss their own personal problems withbeing "different." The teacher capitalizes on theseexperiences by tying them into the social studies conceptand the events leading up to the Civil War.

It is important to understand that the content-basedESL curricula are not a substitute for the mainstreamcurricula, _but are a_ preparation for them. Thelanguage of the _modified curicula may be simplified,but not at the exclusion of higher-level thinking skills.Curriculum developers should examine the require-ments of the mainstream curricula and determinewhich objectives are essential for academic success.ESL and social studies teachers can plan staff develop-ment activities that enable them to share strategies andresources in order to implement the curricula in themost effective and efficient_way possible. Quite often,curriculum writers of ESL/social studies programsdevelop model lesson plans to illustrate how teacherscan relate content-area information while reinforcinglanguage and communication skills. No matter howmuch advance planning is done, however, it is dudngthe actual implementation process that a great deal isdiscovered about integrating ESL and social studiesinstruction. Teachers' real experiences help them tounderstand and assimilate successful instructionalpractices.

Other sthool systems With large concentrations oflanguage-minority students have elected not to separatethese learners from native speakers in the content-areaclasses. Instead, mainstream_ teachers have beentrained in _ESL_ methods and provided with adaptedcurricular materials fbr the second language students.

Faiffax County, Virginia, the close collaborationbetween ESL teachers and social studies teachers has

05

1(XI ESL/CONTENT-44MA ]NsintranoN

created an effective instructional setting for LEPstudent& In such situations, however,_it is imperativethat educators from the two -disciplines work closelytogether to provide a balanced, methodologically soundsocial studies program fbr these special-needs students.

Choosing a Progranl

Generally speaking, the specific type of ESL/socialStudies progranz that is adopted by any school districtdepends on several variableS: the size of the LEPpopulation, the distribution_ of the LEP studentsthroughout the district, the educational backgrounds_ofthege students, the human resources available, thespecific expertise of staff members; mandatedreQuirements of the schooliyitteM, and the amount offinancial support available. Because no two schooldistricts' needs and_ reseurces are identical, a variety ofSolutions to the problems of ESL learners in socialstudies classes has arisen. Indeed, it is extremelyimportant that any system_ assess its own needs beforeimplementing a new pro&Eim, whether it is an entirelynovel idea _or one that is patterned after other modelprograms already in operation.

School systems with large and growing numbers oflanguage-minority_ students May opt for some type 1ofcontent-based ESL insteuction that places the ESLlearners in special or "sheltered" social studiescourses. Locally designed curricul0 may provide theinstructional framework for such classes. Thecurricula are based on the Mainstream curriculumwith grade-level objectives and specific exit criteria.Textbboks with a lower reading level are usedL so thatthe LEP student can comprehend reading material butstill benefit from the necessary application of studyskills in such content-area texts. When the proficiencylevel of the second language learners preclizdes the useof such texts, adapted materials are used. Developmentof simplified instructional matezials requires consider-able time and creative talent, but Vithout adequateteaching materials, the success of the ESL/socialstudies classes may be undermined. Experienced teach-ers have also discovered that lower grade-level sup-

106

ESL and StYcial Studies Instruction 101

plements to social studies programs are often appro-priate.

School systems with smaller LEP studentpopulations may choose to keep these learners in themainstream, providing them with additional support asneeded. Specially trained social studies teachersan behighly effective, and the influence of the _native Englishspeakers on language acquisition cannot be under.stated. In these situations, community volunteers(perhaps bilingual) and peer tutors may be a possibilitywell worth exploring. These paraprofessionals 1andstudent teachers can provide valuable individualizedassistance to the language-minoHty students.

Model Programs

School districts with a heavy influx of secondlanguage learners have begun to look towardcontent;based ESL instruction as amiable and_preferableapproach for educating LEP students. Several differentprogram designs have been developed and im-plemented. In the Arlington (VA) Public Schools, atremendous influx of language-minority students in the1970s led to unique problems. Not only did thesestudents require extra help in learning to speak, read,and write in English, but they also needed additionalsupport in order to function in content-area classes. Thefact that many of these newcomers were deficient inprevious schooling experience componnded the difficul-tiesAhey encountered in American Classrooms.

The High Intensity Language Training (HILT)program was developed in Arlington to serve thelanguage-minority students in grades one through 12.At both the elementary and_secondary levels, the HILTprogram provides instruction in mathematics, science,and social studies as well as language and com-munication. The purpose of the content-area classes isto expand students' knowledge of vocabulary andconcepts while strengthening the study skills andcritical thinking skills necessary for success in contentelesses in the mainstream. By preparing students withthe academic "prerequisites" and by xposing them_ tokey concepts and terminology, the HILT program helps

;

ESUCONTENTAREA INSTRUCTION

second language learners feel more comfortable inmainstream Classes and boosts their chances to excel insubjecti such as U.S. historyi_and government.

The HILT progyam in El_Pitso, Texas, follows asimilar approach in preparing LEP students for_ themainstream- In this program, students are firstenrolled in special English classes that teaCh content-area vocabulary and concept& The second phase is"sheltered" coutent-area courses, which are grade-appropriate but designed for second language learners.Finally, the students are placed into mainatreamclasses with their English4peaking peers.

In the state of California, "sheltered" English andcontent=area courses are being implemented in manyschool districta. Sheltered English is a teaching Methodin whieh core curriculum (mathematics, reading,sócial studies, etc.) is presented to LEP students usingspecial techniques to ensure that the content isunderstood. Instructors may modify !Ions (breakingdown content information), simplify 1.guitge, makeuse of a variety of visual aids, eneourage studentinvolvement, and make frequent checks fil_rcomprehention. Beginning LEP students receive ESLinstruction as well as sheltered mathematics andscience. The San Diego City _Schools Engliah for LEPStudents (ELEPS) program_ includes a comprehensiveoutline of topics that develop basic skills as well as thecontent areas._ Instructional materials for shelteredsocial studies Classes have been locally designed, andsample Units are available upon request. Educatorshave expressed widespread satisfaction with thesheltere&English program in terms of gains in Studentknowledge of subject matter and overall progress insecond language acquisition.

Program Evaluation

Evaluation of the effectivenessof ESL Programs andof LEP students' progress is critical to continued-improvement and success, but the method andinstruments used for evaluation require carefulscrutiny. By Virtue of the fact that their English islimited, LEP students do not perform as well as

jos

ESL and Soaial Studies Instruction 103

mainstream students on standardized_ tests such as theSRA (Science_Research Associates) and the CaliforniaAchievement Tests. Furthermore, differences and defi-ciencies in educational backgrounds and experiencescontribute to the difficulties LEP students have withstandardized tests. On the -other hand, standardized testresults can provide helpful evaluative and comparativeinformation regarding LEP students' progress.

Content-based ESL programs must provide for someassessment of student mastery of specific program andcurricular objectives. This assessment must recur andbe consistent from year to year. Such evaluativeinformation and feedback is absolutely necessary forappropriate curricular and programmatic decisions.Evaluation is the foundation for future Planning,ongoing improvement, and Modifications.

Unfortunately, few testing instruments areavailable that might be used to evaluate LEP students'social studies knowledge. Most school districts uselocally developed tests to monito r. students' progress, butfew, if any, attempts have been made to collectsubstantive data for statistical purposes. It is hoped thatfurther research and collaboration among educatorswill result in some standardized evaluation instru-ments for this purpose.

Staff Development and Teadhet TeaihingRegardless of decisions made for curriculum

development and program implementation, the key tosuccessful learning on the student's part is the teacher.It is absolutely essential that teachers of ESL/socialstudies classes have knowledge of second languageacquisition and ESL methodology. These teachers alsoneed to become familiar with the cultural backgroundsof their students and to develop sensitivity in workingwith culturally different learners M the school setting.,These teachers will need to increase their awareness ofvarious learning styles _and their influence on languageacquisition. Teachers of ESL/social studies classes needopportunities to share ideas and experiences with otherteachers, as well as sufficient time to explore new

109


instructional strategies, materials, and resources. Staffdevelopment is a necessary component for any schoolwith an LEP populatiOri, particularly if curricular orprogram innovations are being instituted to serve thigLEP population.

One way to meet these curricula and staff nee& isthrough the forthatiOri of "technical teams." ThePurPose 6f a technical team is to develop curricula andmaterials for an ESL program and provide staffdevelopment in response:to program needs identified byteachers. Each need is defined, the tasks necessary tomeet the need are outlined, and the needed product isproduced on an ongoing basis by the technical team.While the curricula and ilitterialt are being developed,staff development is provided through team interaction,demonstration, and training provided by staff membersand consultants. Much of the planning for curriculumrevision is done during the school year, while the actualwriting of curriculum guides and teaching materials iscomTleted 1during the summer month&

In Arlington,_ fOr example, a group of teachersWerking with beginning speakers of English at thesecondary level identified a ne_ed for social studiesmaterials written on a primer/first grade level. Thisgroup _met for a brainstorming session on what neededto be develePed and how. By the end of this session, atechnical team had teen formed and was ready to beginwork. It was decided that _a_ social studies reader withan accompanying_consumable workbook would bedeveloped. The team also decided that it would surveyK-4 social studies texts written for native speakers inorder to decide what concepts and voatbulary needed tobe included. When thig task was_ completed, the teambegan _to writh units. A teacher with artistic talents wasinvited to join the team so that the materials would beillustrated. The materials were completed during_ asummer curriculum miject and piloted during thefollowing school year. The team surveyed the teacherswho had used the Pild thaterials and made appropriaterevisions on the basis of the teachers' comment& Littlewas changed in the way of content or illustration, but itwas decided to make the workbook a two-part series. Adetailed teacher's guide was also developed. Five years

11.9

ESL and &ocial Studies Instnietion 105

later, these social studies materials are still in use, andteacher satisfaction with them is high.

Effective Teaching StrategiesThe experiences _of Arlington's ESL/social studies

teachers since the inception of the HILT program havecontHbuted to an increased awareness of 'what works'in these content-area classes. Specific teachingstrategies have_proven_to be highly effective in reachingLEP students. Some of these strategies are discussed inthe followin& section, with practical suggestions 1forincorporating these strategies into social studieslessons included in the discussion. These strategieswere not devised strictly as ESL methods. They areintended to show how teachers can adapt someconventional instructional activities to take "languageadvantage" of social studies lessons._ The 1stratcgiesillustrate how teachers can readily use social studiescontent to enhance language development and,conversely, how teachers can use language classes as ameans of expanding social studies knowledge. It isevident that content-area subject matter provides a richbody of knowledge through which creative instructionalactivities may emerge.

Use of Manipulatives and Multimedia Materials

ESL programs that include a social studiescomponent must create a learning environment rich inmultimedia materials and manipulatives., Many of theconcepts presented in sociaI studies lessons are abstractideas thatmay be particularly difficult for nonnativestudents. Pictures provide students with visual exper-iences that transcend language barriers. For example,describing a scene from an old western mining town inthe 1850s ia simply not the same as showing aphotograph or picture of the scene. When languageproficiency is a problem, verbal or written descriptionsare inadequate and need to be supplemented withpictorial representations. The visual image makes animmediate impression on the viewer and does not rely

14:N3 ESLICONTENDAREA INSTRUCTION

solely oii an oral or written explanation that may eludeLEP students. Without such visual experiences,teachers cannot know whether they have reached allstudents- with important ideas and information.

Real objects or historical artifacts that reinforcesocial studies concepts provide students with tactile aswell as visual experiences. Concrete objects bring ideasto life and make1 learning exciting and fun. Byincluding kinesthetic activities in content-area lessons,the teacher may reach students who are at the lowestlevel of English proficiency and thoie who arepredominantly experiential learners. A discussion ofthe common tools and household objects of the early18th century, for example, does not have the 1sameimpact as a display and demonstration of these objectsand how1 they were used. Such a display anddemonstration is a memorable experience that studentscan relate to new vocabulary and concepts.

A wide vaiiety of media materials for social studiesis aviilable in most public school libraries. Large-sizedstudy prints and picture sett keyed to_ specific themesare useful for relating information, and stimulatingthinking in the classroom. Filmstrips are easilyadapted for use with LEP students because the teacherCin take advantage of the viSual eiperience whilealtering the actual text to accommodate for differentlevels of English proficiency. Numerous 1-6mm films forSocialstudies are also lavailable but must be chosen withcare beeituse the language is often beyond what LEPStudents can comprehend._ Ideas presented in filmsdepicting historical events or processes may makereading and writing assignments associated with theseideas less difficult to process (Sinatra & Stahl-Gemake,1983). In addition, periodicals such_ as "National Geo-graphic" serve as excellent supplementary resourcesfor social Studies lessons. Vivid photographs and cur-rent themes Make such resources a perfect complementto other instructional materials.

Language Experiences

Shared experiences initiate the desire for com-munication. In the ESL classroom, the teacher can use

ESL and Social Studies Ituaction 107

concrete experiences as stimuli for language devel-opment._ In_ the traditional language experienceapproach, the teacher encom.ages spontaneous lan-guage from students that eventually becomes thefoundation for a written story (Lee & Allen, 1963).Because LEP students may have extremely limitedabilities in spontaneous oral English, the teacher maywant to adapt this approach. In an adapted languageexperience lesson, the teacher lvcomes a_ participant inan activity with the students. In advance, she targetsspecific vocabulary, structures, and concepts to incor;porate into the lesson, and during the active experienceshe elicits this language from student& Throughout theexperience both spontaneous and_ guided language areevidant, and _literacy skills are encouraged with the useof _flashcards and sentence strips for languageproduced. A story created by the class with the tkacher'shelp is a natural follow-up.

Social studies lessons lend themselves well to thisapproach. In a unit on democratic government, forexample, the teacher may want to stage an election ofclass officers to illustrate voting procedures and theconcept of representative democracy._ During and afterthe election, the class can discuss the process and theteacher can help them put their ideas into writing. Theexperience itself makes an impact on the 1students,helps clarify meaning, and assists in long-termmemory. Research on the kinesthetic memory systemindicates that when the body is actively involved in thelearning process, ideas and concepts are integratedrapidly. Learning by doing is highly eff'ective (Wayman,1985).

The following -hnothetical example is_ included toillustrate how an ESLTsocial studies teacher can turn toexperiences to clarify the meaning of new concepts.

In an intermediate-level ESL socialAtudies classstudying the role of the Constitutional Convention inwriting the U.S. Constitution, the concept of reachingcompromises to make decisions may be an entirely newidea. The social studies teacher needs to determinewhether the students can either recall aspects fromtheir own experiences that might be similar, such asthe various lawmaking bodies of their countries. If the

113


_ _ _students da not clearly understand this topic,_then theteacher must create an everience that the students candraw from later. For example, the students could role=play various_ scenes froth colonial times, when powerwas concentrated in the hands of a few. They _couldrepresent different interest_ groups, esch arguing tohave certain laws passed.17iith the teaeher as facili-tator, the students will cothe to understand that theymutat compromise or give up certain wants if anyprogress is _to be achieved. Once the students haveunderstood the concept of compromise,_the teacher canproceed with the lesson on the Constitution and how itslaws were created.

Managing Multilevel Classes

Matt_ESL and clássrOOth teachers: have experientedthe_difEculty_af working with multilevel elaSses.__Therange of abilities can bei as great_st_foittliefiVe readinggrade levels. Teachers leel_thatithanY subjects must betaught -in small _grotipi ill Order to meet individualneeds. However; the:wide range of English praficien_cylevels-does not completely preclude total=graupinstruc-tion. Because:many social studiealessons may _be in theform -of directed _teaching_and _di-id-ft:Won; they-provideexcellent opportunitied= for:involving :the whole class.Sttidents at_ lower proficiency levels benefit -frain__theexposure _to _the language_ provided by_ the moreadvanced students during_ oraLlanguage ititivities- anddiscussions. Students_ at_ adVitheed levels benefit fromthe- increased amodzit_ Of reinforcement of vocabularyancl_ concepts that is provided for beginning-levelstudents.

Creative:drama,: rale,plaYifig,_ hands-on exper;iences, field trips aiid Music and art projects are-zomeof_ the many activities that:can be implemehted in themultilevel_ ESL/social studies: _elkaaroom. Theseactivities challenge andientith Ell Students, regardlessof language_ proficiendyiiii English.. Because_of differinglanguage _and" abilitY: levels,: students may nat comeaway from_ a lesson or activity withiexaCtly the samegains in knowledge, but they all Will have be-tefitedfrom the experiences.

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ESL and &oda' Studies Instruction 109

Directed Reading Thinking Activity

The Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is ahighly effective strategy that can be applied in socialstudies lessons for LEP studentS. The three main stepsof a DRTA are to predict, to _read, and to prove. Thesesteps motivate students to apply higher-level thinkingskills. By brainstorming with the class before readingabout a specific topic, the teacher fmds out how muchthe students already know abvut that topic._ Thisstrategy is especially useful with ESL classes because ofthe variety _and range to be fOund in their background1=7:ledge and experiences. By encouraging students topredict what might be in the reading, the teacher asksstudents to call on prior knowledge that might be usefulin this assignment. Students are immediately involvedin the topic through oral discussion and are anxious tomake appropriate "guesses" about what will be in thereading. As they read, students may have to revise theirpredictions, and they are challenged to make cor-rections in their own assumptions, weighing andevaluating what they know with what they read. In sodoing, old information is assimilated into new informa-tion, and cognitive growth occurs. The teacher guidesstudents through this activity and follows up on thereading with questions to check comprehension ofsubject matter. By this means, the teacher can find outhow much the students actually understood and howwell they can respond to probes of the subject matter.

The DRTA might be used for a lesson onimmigration to the United States in the early 20thcentury, BefOre assigning a reading, the teachermaydiscuss ESL students' own experiences with immigra-tion. The class rtight then discuss all the photographsor pictures presented with the reading. They shouldcompare and contrast their personal experiences withwhat is depicted. Then they might read through thepassage in a step-by-step manner with the teacher,stopping at appropriate places to make predictionsabout what might follow. Finally, the teacher will helpthe students to discover how accurate their predictionswere and to summarize what they have read.

11 $


Semantic Webbing

Outlining and note-taking are advanced study skillsthat require students to summarize important ideas inspecific formats. LEP students lften have troubledeveloping outlines and taking notes because they mustcomprehend the entire message (given orally or inwriting) before they can extract the main ideas andimportant details and arrange them_ in an appropriateform. Semantic webbing itLan_extremely helpful way toteach students how to PerCeive relationships andintegrate information and concepts within the context ofa main idea or topic (Freedman & Reynolds, 1980). Thegraphic representation afforded students by semanticwebbing bridges the 4ap _between _Concrete images andmore abstract ideas. The Care of a web is a key questionor term that establishes the purpose of the reading ortopic for discussion. Following an oral discussion or areading, students construct web strands and websupports by putting _key words Or phrases in boxes or insome other visual arrangement The boxes can then beconnected to illustrate relationships or subheadingsunder the main idea(s). Such a visual schethehighlights important ideas and Categories, greatlyaiding overall cornprehefisión.

An examPle of semantic webbing follows:

Stamp Tax

1

taxation vvithoutrepresentation

REVOLUTIONI

quartering Britith toldieit Boston Massacre

Boston Tea Party-Sons of Liberty

In this diagram, students list eventaand key wordsabout the Revolution in a web format This web_ can beextendect to include new Wail-nation and additionaldetails. Students can order events chronologically toshow sequence, or draw diagrams to Show cause-and-effect relationship& The web germs as a graphic modelthat stimulates students to expand on their own ideas informulating concepts. For learners who have difficultyperceiving relationships between main ideas and

ESL and Social Studies Instruction 111

details, the spatial arrangement helps crystallize theconcepts.

SQ4R

The SQ4I1 method fRobinson, 1962) is an effectivemeans for teaching students how to outline newinformation Presented in a specific chapter in a socialstudies text. It is highly recommended that studentsdevelop skills in using this method early in the year,because it encourages_ them_ to organize and summarizenew information systematically and independently. Itsvalue fbr LEP students is that it teaches them a specificand routine method for breaking down difficult readingmaterial. The steps for SQ4R _are the sufvey, questions,and reading, reciting, recording, and reviewing.

Survey. Students skim the chapter for an overview oftopics and material. They read subtopics,_look at visualsand graphs, and read highlighted vocabulary.

Questions. Students fold notebook paper in half(vertically). On the left side, they list any questions thatcome to mind about the first subheading in the chapter,thereby establishing a purpose for reading. Forexample:

Spain's Empire Grows [subheading]

- lifur e _was Spain's entyire?

= What fitis& were in the empire?- Haiti ituf the empire grow?- When id thiS happin?

Reading. Students read the text under this subhead-ing to learn about the new topic and to answer thequestions they had.

Reciting. Students try to answer as many of theirown questions as possible from infbrmation gainedfrom the reading. These rtsponses should be oral inorder to reinforce the new information.

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112 ESUCONTENT;AREA INSTRUCTION

Recording. Students write down answers to theirquestions, making the transfer from oral to writtenlanguage.

Reviewing. Students immediately review what theyhave written. Then they are ready to move on to the nextsubheading and repeat the SQ4R process.

By continuing through the chapter with thismethod, the students will have _created their own studysheet containing pertinent information about thechapter. The folded question sheets they have developedcan_ be used by the teacher to test students on newmaterial, providing a means of evaluative feedback.

SQ4R motivates students to deal with new informa-tion independently and efficiently while strengtheningtheir note-taking skills. For LEP students in main-stream classes, this is one approach to difficult socialstudies texts that present heavy loads of new conceptsand vocabulary.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Limited Engliih Proficiency will undoubtedly ham-per students when they take notes in class, answeressay questions, and write reports. Moreover, repro-ducing lessons learned by Tote or material produced bycopying (methoda_many students used in their nativewhools) is unaccePtable in most American classrooms.Therefore, Paraphrasing and summarizing are essen-tial skills for LEP student& Too often, teachers assumestudents will develop these skills independently, when,in fact, these skills must be taught and reinforcedthrovgh repeated Practice.

One aativity that shows students how ideas can berestated is called "Who said this?" After teaching a uniton the causes of the American Revolution, the teachergives students a list of statements and asks them_ toidentify the speaker of each one as tither King Georgeor Théthas Jefferson. Sample sentences could be, Irefuse to pay taxes if I can't _elect my own leader or Iinsist that the tolonists pay a higker tax on tea. Afterstudents have labeled the statements by speaker, they

11 8

ESL and Sodal Studies Instruction 113

can list the reasons for their answers. Students shouldbe told that they are actually paraphrasing what theyhave read. As a, follow-up activity, students can writethree sentences that summarize the causes of theAmerican Revolution. LEP students at a more advancedlevel could be asked to write a chapter summary by firstskimming each paragraph for _the main idea andjotting it down.:They might then restate the idea in theirown words and use these restatements for a chaptersummary.

Writing in the Content Areas

Social studies lends itself well to the development ofwriting skills. Recognizing that_ there are differentlevels of response in writing, teachers can incorporatevarious expository wi=iting activities into sonial studieslessons. By following the writing process of brain-storming for ideas, organizing, prewriting, proofread-ing, and rewriting, teachers helix students learn how toexpress themselves on paper. The richness of socialstudies vocabulary and concepts provide& a great deal ofcontent for generative writing. In applying this vocab-ulary in writing exercises, students also_ receive re-inforcement of grammar and reading skills. Con-troversial topics that may arise in social studiesdiscussions often stimulate the expression of ideas andpersonal opinions and can challenge students to writemore effectively and persuasively.

Study Skills

Social studies classes afford excellent opportunitiesfor developing students' study skills. Following direc-tions, reading maps and charts, outlining, note=taking,using textbooks, preparing oral and written reports,interpreting cartoons, and using library references areamong the skills that can be reinforced in content arealessons. While learning new subject matter, studentscan_apply_specffic study skills for specific purposes. Inso doing, they are not only learning new material,_butthey are also strengthening skills that are essential foracademic success. Social studies content provides a

119


meaningful context for the application of such study

Model LessonsThis section outlines model lessons for elementary

and secondary levels. These model lessons are meant toillustrate how a variety of teaching strategies can becombined to create unique _experiences that stimulatestudents' interest and promote the learning process.Teachers are encouraged to experiment with ideas andapproaches as they develop their own lessons aroundsocial studies themes, for there is no one single best wayto teach content-erea subjects to language-minoritystudents. The most successful lessons are the ones thatincorporate a valiety of strategies and activities intocarefully planned learning experiences.

Objective

Model Lesson- Elementary

To provide students with an understanding of the_origin and traditions ofthe Arneri-can Thanksgiving holiday, and to_help students develop anappredation for this holiday as part of American CUitae;

Grade level

Primary (could also be adapted for upper elementary classes)

Materials

Simple_illustrated book on the First ThanksgivingPicturesotIndians, Pilgrims, Thanksgiving foods, the feastConstructiompaper, crayons, scissors, paper bagsPatterns for puppetsof Indians and PilgrimsSamples of Thanksgiving foods

Target vocabulary

Pilgdms turkey thankfulIndians feast togetherThanksgiving harvest celebration

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ESL and Racial Studies Instruction 115

Vocabulary naed not be limited to these words during discussions ofthis lesson;_but _the teacher will want to make sure_ that the targetvocabulary is_clearly illustrated/or-explained, because these words arecrucial to the overall understanding of the lessons.

Procodure

ArotAfation: The teacher begins with_ a discussion of celebrations,eliciting responses from students about, celebrations they haveexperienced in their native countries *r in ihe _United States. Theteacher asks students about the meaning of _these celebrations and howthey might have changed over time. Teacher asks students what theyknow about an AMerican Thanksgiving; Words and ideas are written onthe board.

Throughout this discussion, the teacher will want _to_displayappropriate pittUres and write important vocabulary on the board; Theteacher will encourage all students to participate, sharing thefrenthusiasm tor familiar holidays and celebrations. Oral language andaural comprehension are promoted through a lively discussion.

Informatton: The t.iAcher reads a simple story about the FirstThanksgiving, drawing attention to illbstrations that help clarify meaningsand the oonimpts being taught. StUdents are invited to discuss the storyand_ ask questions about words or concepts they do not fullyunderstand._ The teacher may conduct some oral drills to reinforcevocabulary or syntax. The teacher will want to firid out if this story relatesto any of the_students! own first-hand experiences. For example, havethey ever attended_a dinner that honored some other group of people?have they aver had a dinner to express thanks or appreciation forsomething or someone?

The teacher_rnay want_ to show a filmstrip depicting the FirstThanksgiving. These pictures will further students' awareness Of _whatconditions were like during this time ancimotivate them to ask questions.Students can be asked to writedown ideas and new words as they VieWthe:filmstrip. At the end; they may summarize what they have seen, bothorally arid in writing.

Practfce: The teacher provides materials-for students to makepaper-bag puppets of Indianaand Pilgrims;_Students are_encouraged totalk as they work on their puppets. When puppets are completed,students role-play parts as Indians and Pilgrims, reenacting the FirstThanksgiving. The teacher may want to provide sampla dialogues ifstudents have trouble getting started on this activity. Students can bepaired up to give them maximum opportunities for dialogue

The teacher then shows students some samples of typical

121


Thanksgiving foods such ascrenberry SSUCO, Corn bread; pumpkin pie;and so on. _The_teacher :talks abOut hoW thété foods are made _andwhere they come from. Students explore the fob& by smelling, tasting;and touching (forsense of toxture) them. The teacher elicits descriptiveadjectives Inihe discussion_of these foods, and Studentt tell whether ornot they like the _foods; _All such activity generates language andStimulates vocabulary development.

Eflitchment end exiension:_ The teacher may Want to set up aWrigLiage experience activity_ in which students make some of_ theThanksgiving foods (pumpkiripie;_forexample). Throughout the activity,the tetcher prompts students _to practice vocabulary and sentencepatterns, using flashcards andsentencestrips as needed visualreirifortement. Students learn aspecific sequence of steps for makingthe food(s) and are then able to give simple directions for theprocedure(s).

The teacher may want _to trybaving an in,class Thanksgiving_dinner.Students participate in preparing foods and setting the table. Studentsalso share ideas:about being thankful; perhaps writing down some oftheir ideas to exchange with classmates._Following_the minicelebrafirstudents can write simple descriptions of the preparation and actualdinner.

Integration with Other &Mid Areas

MathematicsStudents learn the tong "Ten Little Indians" and dosimple word problems with ThanksgMng Vocabulary.

ScienceTeacher reviews the four food groups, and students learnwhich Thanksgiving foods fit into each category.

Reading/wrifingStudents make "pictiOnariet" of Thanksgiving words;USing alphabetization and spelling skills.

Alt and drama-_-Students make simple costuMet and stage a simpleproduction of the First Thanksgiving.

MOdel LessonSecondaryObjective

To_provide_students with an understanding of why_ Spain_decided toexplore_the New World, and to-ledin about the_ explorations ofColumbus; Magellan, Balboa, and whet Splash explorers;

ESL and awcial Studies Instruction 117

Grade level

condary ESLisocial studies class

Mater lals

Large wall map, flashcards, yam

Target vocabulary

voyage colony navigr...;onempire explore daim

Procedure

_Motivation: Using a large wall map, the1 teacher and studentsreview trade routes used by Italian states and other European countriesirt the 1400s for tradinii with India and China. Studentt brainstorm as towhy _Spain would want to find an alternate route. Teacher should acceptall responses, such as: Spain wants to get rich. Spain wants to befemora Spain wants to be powerful. (In this case, the teacher may wantto askihe students to turn the statements into the past tense.) Studentswill practice and developlinguistic skills by agreeing or disagreeing withthe reasons given._ This activity-may bit done in small groups to maximizeindividualetudente oral_participation.

This pan of the lesson is essential because it stimulates students tobecome involvedin the new ideas. It aisoallows the teacher to find outhow much background information the students have related to thistopic.

information: The teacher uses the students' predictions andideas from the motivation section as a basis for_ presenting newinformation abbut Spanish exploration_The teacher may want to presenteach new explorer with flashcards that give explores name, dates ofdiscoveries, and the area explored. Students will need to refer to a wallmap to trace the paths of exploration and maya find_ithelpfullo_ usedifferent colored yarn pieces to show where explorers traveled.Studentt can tell who explored, where they went, when they went, andwhy they explored.

After the new material it presented orally and visually, the teacherhas students skim-the1 headings and subheadings of a reading, such asa chapter In a textbook that covers this unit. This Is the "survey* part ofthe SQ4R Method. This technique may be used so that students cancreate a study sheet related to the new information. After the studentshave completed thls sheet, the teacher should review each subheading

123

118 ESUCONTENTARFA ECTSTRUCTION

in the reading to check _tor_tiasic comprehension, Students may :beasked to state the main idea_of_tha reading-and to locate specificsentences that support their answers. New vocabulary pertaining to theexploration unit is emphasized throughout_the lesson, and students areencouraged to use context clues whenever possible to understandanyth!ng unfamiliar.

The teadher may want to show a filmstrip or movie about theSpanish explerers to reinforce new concepts;

Practice

The students how heed to review new voCabulary and concepts lhatthey have learned in the thapter. Thit it an appropriate time for sometype of evaluation: Etoth short ansWert and ettay questions would showan understanding of the new material. For exaMple, students can write aparagreph deecnbing Columbus' voyages, ddrittruct a chert listing dates,explorers, and routes_ the explorers Used, or describe why Spaindecided to explore westward.

Enrichment and extenston: Students need to have a chanceto choose an activity that will anabkt thorn te tentiCh their understandingof_Spanistrexplorers. They r...e building citi hoW information they haveamenity learnedand they now need to apply it to a tieW Situation. Somepossible actMties to foster this extension of theit Warning Ore:

Students conduct research in the library on a Spanish explorer to findout the route_traveled, problems enmuntered, disooveriet, and so on.This information can be filled in on a chart or aompWred on a poster.

Students role-play Spanish_explorers in a panel discussion. Theteacher acts as moderator and poses leading questions such as Tell u-S,M. Cotumbus, what problems did you_encounter on your voyages? AllStudents will benefit from participating and listening to the responses.

Students can pretend they are explorers who want to find new land.They must detcribe where they want to_sail,_how theywould raise funds,What they hope to find, and so on. This can be a writing acfivity or an oraldiscussion.

Conclust6h

In summary, it is clear that using social studiescontent as a medium for second language instructionmay greatly enhance and accelerate LEP students' lan-

12.4

ESL and Social SiTudies Instruction 119

guage acquisition, _as well as assist in the acculturationprocess. School districts with established and/orgrowing numbers of LEP students are encouraged toconsider instituting classes that integrate the teachingof language and communication skills with subjectmatter content.

Instructional Resources

Recomreended instructional materials for ESL/socialstudies classes follow.

Publisher

Linmore Pubrishing CompanyPJa. Box 1545Palatine; IL 60078

Roger Olsen and Lynn Reer1282 29th_Ave.San Francisco, CA 94122

Creative Associate&ESUBilingiral Education_ Project1901 N. Moore St.; Suite 920Arlington, VA 22209

Steck Vaugh-CompanyP.0.1 Box 2028Austin, TX 78768

.Modern Curriculum Press3900 Prospect Rd._

Cleveland, OH 44136

Millikencto Kurz, Inc.207 IE.Patapsco AWLBaltimore, MD 21225

Frank Schaffer26616 Indian Peak Rd.

TS* eof Resounm

TeXtboOk- ter LEP studentsCditt6ht Atéà ESL: Social Studiesby 1:Wrinis Terdy

Prepublitation manuscript of aSeries Of beginning-level socialstudies MSSOns that promotelanguage developmentHistaryl-k4oats

Staffeevelopment materials andtechnical assistance

Social studies materials written at alower reading level_with languagearts activities to supplement them

Spirit matters and supplementaryStudy Skint Workbooks

125

120 ESL/CONTENT-4BM INSTRUCTION

Mpt. 46LRancho Palos Verde, CA 92074

Curriculum Associates5 Esquire Rd.North Billerica, MA 01862

Hayes School Publishing CompanyP.O. Box 487I:Wlmont, NC 28012

Q'MaIIeY& ChaitotFairfax County ESL

Content-Area Program

Addison-Wesley

M. Maggs

Arlington_County Public SchoolsESOL Program1426_t& Quincy St,Arlington, VA 22207

SanDlegcCity_SchoolsSecond Language Office4100 Normal St.San Diego, CA 92103

Cufficulum guide"LM andVirginia Government for ESLStudents"

LengUage Development ThroughContent

agile!, Acrote the Curriculum(very gocki for tieginners)

CM:la-1111M gUidet and adaptedeadal Studies materialt

Sample units from sheltered-English aiurs-es

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139

Jo Ann Crandall Editor

eL- C.--In

n-' ES_

Liir ILIL

ADULT vOCATIONAL ESL

APPROACHEs TO SYLLABUS DESIGN cOR FOREIGN LANOL,AGE TFAcHiNr, ,

AU COURANT ice! nrnq Fre,ch, C i U Lis r,r

BEGINNING READING IN ENGLISH AS A SPIONn LA.GU AGE

COMPuTERS AND ESL .

DRECTORT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS

ERROR CORRECTiON TECHNIQUES ,.OR THE FL CLASSROOM

ESL LITERACY FOR ADui T LEARNERS

ESL THROUGH CONTENT-ARFA INSTRUCTIONIH

FORFIC,N LANGUAGE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Stale CO thCFROM THF CI acqr3Q1OM TO THE WORKPLACE Teacrung FS to Leltiltc

INCORPORATING LITERATURF IESL JNCTI:711rT,

LISTENING AND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN ESL

EER INVOLVEMENT IN LANGuAGP LEARNING

PROBLEMS & TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ESL crwiRncl-rinN

PROICIENCY ORIENTED CLASSROOM TESTING

PADINr= r.'VELOPMENT OF NONNATIvE SPEAKERS OP ENGLISH

TEACHINr ORnNIIN,TI^ TION Focus On English Rhythm ind Ir-oonancn

TRAININI, TRANSLATORS AND CONFERENCE INTERPRETERS

uSING comPLJTERS IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGuAGES1,

.PRENTICP-Hrli RPr.FNTS:I,

r"

Documents

DaCUMENT RESUME ID 283 357 FL 016 785 - ERIC RESUME ID 283 357 FL 016 785 AUTMOR Crandall, JoAnn, Ed.; And Others TITLE ESL_through Content-Area Instruction: Mathematics, Science,_Social