2018EMES Conferences selected papers

This article/publication is based upon work from COST Action EMPOWER-SE, supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology).

Welfare societies in transition

Roskilde, 16-17 April 2018

Funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework Programme of the European Union

Aare, A. K.Hansen, E. M. Ø.Hauggaard-Nielsen, H.Roskilde, April 2018

Danish agriculture - sustainable management of the commons

ECSP-3EMESPolanyi-14

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3rdEMES-PolanyiSelectedConferencePapers(2018)

Danishagriculture-sustainablemanagementofthecommonsAare,A.K.,Hansen,E.M.Ø.&Hauggaard-Nielsen,H.DepartmentofPeopleandTechnology,RoskildeUniversity-RUCAbstractDenmarkisanagriculturalcountrywith62pct.oftheareaownedbyfarmerswithlegalprivatepropertyrights.Efficiencyinbothproductivityandstrongcooperationthroughouttheproductchainhasenabledthisposition.However,thisdevelopmenthasgivenrisetonegativeimpactoncommonresourcessuchasdecreasingwaterquality,reducedsoilfertilityandlossofbiodiversitychallengingpublicexpectations.ThroughthreedifferentapproachesforinvolvingfarmerspracticingConservationAgriculturethepossibilitiesforcommonunderstanding,knowledgeconductionandproductionaswellasfacilitationoftransitiontowardssustainableagriculturalpracticesareinvestigated.Thepapersuggestsincreasedinvolvementofactorsinordertocreatedemocraticandsustainableagriculturalmanagementwhilequestioningoptimalmethodsforcommonsolutionsforincreasingpublicgoods.Keywords:Sustainableagriculture,Commons,Transition,ConservationAgriculture,Intercropping,Co-design,FutureWorkshop,Actor-NetworkTheory,Socio-technicalanalysis1. Introduction1.1 Land-useandfoodproduction

In1968GarretHardinintroducedtheconcept“tragedyofthecommons”toexplaintheoverexploitationofcommonresources(Hardin,1968).Despiteprivateownership,land-useincludingagriculturalproductionisstilltodayabattlefieldformanagementofthecommons.

SincethebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolutionagriculturehascontributedwith214±67petagramsofcarbon(PgC)totheatmospherefromland-usechangecomparedtotheestimatedalmostequivalent270±30PgofCfromfossilfuelcombustion(Zomeretal.,2017).Todaythefoodproductionisbiggerthaneverbutstillaround815millionpeoplesufferfromhungerwhile1.9billionisdiagnosedwithoverweightandobesity(IAASTD,2009).Futuregeneration’sabilitytosurviveinaworldwithincreasingchallengescausedbyclimatechangedependoncomingglobalfoodproduction,distributionanddiet.Agricultureandfoodisbyfartheworld’slargestbusinessandthereforecloselylinkedtosustainabledevelopment.However,manyagriculturalstrategiescurrentlyfacemajorenvironmentalchallengesgenerallyconnectedtofertilizerandpesticideuse,soilerosion,soilpollutionandwidespreadlossofbiodiversity.PublicattitudestowardscurrentpracticesisalsochallengingtheEuropeanCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)withnewdirectionspointingtowardssubsidiestofurtherincreasepublicgoodsdeliverableslikeclimatechangeandenergyrelatedissues,watermanagement,environmentallyfriendlyfarming(e.g.organicfarming),LessFavouredAreasincludingEnvironmentallySensitiveAreas,etc.(EU,2017).

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TheDanishagricultureandfoodindustriesareworldleadingincontributingtotheincreasedglobalfooddemand,includingincreasingmarketdemandforanimalproducts.Efficiencyinbothproductivityandstrongcooperationthroughouttheproductchainhasenabledthisposition.Denmarkisoneoftheworld’smostintensivelyfarmedcountries(Folkeetal.,2002)coveringupto67pct.ofthetotalarea,leaving16pct.forforestandheathlands,7pct.forenvironmentalsensitiveareasandabout10pct.forthetotalbuilt-uparea(StatBankDenmark).Danishfarmersareproducinganamountoffoodsufficienttosupply15millionpeopleeveryyear-threetimestheDanishpopulation(DanishAgricultureandFoodCouncil,2015).However,thisdevelopmenthasgivenrisetonegativeimpactoncommonresources(Frison,2016).TheDanishagriculturalsectorfaceschallengeswithe.g.land-basednitrogenloadingtoDanishsurfacewaters(Kronvangetal.,2008),climatechangewithagricultureaccountingforabout17pct.ofthetotalnationalGHGemissions(Nielsenetal.,2013),lossofbiodiversityincludingimportantpollinators(Cairnsetal.,2017)andadecreaseinthetotalsoilcarbonstorageduetointensivecultivationinvolvingdrainageandploughingpractices(Adhikarietal.,2014).Thenegativeimpactsoftheagriculturalproductionhasgivenrisetoincreasingpublicawarenessandopinionsabouttheagriculturalpracticesoftoday,whichchallengethedevelopmentofthesector.SomeconcernsaremanifestedthroughregulationslikeEUenvironmentalpoliciesonresourceefficiency,sustainableuseofnaturalresources,protectionofbiodiversityandhabitatsandprovisionofecosystemservices,andothersexpressedthroughincreaseddemandfororganicfoodproducts(Prostetal.,2017).Nevertheless,thepercentageofmoneyspendonfoodinDenmarkhasbeenstronglydecreasingthelast40yearsandtodaylessthan15pct.onaverageofaDanishbudgetisspendonfoodproducts,beveragesandtobacco(DST,2017).Atthesametimetheamountofpeoplewhofeelconcernedaboutfarmingactivitiesandtheirconsequencesisincreasing,whilethenumberofcitizenswithalinktoagriculturehasdiminished(Meynard,DedieuandBos,2012).Danishagricultureisincreasinglychallengedtokeep-upitsglobalpositionwhilesatisfyingpolicyrequirementsfordeliveringpublicgoodsandsatisfyingmorevalue-basedconsumerneedswhilstmaintaininghealthyandproductiveagroecosystems(Tilmanetal.,2002).Furthermore,thedistributionofwealthgainsattributabletotheagriculturalproductionistoanincreasingdegreeclaimedbyinputsuppliersthroughprotectionofformalintellectualpropertyrights.Quiteanillogicalityforasectoroncelargelyinfluencedbypublicresearchandthefarmers’owningenuity(ClancyandMoschini,2017).Thereisnodoubtthatmechanismsofglobalmarkethaveputthemodernfarmersunderconsiderablepressure–economicallyaswellassocially(Elzenetal.,2012).Pressureslikeglobalmarketpricesettingsrequirecost-effectiveintensificationtogainprofitschallengingtheabilitytointroducenewmanagementpracticesleadingtomoresustainablefarming(MorganandMurdoch,2000).Theagriculturalsectorisaveryinnovativesector,whichhasundergoneradicalchangesduringthelastcentury.Nevertheless,strongtraditions,culturesandnormsareembeddedintheprofessionchallengingpotentialtransitionstonewagriculturalpractices.Manyfarmersinherittheagriculturallandandpracticethroughgenerationsandtheprofessionhasagreatinfluenceontheirprivatelives.Consequently,agriculturalproductioninvolvesmanyemotionsforbothfarmersandconsumersleadingtoanoftenintensepublicdebateaboutthedevelopmentoftheagriculturalsector.

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TheDanishagricultureisstronglyrepresentedinthepoliticallandscapethroughorganisationssuchastheDanishAgricultureandFoodCouncil.TodaytheDanishAgricultureandFoodCouncilrepresentsthewholefoodclusterincluding30,000farmersand300companiesvaryinginsizefromsmalltoglobaloperatingallacrossthevaluechain(DanishAgricultureandFoodCouncil,2018).ThedevelopmenttowardsanorganisationrepresentingthewholefoodclusterhasbroughtfarmerstoraisequestionswhetherthesizeandstructureoftheDanishAgricultureandFoodCouncilallowstheorganisationtocontinuouslyrepresenttheinterestsoffarmers,whichfurtherquestionswhetherfarmers’knowledgeandopinionsarerepresentedinthedialogofsustainabletransitionoftheDanishagriculturalsector.1.2Facilitationoftransition

Duetotheircomplexnaturewickedproblemssuchasthoserelatedtothetransitiontowardsamoresustainableagriculturalsystemmustbeaddressedindissimilarwaysandfromdifferentperspectives(Darnhofer,GibbonandDedieu,2012;Ashwoodetal.,2014).Confrontationwithandintegrationofamultipleperspectives,insights,experiencesandideasisneeded.Notatleastinvolvingfarmersandotherpractitionersinbothknowledgeproductionandsharingaswellasinnovationandimplementationofmoresustainableagriculturalsystemsisrequired(Duruetal.,2015;Prostetal.,2017).Byintegratingdifferentformsofknowledgeofacademicaswellasnon-academicactorsbeingimplicit,explicit,experiential,informalorformalitispossibletoobtainknowledgethatisbothscientificallycredibleandsociallyvaluablesupportingamoredemocraticandsustainablemanagementofthecommonland.

ToovercomeobstaclesforafuturesustainableagriculturalproductionEUrequiresresearchersparticipatingintheHorizon2020programtoworkaccordingtothemultiactorapproach(MAA)byintegratingabroadrangeofactorsincludingfirms,users,policymakers,scientists,andotherrelevantactorsintheresearchprocess.TheaimoftheMAAistoensurevaluableperspectives,knowledge,experiencesandideasessentialforhandlingcomplexproblemswhileensuringimplementationandcommunicationalongtheprocess(EIP-Agri,2017).ItisassumedbytheauthorsofthisarticlethatcommongoalsandunderstandingregardingthefutureDanishagriculturalpracticesareneededandhastobedevelopedbychallengingperceptions,routines,rulesandregulations,andthesocialandeconomiccontextinwhichfarmersoperate.Successfultransitionsrequirelocalnegotiationsbyrelevantactorstobeeffective.Consequently,moreinclusiveresearch-for-transitionapproachesaretestedtakingactor-drivenobjectivesasastartingpoint.1.3Agroecology,ancientknowledgeandConservationAgricultureOneoftheapproachestocombatfuturechallengeswithe.g.transitionthroughmoreresilientfarmingsystemsistorevitalizenewormaybeforgottenknowledgearoundagroecologyandecosystemfunctionsandservices(OlssonandFolke,2001;Altierietal.,2015).Farmerknowledgehasoriginallybeenlinkedtospecificconditionsinlocalcommunitiesandinheritedthroughgenerations(Altieri,2004;Prostetal.,2017).This“intimateknowledgeoftheirlandholdings,itsfertility,compositionandsoon”havebeenuniquelydevelopedforthespecificlocalconditionsandattunedtothe“rhythmsofnature”(MorganandMurdoch,2000).

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Thegrowthofagriculturalscienceespeciallytiedtothedevelopmentofinputsentailedtheremovalofknowledgeproductionfromfarmstolaboratoriescreatingaverticalorganizationandgenerationofstandardisedgenericknowledge(Fonte,2008;Šūmaneetal.,2016).Genericknowledgeforheterogeneousfarmsweretosomeextentmadepossibleduetothenewpostwarregimethataimedatcontrollingproductionthrougheg.theuseofsyntheticinputs(Šūmaneetal.,2016;Prostetal.,2017).Asthenegativeeffectsofmodernindustrialagriculturebecomevisible(Altierietal.,2015;Frison,2016)thehistoricalreplacementofknowledge-andtheresultinglossoflocalandeco-sensitiveknowledge–putsthemodernfarmeroftodayinaweakpositionfordevelopingnewstrategiestocombattheseadverseeffects(MorganandMurdoch,2000).ConservationAgriculture(CA)isbyFAOdescribedas:“anapproachtomanagingagro-ecosystemsforimprovedandsustainedproductivity,increasedprofitsandfoodsecuritywhilepreservingandenhancingtheresourcebaseandtheenvironment”(FAO,2015).Apracticeshowingpromisingresultsabouthighproductivitywhilereducingfuelandlabourcosts(Kirkegaardetal.,2014).Thecentralideaoftheagriculturalstrategyistoreducethedisturbanceofthesoilmakinguseofnaturalmechanism(eco-system-services)tocreatebettersoilhealth(structure,carboncontent,nutrientandwaterholdingcapacity).Theagriculturalstrategyisfoundedinthreecentralprinciplesi)continuousminimummechanicalsoildisturbance,ii)permanentorganicsoilcoverandiii)diversificationofcropspeciesgrowninsequencesand/orassociations,whichareallimportantincombinationtosecureawell-functioningCAsystem(ibid).However,thispracticeplacesdemandsonfarmerknowledgeandlocaladaptationinordertoprovidesuccessfulresults(DeWildt-Liesveld,BundersandRegeer,2015).2. PresentationofselectedworkconductedwithfarmergroupFromongoingqualitativestudiesofaconventionalfarmergrouppracticingCAinitiatedin2014knowledgeandactor-drivenobjectivesareidentifiedasastartingpointfortransitiontosustainablemanagementofland,coexistencewithotherruralactivitiesandurbanpopulations’useofspace.Anumberofmethodologicalandtheoreticalapproachesallcentredaroundtheunderstandingandinvolvementofactors’perspectiveshasbeenconductedthroughcontinuousparticipationingroupmeetings,facilitationofworkshopsandindividualvisitsandinterviews.TheworkhasbeenfundedbytheEUERA-NETPlusprogramonClimateSmartAgriculture(https://www6.inra.fr/climate-cafe).Theaimofthe“ClimateChangeAdaptabilityofcroppingandFarmingsystemsforEurope(ClimateCafé)projectistoevaluatetraditionalandmorenovelregionaladaptationandmitigationstrategiesalongaNorth-SouthclimategradientintheEUinordertoproposenewfarmingsystemdesignscombiningexpertknowledge(researchers,experiemntsandmodels)withfarmerandadvisorviewspresentedinAdaptationPilotsrepresentingregionalcroppingandfarmingsystemslocatedacrossEU(consortiumcountries).Novelcroppingsystemsaredesignedandevaluatedbasedonmulti-criteriaeconomicandenvironmentalanalyses.ThefarmersintheDanishAdaptationPilotareallsituatedintheeasternareaofthecountry,RegionZealand,whichisthemostdenselypopulatedregiondominatedbyarablecrop

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productionandahighcoverage(~64pct.)ofagriculturalland(Klinglmairetal.,2015).Agriculturalsystemsoftheregionarecharacterisedbyrotationsdominatedbyannualcerealandlowintensityofanimalhusbandry.Limiteduseofanimalmanuresandperennialcroppingforfodderpurposesandexportofresidues(primarilycerealstraw)tolocalpowerstations,reducethecarbonsoilinputs.Hence,soilcarboncontentiscontinuouslydecliningwithanaverageof1-2.5pct.(Adhikarietal.,2014).BaseduponageneralconcernaboutunsustainableexploitationoflandresourcesleadingtosoildegradationandimplicationsforfoodsecurityandlocalagricultureintegritythefarmersinvestigatedaregatheredaroundtheCAstrategy.Localadaptationofconservationagricultureprinciplesistheirsolutiontosustainablefuturecroppingsystemsinvolvingapplicationofmodernagriculturaltechnologiestoimproveproduction,lowercostbutalsohelpsmaintainecosystemfunctionsandservices.Thefarmersregarditasawin-winsituationwithpotentialimprovementscomparedtotraditionalpractices(ploughing)inbothagricultural,environmental,economicandsocialterms.Thefarmernetworkisabout15yearsoldandinitiatedasaresponsetolimitedDanishexperiencewithCAleavingthepractitionerwithuncertaintyofadvisorysupport,regulationandaccesstonewestfindings.Presently,thenetworkconsistofmoreorlessthesamemembers(allfull-timefarmers)andoperateswithoutadvisorsorotherexpertsinvolved.Themembersofthegroupmeetapproximatelyonceeverythreemonthstoshareexperiencesandchallengesintheirindividualfarmmanagement.Table1illustratestheindividualfarms,practicesandyearswithCA.Table1.ExamplesofDanishfarmsinvolvedinthenetwork

Farm Soil1 Area2 Animals Croprotation CA3

A 5-7 300 No Springbarley,clover(grassseeds2years)winterwheat. 20

B 3-5 1200 No Springbarley,grass,winterbarley,rapeseeds,winterwheat. 15

C 5-6 370 8000pigs Beet,barley,wheat,rapeseeds,fababeans. 13

D 4-7 350 1500pigs Spinach,wheat,rapeseeds,wheat,springbarley. 14

E 6 160 No Barley,wheat,rapeseeds,barley,wheat 9

F 5-7 83 No Rapeseeds,wheat,barley,barley. 42

G 6-7 260 No Winterrapeseeds,wheat,fababeans,wheat,springbarley. 15

H 7 300 No Rapeseeds,springbarley,fababeans,winterwheat. 10

I 2-7 200 460sows. Rapeseeds,winterwheat,springbarley. 20

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1Soiltypesare:2=coarsesandysoil;3=finesandysoil;4=sandysoilwithclay;5claysoilwithsand;5=claysoil;6=heavyclaysoil;7=humussoil.2Ownedandrentedlandinhectares.3Yearssinceshifttoconservationagriculture.Asshowninthetablethefarmsvaryinrelationtophysicalconditions,managementandpersonalexperiences.Despitebeinglocatedinarelativelysmallgeographicalareathelocalcontextsbetweenthefarmsvaryconsiderablyduetoamongotherthingsdifferenthistoricalmanagement(eg.removalofstraw,tillagepractices,choiceofcroprotationandcoverage),whichplacesdifferentdemandsonthefarmers’currentandfuturemanagement.Inordertogainknowledgeabouttheinnovationsandbarrierstowardsmoresustainableagriculturalpracticestheresearchgrouphasworkedwiththefarmergroupthroughseveralmethodologicalapproachesallcenteredaroundfarmerinvolvementinresearch.Theapproachespresentedinthispaperarethefollowing:afutureworkshopfromtheaction-researchtradition;theFarmDESIGNtoolusedinfarmco-designingevaluationandsupportforplanningprocesses;andtheactor-networkanalysiswithdynamicnetworksofrelationshipbetweensocialandnaturalcomponents.2.1FutureWorkshopTheFutureWorkshop(FW)approachwasdevelopedbytheAustrianwriterandjournalistRobertJungkwiththemainaimtoactivateabasis,whichwasabletodevelopaproposalforadesirablefuturethroughajoinedcritiqueoftheestablishment(Jungk,R.andMüller,1987).Itwasregardedasamethodtosupportthepoliticalstrugglesofcommunitygroupsforbetterenforcementoftheirinterestsenablingabetterfuture.TheresearchgroupinvitedthefarmerstoafulldayFWeventfocusingonchangingortransformingtheactualsituationoffarmingpracticesinDenmarktowardsahigherdegreeofsustainability.Theworkshopwasdividedintothreephases:i)duringthefirstphase,thefarmerslistedallnegativeaspectsoftheirdailylives(Negativebydefinition).Inourcase,narroweddowntotheirdailypracticesasfarmersengagedinCA.ii)Duringthesecondphasefeaturesandelementsofanimaginedidealsituationwerelisted(Visionarybydefinition).iii)Duringthefinalphasetheywereencouragedtoproposestrategiesofactiontomovetowardstheirgoals(Personalactstobetaken).Eachphasewasfacilitatedbyatimekeeperandamoderatortosecurehighactivitylevelbyallparticipants.Abrainstormeventwasinitiatedbyanindividualsessionwhereasmanypost-itsaspossiblewerewrittenbyeachfarmerandputonawalltogetinsightintoeachother'scriticism/visions/actionscreatingacommonunderstanding(picture1).Allpost-itsonthewallweregroupedintothemesinplenum.Afterwards,eachfarmerwasaskedtovoteonthetwomostimportantpost-itsinhisorheropinionincludingthepossibilitytovoteforthesamepost-ittwice.Incooperationwithallparticipantsthefacilitatorwasabletoidentifythemostsharedissuesamongtheparticipants(picture2).

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Picture1.Creatingthewallofindividualstatements(brainstorm).Picture2.Groupingbrainstormpost-itsinplenumandthefollowingvotingtoselectthemostsharedstatements.TheFWenabledanarticulationofmanyproblemsandideasidentifiedbythefarmers.Fewexamplesofthepreliminarycausalchainsidentifiedbythefarmersarepicturedintable2.Table2.Phasetwo:FutureWorkshoppost-itstocreatecommontargetsandactions.Goal Targets Actions ActorsSeedinginhealthysoils

Security;produce;sale;functionality

Farmerknowledgesharing;on-farmexperiments;profitability;lawandlegislation

CANGO’s(DKandEU);researchers;consultancy;machinecompaniesanddevelopers

Acknowledgementfromsociety

Positivejournalists,politicians;consumers,schools

Mediabranding;professionalcommunication;events;educationpackage

CANGO’s(DKandEU);homepageandnewsletters;demonstrations;academialinks

Soilasproviderofhealthyfoods

Politicalregulations;qualifiedCAconsultancy

Outreachtopolicymakers;specialisedconsultants;farmersschooltaskforce

CAfrontrunners;localandnationalpoliticians;civilservants;colleagues

AcentralissuetakenfromtheworkshopoutputswasthelackofmeritoftheenvironmentalfriendlyinitiativesthatfarmersperceivetheirownCApracticestobe.Astronglackofunderstandingandsupportofthepotentialofthissystemfromotherfarmers,ruralpopulation,urbancitizensorpoliticiansexperiencedbythefarmersontheirrespectivefarms.AnotherkeyobstaclearticulatedattheFWwasalackofknowledgeonthefactualmeritsoftheCAsysteminbothresearchandconsultancy.Thefarmersexplainedthatthelongtermeffectsonreducedtillage,thebiologicalunderstandingofdiversity,creationofnewequilibriainthesoilsmicrobiomeetc.istoodifficulttofeedontheshorter4-yearspoliticalcycle(untilnextelection)agendas.Furthermore,farmersfoundthepolicyandregulatoryenvironmentconstrainingbecauseofagenerallynegativeattitudetowardsagricultureamongpoliticaldecisionmakers.Farmerscalledforfurtherresearchontheimpactsontheirfarmingpracticescombinedwithincreasedoutreachtowardsconsumers,educationalinstitutionsandpoliticians.Thelatter

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supportedbymoreprofessionallobbyingforregulatorymechanismsandstandardsbasedonmorelocalizeddata(seetable2).Allparticipantsstronglyunderlinedtheirfrustrationaroundlackofunderstandingandrespectfromthesurroundingsociety.Thefarmersdonotseethemselvesonlyascommodityproducersbutalsoprovidersofqualityfoodandmanagersoftheeco-system.Intheirperspectivefutureglobalfooddemanddrawsuponlocalnaturalresources,ecologicalprocessesandfarmers’knowledgeofthem.TheyarecompletelyconfidentthatCApracticesshowtherightpathforfuturemoresustainablestrategiesbutisnotabletoconvinceneitherfarmercolleagues,localconsultancyoreventheruralcitizens.Tosurviveintheirbusinesshighproductivityarerequired.However,fromapublicgoodsperspectivefewerexternalinputsareexpectedwhileproducingthesameoutputand/orhigher-qualityoutputs.Intheirviewslessfarmprofitabilitywillresultinasituationwheresustainabilitywillbecomeevenmorechallenging.Theyhighlightthedecliningshareofvalueaddedinthefoodchainoverthepastdecadeandregardthisasajointresponsibility.Thethirdphaseadvocatingforactionsontheshortertermverifiedlackofbeliefincommunicationabilitywithalotofattentiontochangesforotherplayersinthevaluechain(s).ThefarmersgroupclearlyexpressedthevalueofmeetingandsharingknowledgetoidentifystrengthsandweaknessesontheirCApracticesaswellasidentificationofcorepersonalcompetenciesaccordingtotherestofthegroup.Thereby,theirlocalfarmlocation,financialorsocialcapitalareusedtorespondtotheopportunitiesandalsothreatsfoundintheexternalenvironment.However,itwasidentifiedthatthefarmerscouldpersonallybenefitfrommoredetailedinformationontheirspecificfarmoperations,croppingstrategies,marketdecisions.Thegroupsvarietyofcompetencesalsoturnedouttobebeneficialwhendiscussingindividualfarmchallengesandopportunities.Lackofaccesstoqualifiedconsultancythereforeopenedupforotherpossibilitiestoqualifythesharingofknowledgeamongthegroupmembers.2.2FarmDESIGNWithaDescribeExplainExploreDesign(DEED)cycleidea(Falconnieretal,2017)forfurthercollaborationwiththeindividualfarmerswhilefacilitatingfarmergroupmemberinteractionstheresearchgroupdecidedtotesttheFarmDESIGNcomputermodelusingitsconstituentdatabase(Groot,OomenandRossing,2012)combinedwithcomprehensiveindividualfarmerinterviews.Model-basedsupportmightbeusefulinthesearchforfarmsystemanalysisincludingpotentialchoicesandcomplicatedsoil-plant-atmosphereinteractionsevaluatinganarrayofcropandcroppingoptionswhiletakingintoaccountfarmerlivelihood,safeguardingsystemsustainabilitybye.g.increasingtheorganicmatterbuild-upinthesoilandreducingnutrientlosses.Atthesametimethemodelallowtheresearchtobeadjustedaccordingtoactor-drivenobjectivesasastartingpointandjointinvolvementofnon-academicactorsaswellasscientists(modeldevelopment)inaprocessofknowledgeco-creationandmutuallearning.AcomprehensiveinputdatabaseinFarmDESIGNcreatedthebasisforthemodelwithincategorieslikebiophysicalenvironment,socio-economicsetting,crops,animals,buildings,inputs,etc.(figure1).

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Figure1.IllustrationoftheFarmDESIGNmodelwithboxesindicatingfarmcomponents,arrowsmaterialflowsquantifiedbythemodelandthedashedlinesthefarmingsystemboundarywiththeexternalenvironment(FromGrootetal.2012).WithspecialemphasistowardsoneofthemostrespectedfarmersinthegroupaworkshoparoundtheFarmDESIGNoutputsfromhiscurrentpracticesandoptimizationoptionssuggestedbythemodelwasconductedonhisfarmwithallfarmersinthenetworkrepresented.Beforetheworkshoptheresearchteamandaspecificfarmermeettoclarifyinputsandoutputstobepresentedattheworkshop.Theworkshopwasinitiatedbyanoutdoorfieldtouraroundthefarmandnearbynaturalareareinforcinggeneraldiscussiononcurrentfarmpracticesopeningupforthefollowingdiscussionsaboutsuggestedoptionaltransitionsmadebythemodel.Thereafterthemodelprincipleswasintroducedtothegroupwithalotofclarifyingquestionsandexperienceschallengingmodelstandardsprovidingopportunitytobuildoncommonunderstanding.Thedebaterangedfromlong-termstrategicplanningoverlongertime-spans(severalyears)toyearlymoretacticalplanningandshort-termoperations.Thevisualoutputfromthemodelplayedanimportantroleforthecommunicationofresults.Veryfastthefarmersobtainedanoverviewofthewell-knownfarmoperationslookingatthecalculatedcarbonflowsto,throughandfromthefarm.PositiveeffectsofcurrentCApracticesonsoilcarbonmitigationwereidentifiedbythemodel(figure2).The828kgC/ha/yearnumberatthebottomrightofthefigureindicatenet-sequestration,whichwasstronglyrecognizedbythefarmercolleagues.OneofthefarmersrefereedtotheDanishMinistryofFoodandEnvironmentestimationsaround100kgC/ha/yearforreducedtillageandup325kgC/ha/yearfordirectsowing.Thefarmersinthegroupwerescepticaltowardsmodeloverestimations,alsoduetolackofcompletetransparencytodatabasenumbers.However,othershighlightedthe

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effectofsuccessfulproductionofcloverseedsintroducingperennialsintherotation(Table2)whilereducingtheneedforartificialfertilizerNinputs.

Figure2.Illustrationofthevisualizedcarbon(C)flow(kgC/ha/year)outputfromtheFarmDESIGNmodelcalculatedonbasisoftheactualfarminputderivingfromfarmerinterviewandthemodel’sconstituentdatabase.Fromtheworkshopdiscussionsitwasclearhowfarmers’informalknowledgediffersfromtheformalknowledgethatunderliesthemodelsimulations.Someofthemodelfunctionswereregardedbythefarmersasmoreorless“blackboxes”,difficulttounderstand(andexplain).Thefactthatscientistshadthekeytoopentheboxfosteredmisunderstandingandscepticismintheco-designprocessratherthancreativity,learningandknowledgeintegration.Themodelapproachwasintendedtofacilitateknowledgesharingbutintheendtoomanyspecificquestionsondetailstobespecifiedreducedthescalingoutpotentialtootherfarmersinthegroup.ItisconcludedthattheFarmDESIGNmodelcreatedvaluableoverviewsbutdidnotworkasamotivationaldriverbehindpotentialfarmertransitionsinthecurrentsituation.2.3Actor-NetworkTheoryThelearningsfromtheFarmDESIGNmodelindicatingthatformalevidencebasedknowledgemightbeanobstacleforfarmersengagementraisesthequestionwhetheritispossibleto

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integrateinformalknowledgeandunderstandingoftheanalysisoftheindividualfarmerspracticesintoscientificresearch.TheActor-NetworkTheory(ANT)wasdevelopedbyBrunoLatour,MichelCallonandJohnLawinthe1980sandisusedtoperformsociologicalanalysesofscienceandtechnology.Thetheoryintroducetheperceptionthateverythinginthesocialaswellasnaturalworldexiststhroughcomplexanddynamicnetworksofrelations(Latour,1996).ThroughqualitativeinterviewswiththeindividualfarmersofthefarmergroupabouttheirpracticesandperceptionsonConservationAgricultureanActor-Networkdiagramwasdeveloped(figure3).

Figure3:Illustrationofthecompiledconnectionsbetweencomponentsoftheagriculturalsystemasexpressedbyfarmers.Thenamesofthehumanandnon-humanactorsinthenetwork(boxes)isinDanish.Thecolorsindicatedifferentgroupsofcomponentseg.biologicalcomponents,agriculturaltools,threats,outputsetc.whilethespeechbubblesindicatetheinterrelationsbetweenthecomponents.ANTwasusedtovisualizethecomplexityandinterconnectednessofthefarmingsystemasexperiencedbythefarmerincludingbothsocial,economicandnatural/technicalaspects.AsfortheFarmDESIGNmodeltheANTanalysisshowedmultipleinterconnectionsbetweencomponents.However,thenumberofcomponentsaswellastheirnature(beingfunctions,activities,objects,conceptsetc.)exceededanddifferedfromthecomponentsinthecomputer-model.TheANTanalysisallowedasocio-technicalperspectiveonthefarmingsystem.Thereby

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thenetworkturnedouttobemorecomprehensivewithnotonlymechanicalrelationsasintheFarmDESIGNmodelincreasingthecomplexity.Thenetworkillustratedinfigure3isacompilationoftheinterrelationsasexpressedbyalltenfarmers.Thisindicatesthatnoteveryfarmernecessarilyregistraralloftherelations.Therefore,theanalysisshowedthatthecomplexityofthefarmingsystemisindividualdependingonthecontext,knowledgeandexperienceofthefarmer.UnliketheFarmDESIGNmodelANTtakeitsstartingpointintheknowledgeofthefarmersavoidingdisagreementandblackboxesregardingdataandcalculationsperformedbythemodel.Insteadtheanalysisintendedtovisualizefarmers’informalknowledgetothebestpossibleextent.However,theinformalknowledgecanbedifficulttohandleinresearchasitunliketheformalknowledgeisdynamic,local,personalandholistic(Šūmaneetal.,2016)challengingtheperceptionsoftruthandconsistency,whicharecentralparametersinthescientificdiscipline.However,theconcreteanalysisshowedthattheinformalknowledgecouldraisequestiontoexistingformalknowledgebyinvolvingthecomplexityandlocaldifferencespresentinpractice,pointoutknowledgegapsinscienceandcontainimportantnewideasorinnovations.2.4SummaryoffarmergroupactivitiesThethreeapproachesinvestigatedforfarmerinclusionwasusedfordifferentpurposesrevealingvariouspotentials.TheFWwasusedtofacilitatethearticulationofrequestsandideasoffarmersforasustainabledevelopmentofthesectorincludingasessionforformulationofactionsneeded.Inordertofacilitateinitiationandevaluationofconcreteactionsinrelationtofarmingpracticestheco-designtoolFarmDESIGNwasused.Thetoolenabledadialogbetweenresearchersandfarmersontheoutcomeoftheimplementationofspecificactions.However,theunderlyingdataforconvertingactionstooutcomesgaverisetodisagreementsamongthefarmers.Inthatconnection,theANTanalysiswasusedtovisualizethefarmingsystemwithfarmer’sperceptionasthestartingpoint.TheANTacknowledgetheinformalknowledgeanditsindividualityaswellasthesocio-technicalcomplexityoftheagriculturalsystem.Thequestionishowtooperationalizeandmakeuseoftheinformalknowledgeinresearch.ThepreliminaryexperiencesfromtheresearchisintegratedintothecomingworkoftheresearchgroupinanewlyinitiatedEUHorizon2020project(EUResearchandInnovationprogram).3. Furtherresearch

Inthecross-disciplinaryH2020project“RedesigningEuropeancroppingsystemsbasedonspeciesMIXtures”(ReMIX)researchersandotherrelevantactorsfrom13Europeancountriesareinvestigating“thebenefitsofspeciesmixturestodesignmorediverseandresilientarablecroppingsystems,makinguseofagro-ecologyprinciples”inEuropeanagriculture(https://www.remix-intercrops.eu/).

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Speciesmixturesorintercroppingareoldglobalmethodsthathaveearlierbeenanintegratedpartofeveryfarmingsystem(Altieri,2004).Alongwiththeaccesstochemicalandtechnologicalinputsspeciesdiversityincroppingsystemshasdecreased(Tilmanetal.,2002;Brookeretal.,2015)Intercroppingcanbeperceivedasaneco-functionalintensification(Jensenetal.,2015;RaseduzzamanandJensen,2017),asitcanpotentiallyincreaseyields(Bedoussacetal.,2015)whilereducingtheneedforinputs(Hauggaard-Nielsenetal.,2008).Thisisamongotherthingsduetotheenhancementofecosystemservices,efficientnitrogenuse,reducedpestanddiseasesandweedinfestationlevels-aswellasreductionofnitrogenemissionstotheenvironment.Thesebenefitsarenotjustinterestingfromanenvironmentalperspectivebutalsoinrelationtoproductivityandresilienceinthefarmingsystemnowandinthefuture(Altierietal.,2015;Frison,2016)AlignedwiththeEIPMAAactorsespeciallyfarmersareinvolvedinboththedesignandimplementationofnewinnovationsthrougharangeofco-designingmethods.TheactorinvolvementisinitiatedthroughMulti-ActorPlatforms(MAP)acrossEuropebeingphysicalunitsproducing,gatheringanddistributingdemanddrivenlocalknowledgeregardingintercroppingprinciplesandspeciesmixtures.

Figure4.Illustrationofthe11ReMIXMulti-ActorPlatforms(MAP)locatedacrossEurope.BasedonthepresentedexperiencesrecentlyinitiatedReMIXresearchactivitiesinDenmarkpointstowardsthreemainstrategiesforincreasedknowledgesharingandco-designing.Theresearchincludei)classicaldemonstrationofplottrialsandfieldoperationsusingfarmerequipmentheadedbyconsultancycompanyanduniversityresearchersTheaimistomonitor

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andchallengethetraditionconsultativeapproachwherefarmersvisuallyrealisechallengesandopportunitiesthroughadvisorydisseminationwithnocontroloverthetypeofsolutions(“doctor-patient”relationship).Thesecondactivityincludesii)localexperimentsofintercroppingstrategiesperformedandevaluatedbyfarmersincludingknowledgesharingwithlocalfarmersandcommunity.10farmersidentifiedthroughademonstrationdayattheabovementionedplottrialwilltestafreelydeliveredcovercropmixtureattheirindividualfarms.Researcherswilllearnfromfollowingthesefarmersbothatthefieldandthroughinterviewsmappingtheircurrentknowledge,pros,cons,considerationsandknowledgesharingaroundtheuseofmixedcovercrops.Finally,theresearchincludesiii)facilitationoffarmer’sgroupofinnovativefarmersdiscussingpossibilitiesforlocaladoptionofintercroppingandotheragroecologicalprinciplesthroughworkshop,games,socialmediaetc.Theaimistotestandevaluatealternativewaysofknowledgesharingthroughconcreteactivitiesinafocusgroup.DrawingontheresultsfromallactivitiesthegoalistoprovideconcretesuggestionsforinstitutionalchangesthatcanfosteranincreasedshareofinnovationsandknowledgeamongfarmersandtherebysupportatransitiontowardsmorediversifiedagriculturalsystemsinEurope.Byacknowledgingtheinfluenceofvariousactors(farmersaswellasactorsrepresentingotherpartsofthesector)theMAAapproachencourageasystemicperspectiveontheagriculturalsector.Socio-technicalsystemanalyses(Gells,2005)oftheagriculturalsectorareusedintheReMIXprojecttoidentifysomeofthekeyobstacles(technicalsolutions,structures,traditions,law,valuesetc.)fortransitiontowardsmorediversifiedagriculturalsystemsandtoprovideanoverviewofcountryspecificbarriersandpossibilitiesforfurtherapplicationofintercroppingprinciplesintheagriculturalproduction.Apartfromrevealingthelock-insituationsinvolvementofactorsrepresentingthosepartsoftheagriculturalsectorcreatinglock-insfortargetedtransitionsisthefirststeptoovercomepresentdemandingobstacles(Geels,2005).Acknowledgingtheclassicalagronomyandfoodsciencethesocio-technicalperspectivehoweverrequiretheinclusionofsocialscienceschallengingthecross-disciplinarycapabilitiesoftheresearchers.DuetodifferencesinbothlocalnaturalandsocialconditionsthevariationspanamongtheReMIXMAPsissignificant.Furthermore,theMAAcallfordemand-drivenresearchincreasingthediversityamongtheMAPsandtheinvestigatedissuesassociated.CreationofusefulandtransferrableknowledgeandexperiencesfromtheoutcomeofresearchattachedtoverydifferentconditionsanddemandsacrossthememberstatesisanessentialhoweverchallengingtaskwhichhavetobeaccomplishedintheReMIXproject.InthissensetheReMIXprojectalsoworkwiththeuseandlegitimacyoflocalinoppositiontogenericknowledgeandhowitispossibletocreatevaluableknowledgeortranslationsofknowledgeacrossgeographicalandsocialcontexts.ThesuspectedoutcomeofReMIXistoobtainabetterunderstandingandconcreterecommendationsforco-designingprocessesandknowledgeexchangeassistinginnovationandtransitiontowardsfuturesustainableagriculturalmanagementprovidingpublicgoods.4. CommonsandagricultureTheassumptionbehindthepresentedresearchisthataparticipatoryapproachtoagriculturalresearchandplanningcanhelptopromotemoresuccessfulsustainabletransitionsinDanish

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andEuropeanagriculture.Strongerlinkagestopublicgoodsandamoreprominentroleforfarmerscanopenupformoreintegratedsolutionsformanagementofthecommons.Thisrelyontheperceptionthatacommonplatformofknowledgeandgoalsbetweensocietyandtheoneswhohavetocarryoutthetransitionisaprerequisite.Theinvolvementoffarmersalsocreatesanopportunitytogatherimportantknowledgewhilefacilitatingfarmerslearningandrealizationpushingtheactorsforwardinatransitionprocess.Agricultureisintertwinedwithpublicgoodswhichdependonfarmers’collectiveknowledge.Thetraditionalstrongscientificadvancementofagronomyandfoodsciencemightbenefitfromincludingthecontributionoffarmerstoruraldevelopmentthroughsocialinnovations(capital).However,involvementoftheagriculturalsectormightnotbesufficienttoinitiateasustainabletransitionthatmeetstheinterestofthebroadersocietyeg.compensationfornegativeexternalitiessuchasbiodiversityloss,mitigationofclimatechange,waterandairpollution,andinparticularthedepletionofnaturalresources,includingsoilquality.Asmarketpricesdonotreflectthepublicgoods,whichsocietyrelyonthefarmerstodeliverpublicinvestmentandregulationareneededtomeetthecommoninterestofsociety.EUspends>€50billionontheCommonAgriculturalPolicywiththeprimarygoaltosupportEuropeanfoodsecurityandfarmers’income,butalsotoimprovetheenvironmentalimpactofagriculturalproduction.30pct.ofthedirectpaymentisdistributedasGreendirectpaymentrequiringfarmerstodiversifycrops,maintainingpermanentgrasslandanddedicatinglandtoecologicalbeneficialelements(EU,2017).AnewCAPreformisexpectedduringthenextcoupleofyearsandabreakwiththeone-size-fits-allregulationhasbeenproposedduetothegreatdifferencesinfarmsandfarmingpracticesacrossEurope.Thesuggestionistopartiallydecentralizetheadministrationofdirectpaymentbyallowingmemberstatestochoosethemeasuresrelevantfortheindividualstate.MeanwhileanewDanishlegislationforfertilizationwillbecomeeffectivefrom2019takenintoaccountthelocaldifferencesbydifferentiatingthepermittedallocationoffertilizeraccordingtothesensitivityofthearea.NewtendenciesinEuropeanandnationalregulationsarepointingtowardsincreasedfocusandacknowledgementoflocaldifferences.Amoredecentralizedplanningandregulationhoweverrequiresmoreunderstandingoflocalconditionsandinclusionoflocalactors.Inthisrespect,manyquestionsremainunanswered.Howcanwecreateaplatformforamulti-actordebateandformulationofcommongoalsandsolutionforEuropeanland-useandfoodproduction?Andhowcanregulationtakeintoaccountbothlocalandsocialdifferencesamongfarmerswhilemaintainingthepressureforsustainabletransitionofagriculturalproduction?Alongwiththeintensifiedland-useforagriculturalfoodproductionthereisaneedtodevelopandmaintainafarminglandscapewithmultiplefunctionsandservices–beingecologicalorsocial-toenhancepublicgoodsandtorevealmoreoptionsforadaptationtoenvironmentalandsocio-economicchanges.Inordertosupportsuchdevelopmenttheauthorsofthispapersuggestastrongeremphasistowardsmultipleformsofexpertisefromacademics,practitioners,businesses,landmanagersandthepublictomakevaluablecontributionstotheknowledgebase.Afruitfulcompilationofthesesourcesofknowledgeischallengingandrequiresacross-disciplinaryapproach.However,theincreasedcomplexityandurgencyofthechallengessurroundingtheagriculturalsectorcallformutualenrichmentofscientificandnonscientificknowledgetocombatfuturechallengesmanagingthecommons.

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