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PieterBruegeltheElder(c.1525-1569)
ContentsTheHighlightsTHEFIGHTBETWEENCARNIVALANDLENTNETHERLANDISHPROVERBSLANDSCAPEWITHTHEFALLOFICARUSDULLGRETTHETRIUMPHOFDEATHTHESUICIDEOFSAULTHETOWEROFBABELTHEADORATIONOFTHEKINGSTHEPROCESSIONTOCALVARYTHEHUNTERSINTHESNOWTHECENSUSATBETHLEHEMTHECONVERSIONOFPAULTHEPEASANTWEDDINGTHEPEASANTDANCETHEBEGGARSTHEBLINDLEADINGTHEBLINDTHEMISANTHROPE
ThePaintingsTHECOMPLETEPAINTINGSALPHABETICALLISTOFPAINTINGS
TheDrawingsLISTOFDRAWINGSTheBiographyBRIEFBIOGRAPHY
TheDelphiClassicsCatalogue
©DelphiClassics2016Version1
MastersofArtSeries
PieterBruegeltheElder
ByDelphiClassics,2016
COPYRIGHT
MastersofArt-PieterBruegelFirstpublishedintheUnitedKingdomin2016byDelphiClassics.
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TheHighlights
Breda,acityinthesouthernpartoftheNetherlands—BruegelwasborninBredaoravillageneartoBredainc.1525
Bredain1653byWillemenJoanBlaeu
THEHIGHLIGHTS
Inthissection,asampleofBruegel’smostcelebratedworksisprovided,withconciseintroductions,special‘detail’reproductionsandadditionalbiographicalimages.
THEFIGHTBETWEENCARNIVALANDLENT
LittleisknownaboutPieterBruegeltheElder’slifeandweareevennotcertainwherehewasborn.FromthefactthatheenteredtheAntwerppainters’guildin1551,itisassumedthathewasbornbetween1525and1530.AccordingtovanMander, his master was the Antwerp painter Pieter Coecke van Aelst, whosedaughterMariaBruegelmarriedin1563.Bruegelwasassignedtopainttherearof twowings of a triptych inMechelen in the early 1550’s,while themiddlepanelwaspaintedbyPieterBalten.ItislikelyBruegelreceivedthiscommissiondue to the connections of Mayken Verhulst, the widow of Pieter Coecke.Between1552and1553,BruegeltravelledtoItaly,wherehevisitedRomeandmettheminiaturistGiulioClovio,whosewillof1578liststhreeofhispaintings.These works, apparently landscapes, have not survived. About 1555 BruegelreturnedtoAntwerpbywayoftheAlps,whichresultedinanumberofexquisitedrawings of mountain landscapes. These sketches, which form the basis formany of his later paintings, are not records of actual places but “composites”madeinordertoinvestigatetheorganiclifeofformsinnature.
Housed in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, The Fight betweenCarnivalandLentwascompletedin1559anddepictsacommonfestivaloftheperiod, as celebrated in the Southern Netherlands. The canvas presents thecontrast between two sides of contemporary life, as can be seen by theappearanceoftheinnontheleftside,symbolisingenjoyment,andthechurchontherightsiderepresentingreligiousobservance.Thehecticsceneportrayswell-behavedchildrennearthechurchandabeerdrinkingsceneneartheinn.Atthecentre is a well, illustrating the coming together of different parts of thecommunity.BruegelhaschosentodepicttheconflictbetweenCarnivalandLentasajoustingmatchbetweentwocomicaladversaries.
This carnival was an important event in community life in early modernEurope, representing the transition between two different seasonal cuisines:livestock thatwas not to bewinteredwas slaughtered, andmeatwas in goodsupply.AstheperiodofLentcommenced,withitsenforcedabstinenceandtheassociated spiritual purification in preparation for Easter, the butcher shopsclosedandthebutchers travelledintothecountrysidetopurchasecattlefor thespring.Bruegel’s painting is rich in allegories and symbolisms that have beenlong studied. It is often read as the triumphofLent, as the figure ofCarnival
seemstobidfarewellwithhislefthandandhiseyesareliftedtothesky.Amoregeneralised meaning may be the illustration of Bruegel’s belief that humanactivitiesaremotivatedbyfollyandself-seeking.
Carnivalisrepresentedasanobesemanridingabeerbarrelwithaporkchopattachedtoitsfrontend.Hewearsahugemeatpieasahead-dressandwieldsalongspit,completewithapig’shead,asaweaponfor the fight.Thepouchofknives at his belt indicates that he is a butcher. Theman behind the barrel isdressed in yellow, which is connected with deceit, and he is followed by afemalefigurecarryingonherheadatablewithbreadandwafflesonit.
Lent’shalfofthepictureisdominatedbyabstinenceandpiety,withfiguresdrawingwaterfromthewell,givingalmstothepoorandthesick,andgoingtochurch.Thechurchitself is thedominantbuildingfromwhichqueuesofblackfigures emerge from their prayers. Lady Lent is presented in the foreground,dressed like a nun, seated on a cart drawnby amonk and a nun; she appearsgaunt and thin,with her followers feeding on bread and biscuits. LadyLent’swagon contains traditional Lenten foods, pretzels,waffles andmussels. Insidethe entrance to the church a veiled statue is visible, as it was customary inRoman Catholic churches to cover up all works of art at Lent until EasterSundaywhen thecarvedandpainted figuresof saintswouldbeunveiledoncemore.
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Bruegel’ssupposedmaster:CoeckevanAelst,engravingbyJohannesWierix
NETHERLANDISHPROVERBS
ProverbswerepopularintheLowlandsduringBruegel’stimeandanumberofcollectionswerepublished,includingAdagia,bytheDutchhumanistDesideriusErasmus. The Flemish artist Frans Hogenberg had made an engravingillustrating43proverbs in c. 1558, around the same timeasBruegel’s famouspainting on the theme,NetherlandishProverbs.Bruegel himself had producedseveralminorpaintingsonthesamesubject, includingBigFishEatLittleFish(1556) andTwelveProverbs (1558), butNetherlandishProverbs is thought tohavebeenhisfirstlarge-scaleworkonthetheme.
The composition provides an ordered, integrated scene,with approximately112identifiableproverbsandidioms,thoughBruegelmayhaveincludedothersthatcannotbeidentified.Someoftheillustratedproverbsarestillinpopularusetoday– including“Swimmingagainst the tide”,“Bangingone’sheadagainstabrickwall”and“Armedtotheteeth”,andthereareothersthatarefamiliarifnotidenticaltothemodernEnglishusage,suchas“castingrosesbeforeswine”.TheBlueCloakwasthepainting’soriginaltitle,duetothecloakfeaturedin
thecentreof thecanvas,beingplacedover theheadofahusbandbyhiswife,suggesting that she is cuckolding him. Other proverbs indicate humanfoolishness.Amanfillsinapondafterhiscalfhasdied.Justabovethecentralfigureoftheblue-cloakedman,anothermancarriesdaylightinabasket.Someofthefiguresseemtorepresentmorethanonefigureofspeech,suchasthemanshearingasheepinthecentrebottomleftof thepicture.Heissittingnext toaman shearing a pig, representing the expression “One shears sheep and oneshearspigs”,meaning thatonehas theadvantageover theother;however, thismayalsorepresenttheadvice:“Shearthembutdon’tskinthem”(makethemostofavailableassets).
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Titlepageofthe1508editionof’‘Adagia’
LANDSCAPEWITHTHEFALLOFICARUS
Thefollowingpainting,heldintheRoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgiuminBrussels,was long thought tobebyBruegel, though technicalexaminations in1996 suggested this attribution might be doubtful and that the painting,completed in the1560’s, isnowbelievedtobeanearlycopyofBruegel’s lostoriginalbyanunknownartist.InspiredbytheRomanpoetOvid’saccount, thepaintingconcernsthemythofIcarus,whowasabletoflywithwingsmadebyhis fatherDaedalus,usingfeatherssecuredwithbeeswax. Ignoringhis father’swarnings, Icaruschose to fly tooclose to thesun,melting thewaxand fallingintothesea,wherehedrowned.Hislegscanbeseeninthewaterjustbelowtheship.Theploughman, shepherdandanglerwecan see in thepaintingare alsomentionedinOvid’saccount.TheywerelikelyincludedbyBruegelinrelationto a Flemish proverb: “And the farmer continued to plough...” suggesting theignoranceofpeopletofellowmen’ssuffering.
Though the world landscape — a type of work with the title subjectrepresentedbysmallfiguresinthedistance—wasanestablishedtypeinEarlyNetherlandish painting, pioneered by Joachim Patiner, to introduce a muchlarger unrelated “genre” figure in the foreground was a innovative technique.The high viewpoint, giving us a glimpse of a town in the far distance,wouldbecomearecurringfeatureofBruegel’searlypaintings.
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DULLGRET
Alsoknownas ‘MadMeg’, this 1562oil-on-panel depicts the folklorevirago,who leads an army of women to pillage Hell.Griet was a disparaging namegiventoanybad-tempered,shrewishwoman.HermissionreferstotheFlemishproverb: “She could plunder in front of hell and return unscathed.” As herfemalefollowerslootahouse,GretadvancestowardsthemouthofHellthroughalandscapepopulatedbymonsters,inspiredbytheworksofHieronymusBosch.Gretwearsmalearmour,includingabreastplate,amailedgloveandametalcap.Aknifehangsfromherside,whileinherrighthandshecarriesasword,whichmayrefertothesaying:“HecouldgotoHellwithaswordinhishand.”AbookofproverbspublishedinAntwerpin1568containsasayingcloseinspirittothepainting:“Onewomanmakesadin,twowomenalotoftrouble,threeanannualmarket, four a quarrel, five an army, and against six theDevil himself has noweapon.”
Bruegel’searliestbiographer,KarelvanMander,writing in1604,describedthe painting as “DulleGriet,who is looking at themouth ofHell”.ThepanelenteredthecollectionofRudolfII,HolyRomanEmperor,beforeitwaslootedby Swedish troops in 1648 and then reappeared in Stockholm in 1800. ArtcollectorFritzMayervandenBerghdiscoveredthepanelin1897atanauctioninCologne,whereheboughtitforaminimalsum,discoveringitsactualauthorafewdayslater.
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PortraitofHieronymusBosch,c.1550
THETRIUMPHOFDEATH
TheTriumphofDeath portrays a panoramaof an armyof skeletonswreakinghavoc across a blackened, desolate landscape. Bruegel combines two distinctvisualtraditionswithinthepanel.WecandetectthenativetraditionofNorthernwoodcuts of the Dance of Death, as well as the Italian conception of TheTriumph of Death, as in frescoes the artist would have seen in the PalazzoSclafaniinPalermoandintheCamposantoMonumentaleatPisa.OnceagainwecanidentifytheinfluenceofBoschintheimagery,asfiresburninthedistanceandlegionsofskeletonsadvanceontheliving,whoeitherfleeinterrorortryinvaintofightback.
In the foreground, skeletonshaulawagon fullof skulls,while in theupperleftcornermoreskeletonssoundabell,announcingthedeathknelloftheworld.Victims are herded into a coffin shaped trap decorated with crosses, while askeleton on horseback kills other sinners with a scythe. The painting depictsrepresentativesofdifferent socialbackgrounds– frompeasantsand soldiers tonobles,aswellasakingandacardinal–beingtakenbydeathindiscriminately.TheTriumphofDeathexploresaspectsofeverydaylifeinthemid-sixteenth
century. Contemporary clothes are clearly depicted, as are pastimes such asplayingcardsandbackgammon.Objects suchasmusical instruments, anearlymechanical clock, scenes including a funeral service, and various methods ofexecution,includingthebreakingwheel,thegallowsandtheheadsmanalsogivetheflavourofpresent-daylife.
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THESUICIDEOFSAUL
TheSuicideof Saul is an early attempt byBruegel to reconcile landscape andfigurepainting.Thepanelconcernsararescenefrom1Samuel31,tellinghowSaul committed suicide following his defeat to the Philistines. Completed in1562,thepaneliscurrentlyheldattheKunsthistorischesMuseuminVienna.
The biblical account narrates how, “Saul said to his armour bearer, ‘Drawyoursword,and thrustme throughwith it, lest theseuncircumcisedmencomeandthrustmethroughandabuseme.’Buthisarmourbearerwouldnot, forhewas greatly afraid. Therefore Saul took a sword and fell on it. Andwhen hisarmourbearersawthatSaulwasdead,healsofellonhissword,anddiedwithhim.” Bruegel has chosen the dramatic moment of the death of the armourbearer, justas thePhilistinesareapproaching in thedistance.Saul’sdeathwasinterpreted as a punishment of pride, with Dante portraying him among theproud in the Purgatorio, which may account for Bruegel’s choice of anotherwise uncommon subject. As with most of his biblical subjects, BruegeltreatsSaul’ssuicideasacontemporaryevent,illustratingthearmiesinsixteenthcenturyarmour.
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TheKunsthistorischesMuseuminVienna,wheremanyofBruegel’sextantpaintingsarehoused
THETOWEROFBABEL
Bruegel completed three oil paintings on the biblical subject of the Tower ofBabel. The first, aminiature painted on ivory,was completedwhile the artistwas in Rome and is now lost. The two surviving paintings portray theconstructionofthetower,whichaccordingtotheBookofGenesis,wasbuiltbyaunified,monolingualhumanityasamarkoftheirachievementandtopreventthemfromscattering:“Thentheysaid,‘Come,letusbuildourselvesacity,andatower with its top in the heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves;otherwise we shall be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.’”(Genesis11:4).ThepersonintheforegroundismostlikelyKingNimrod,whowas said to have ordered the construction of the Tower — a story ofteninterpretedasanexampleofpridepunished.
Bruegel’sdepictionofthearchitectureofthetower,withitsnumerousarchesand other examples of Roman engineering, is reminiscent of the Coliseum,whichBruegel had seen in1552duringhis Italian sojourn.When returning toAntwerp,hemayhaverefreshedhismemorywithaseriesofengravingsoftheprincipal landmarks of the city made by the publisher of his own prints,HieronymousCock.DetailsofRooster’sRomanengravingsareevidentinbothsurvivingversionsofTheTowerofBabel,withfewsignificantalterations.Theparallel of Rome and Babylon had a particular significance for Bruegel’scontemporaries:RomewasknownastheEternalCity, intendedbytheCaesarstolastforever,anditsdecayandruinwouldsymbolisethevanityandtransienceofearthlyefforts.Babel’sTowerwasalsosymbolicoftheturmoilbetweentheCatholic Church (which at the time conducted all services in Latin) and thepolyglotLutheranProtestantreligionoftheNetherlands.Althoughatfirstglancethetowerappearstobeastableseriesofconcentricpillars,whenwelookcloserwenotehownoneofthelayerslieatatruehorizontal.Insteadthetowerisbuiltas an ascending spiral, which is crumbling in places, hinting at the religiousturmoilprevalentintheNetherlandsatthattime.
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The“Little”TowerofBabel,c.1563,MuseumBoijmansVanBeuningen,Rotterdam
THEADORATIONOFTHEKINGS
Painted in 1564, The Adoration of the Kings is currently exhibited at theNational Gallery, London. The painting marks an important departure inBruegel’s oeuvre, as it is his first to be composed almost exclusively of largefigures. The nativity scene is inspired by Italian mannerist painters likeParmigianino,allowingtheartisttoconcentrateonindividualfaces,givingeachadistinct,individualexpression.Thisemphasisontheuniquenessofeachfigurediffers greatly from the portrayal of ideal beauty found in the Italianmanner;instead Bruegel presents the figures as unattractive and more mundane inappearance. He is far more interested in recording the range of individualreactionsinthescene,thanintryingtocaptureanimageofidealbeauty.
Thesceneiscomposedfromahighviewpoint,focusingourattentionontheChristChild,perchedonhismother’s lap,at thecentreof thepicture.Variousfigurescrowdaroundthemandthereislittlethoughtforestablishingasenseofdepth.TheelongatedfiguresoftheThreeKingsarecharacteristicofapaintingstyle thatwas fashionable in the sixteenth century. The figure on the extremerightwears spectacles,perhaps indicating that thosearoundChrist areblind tohis significance. In other paintingsBruegel uses spectacles to signal ironicallythesubject’sinabilitytoseethetruth.Itisuncommonforsoldierstobeincludedin a depiction of the Adoration — their presence may reflect the SpanishoccupationoftheNetherlandsatthistime.
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SelfportraitinaConvexMirror(c.1524)ofParmigianino(1503-1540),anItalianManneristpainterandprintmakeractiveinFlorence,Rome,Bologna,andhisnativecityofParma.
THEPROCESSIONTOCALVARY
TheProcessiontoCalvaryisBruegel’ssecond-largestknownpaintinganditisoneofsixteenartworkslistedintheinventoryofthewealthyAntwerpcollector,Niclaes Jonghelinck,drawnup in1566. Itwas Jonghelinck that commissionedBruegel’s famous Months series. In 1604 The Procession to Calvary wasrecorded in thePrague collections ofRudolf II,HolyRomanEmperor, beforebeingtransferredtoVienna,andin1809(until1815)inParis,requisitionedbyNapoleonBonaparteaspartofhiswarbooty.
Bruegel’s treatment of the biblical story is unusually traditional. Christ’sinsignificant placement among the teeming crowds is a familiar device ofManneristpainting,asistheartificialinsertionofMaryandhercompanionsinarockyforeground.Theartist’slandscapesevolvedthroughouthiscareerfromthebird’s-eye views and extensive designs of his early works to the remarkablenaturalismof theMonths. Incredibly rockyoutcropscharacterise the landscapetradition of the Antwerp school founded by Joachim Patinir, whose followershad turned his style into a popular, though stale formula.Bruegel’s landscapepaintingsdemonstrateagradualdeparturefromthisstyle.InTheProcessiontoCalvary,however,hisdesiretoconveytherocky,unfamiliarterrainoftheHolyLand causes him to fall back on the ready-made landscape features of theAntwerpschool.
WiththeexceptionofChrist,thefiguresintheprocessionwearcontemporarydress,stressingthepresent-dayrelevancethatBruegelwishedtogivethescene.Thesacredfigures,includingthefaintingVirginassistedbySaintJohnandtheothertwoMarys,areseparatedfromthemaineventsbybeingplacedonasmall,rocky plateau. They act out their own, apparently independent, drama, largelyunnoticedbythefiguresbehindthem.
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THEHUNTERSINTHESNOW
The Hunters in the Snow is believed to form the first part of a series of sixpaintings now known as theMonths, of which five survive. Belonging to themedieval and early Renaissance tradition of the Labours of the Months, thepaintings depict various rural activities andwork understood by a spectator inBruegel’s time as representing the different months or times of the year.Commissioned by the wealthy merchant Jonghelinck, the series of paintingswereoriginallyintendedaspartofalarge-scaledecorativeschemeinhislavishhouseinAntwerp.ThepaintingswerecompletedbyFebruary1566andwouldhavebeenhunguphighonthewallabovethepanelling,producingacontinuousfriezearoundtheroom.TheHuntersintheSnowpresentsawhite-filledsceneinwhichthreehunters
arereturningfromanexpedition,accompaniedbytheirdogs.Itappearsthehuntwasunsuccessful,asthehunterstrudgewearilyandthedogsfollowdejectedly.Onefollowercarriesthesmallcorpseofafox,hintingatthefutilityofthehunt.Infrontofthemeninthesnowarethefootprintsofarabbitorhare,whichhaseludedthehunters.Theoverallvisualimpressionisoneofacalm,cold,overcastday; thecoloursaremutedwhitesandgreys,while the treesarebareof leavesandwoodsmokehangsheavyintheair.
Thelandscapeitselfisaflat-bottomedvalley,asarivermeandersthroughit,with jagged peaks visible on the far side. The alpine scene was most likelyinspiredbyBruegel’s own journey across theAlpswhen returning from Italy.Tall, dark trees seem to march down from the top of the hill, guiding ourviewpointoutandacrossthevalley,creatinganextraordinarysenseofdepthinthepainting.Awatermillisseenwithitswheelfrozenstiff.Inthevalley,figuresiceskate,playinghockeywithsticksonafrozenlake,renderedassilhouettes.
Theonlywarmthintheimagecomesfromablazingfireatthetopofthehillbeside a tavern, as several figures eagerly surround it. The tavern seems torepresentoneofthefewpleasuresofwinter,asthemenquicklyworktoprovidemorewoodfortheflames.Nevertheless,thehazardousinnsign,whichappearstobefallingoff,hintsattheprecariousnatureofhumanexistence.
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‘GloomyDay’(February)–thefollowingpaintingintheseries,1565,KunsthistorischesMuseum,Vienna
THECENSUSATBETHLEHEM
Drawinghisinspirationfromthesnow-coveredlandscapesfoundintheBooksofHours, Bruegel is one of the first artists to paint snow scenes, a theme hereturned to another four times. Currently held at the RoyalMuseums of FineArtsofBelgiuminBrussels,TheCensusatBethlehemisanotherbiblicalsceneportrayed as a contemporary event, with the severity of the SpanishadministrationinthesouthernNetherlandsbeingalikelysourceofcriticism.TheeventsdepictedaredescribedinLuke2,1-5:“Anditcametopassinthosedaysthat a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should beregistered...Soallwent toberegistered,everyonetohisowncity.Josephalsowent up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, to the city ofDavid,which iscalledBethlehem,becausehewasof thehouseand lineageofDavid,toberegisteredwithMary,hisbetrothedwife,whowaswithchild.”ThesubjectisinfactrareinNetherlandishartpriortoBruegel’sinterpretationofthescene.
Seenfromabove,asnow-coveredvillagestretchesfromaruinedcastle toafrozen pond by a church. Villagers are going about their everyday tasks,sweepingthesnow,buildingacabin,crossingthepondonfootnexttoaferry-boatcaughtintheiceandgatheringaroundafire.Childrenareplaying,throwingsnowballs, skating, spinning their topsand sledging. In the right foreground, amanwithalargecarpenter’ssawisleadinganoxandanass,thelatterbearingawomanwrappedtightlyinabluemantle.Withoutattractingattention,theypicktheirwaybetweenthecartsofbeerbarrelsandbales.ThesetwoinconsequentialfiguresareJosephandMary,whohavecometoBethlehemtobeenrolledintheuniversalcensusorderedbyAugustus.TheGospelepisodeisassociatedwiththepaymentoftax.Andindeedtotheleft,thecrowdispressinginfrontofthetax-gatherer’soffice,installedatthewindowoftheinn,whilstinfrontofthedoor,apig isbeingkilled.As in somanyofhis laterpaintings, theartist seemsmorepreoccupiedwiththeeverydayhappeningsofvillagelife,thanthemonumentaleventsofbiblicalstories.
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THECONVERSIONOFPAUL
YetanotherpaintingheldintheKunsthistorischesMuseum,TheConversionofPaul portrays Saint Paul on hisway toDamascus in contemporary dress of ablue doublet and hose, wearing sixteenth century armour and weapons. AsBruegelhadlivedinItalyforatime,hewouldhavebeenfamiliarwithclassicaldress,buthisintentioninrepresentingbiblicalscenesinpresent-daydresswastostress their relevance tohisown time. Inviewof thepersecutionandcounter-persecution of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the story of Paul’sconversionhadespecialsignificance.
The artist has chosen to set Saul’s conversion to Paul in a mountainlandscape.Theseacanbeseeninthedistance.ItwasfromtheItaliancoastthattheSpanish troopssetoff tocross theAlps, their task todriveout thehereticsandcrushNetherlandseffortstoobtainmorefreedom.Bruegelplacesthemainfigures in themiddledistance, almost lost amongst the largenumberofminorfigures, a technique common to Mannerists, intending to tease the spectator,drawingusintotheimageinsearchoftheprincipalsubjects.
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THEPEASANTWEDDING
Bruegelspecialisedingenrepaintingspopulatedwithpeasants;however,thelifeand manners of the common man as the main focus of a work was rare inpaintingatthattimeandheisnowregardedasapioneerofgenrepainting.Hisearthy, unsentimental but vivid depiction of the rituals of village life —including agriculture, hunts,meals, festivals, dances and games— are uniquewindowsonavanishedfolkcultureofNetherlandishlifeandculture,providingaprimesourceoficonographicevidenceaboutbothphysicalandsocialaspectsofsixteenthcenturylife.ThePeasantWedding,datingfrom1567,isoneoftheartist’smosticonicgenrepaintingsandrevealsthepleasureBruegelmusthavetaken in painting peasants and different aspects of their lives. Due to hispreference for these subjects,he earned the sobriquetPeasant-Bruegel, thoughhis works are in fact charged with a sophisticated, intellectual and symbolicpower.TheartistwasalsoaleadingfigureoftheAntwerphumanistcircle.
The wedding feast takes place in a barn in the summertime — the twosheavesofgrainbyarakerecallingtheworkofharvestingandthetoilsomelifeof the peasants.The bride sits in front of a greenwall-hanging,with a paper-crown hung above her head and she also wears a crown on her head, as shepassivelywaits,notparticipatinginthecelebrationstakingplacearoundher.Thebridegroomisnot inattendanceof theweddingfeast inaccordance toFlemishcustom.The plates are carried on a door off its hinges. Themain food of thepeasantswasbread,porridgeandsoup.Otherfeaturesofthesceneincludetwopipersplayingthepijpzak,anunbreechedboyintheforegroundlickingaplate,thewealthymanatthefarrightfeedingadogbyputtingbreadonthebenchandamysteriousextra foot seenunder the loadofdishesbeingcarriedby the twomenintherightforeground.
Itisbelievedthataswellasbeingaliteralportrayalofapeasants’wedding,thepanelpaintingalsocontainsanimportantmoraldimension,commentingonthe excuse favoured by the peasants for self-indulgence. Bruegel is no longerinterested in personifying human foibles asBoschianmonsters; nowhe subtlydepictsourhumanfolliesinanaturalisticandhumorousmanner.
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THEPEASANTDANCE
ThePeasantDancewaspaintedataboutthesametimeasthepreviousplate—the sizes of the two paintings being the same, suggesting they were likelyintendedasapairoraspartofaseriesillustratingpeasantlife.TheyarethetwomostoutstandingexamplesofBruegel’slatestyle,whichischaracterisedbyhisuseofmonumentalItalianatefigures.Onceagain,Bruegelprobablyintendedthepaintingtohaveamoralsenseratherthansimplybeinganaffectionateportrayalofpeasant life.Thesinsofgluttony, lustandangercanallbe identified in thepainting.Themanseatednexttothebagpipeplayerwearsapeacockfeatherinhis hat, which serves as a symbol of vanity and pride. The occasion for thepeasants’ revelry is a saint’sday, although thedancers turn their backson thechurchandpaylittleattentiontotheimageoftheVirginthathangsonthetree.The prominence of the tavern makes it clear that they are preoccupied withmaterial,ratherthanspiritualmatters.
Thispanel,neithersignednordated,waslootedbyNapoleonBonaparteandbrought toParis in 1808, being later returned in 1815.Another version of thesamethemenowresidesintheDetroitInstituteofArts,whichisdatedto1566.Althoughthesurfaceisofapoorcondition,beinggenerallyworn,criticstendtoagree today that it isanoriginalworkbyBruegel.The figuresaresmallerandtherefore the scene ismore crowded and detailed,making the composition, insomerespects,moreeffectivethanitsmorefamouscounterpart,whichhangsintheKunsthistorischesMuseum,Vienna.
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‘TheWeddingDance’,c.1566,oilonpanel,DetroitInstituteofArts
THEBEGGARS
Also known as The Cripples, this 1568 oil-on-panel is the only painting byBruegel to be exhibited in the Louvre, which it received as a gift in 1892. Itpresents the unsettling scene of five cripples, huddled on the outside ground,accompanied by a beggar-woman in the right background, holding a beggingbowl.Variousattemptshavebeenmadetointerprettheimageasanallusiontoahistoricalevent,withthefoxes’tailsattachedonthebeggars’clothesreferencingtheGueux,arebelpartyformedagainstthegovernmentofPhilipIIofSpainandGranvelle.Thefivemenarenoordinarybeggars,astheywearcarnivalheadgearrepresenting various classes of society: a cardboard crown (the king), a papershako(thesoldier),aberet(thebourgeois),acap(thepeasant),andamitre(thebishop)allsuggestingambiguoussatiricalmeanings.Somecommentatorshavesuggested that the beggars’ physical imperfections are intended to symbolisemoraldecrepitude,whichcanaffectallmen,irrespectiveofclass.
On thebackof thepainting, there are two inscriptions,which seem todatefrom the sixteenthcentury.One is inFlemishand inavery fragmentary state;the other is in Latin and records the admiration a humanist critic felt forBruegel’sachievements,whose‘artsurpassesNatureitself’.Thepaintingdatesfrom the end of Bruegel’s career, when he displayed a keener interest in thenaturalworld.
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THEBLINDLEADINGTHEBLIND
PaintedayearbeforeBruegel’sdeath, this famous imageconveysabitter andsorrowful tone. Executed in distemper on linen canvas, it depicts the Biblicalparableoftheblindleadingtheblind,asdescribedinMatthew15:14,inwhichChrist refers to thePharisees.ThepaintingdemonstratesBruegel’smastery ofobservation, as each of the blindmen has a different eye affliction, includingcorneal leukoma, atrophy of globe and removed eyes. The figures hold theirheads aloft tomake better use of their other senses, demonstrating the artist’scareful observation of authentic blind people. The diagonal compositionreinforces the off-kilter motion of the six figures falling in progression. TheimagemayhavebeeninfluencedbytheestablishmentoftheCouncilofTroublesby the government of the Spanish Netherlands in 1567. The council orderedmassarrestsandexecutionstoenforceSpanishruleandsuppressProtestantism.
Bruegel expands the two blindmen in the parable to six and they arewelldressed,ratherthanwearingthepeasantclothingthattypifieshislatework.Theyareportrayedasaprocessionofdisfiguredmen,passingalongapathborderedbyariverononesideandavillagewithachurchontheother.Theleaderofthegrouphasfallenonhisbackintoaditchand,sincetheyareall linkedbytheirstaffs,hedragshiscompanionsdownwithhim.Thefirstblindman’sfaceisnotvisible;thesecondtwistshisheadashefalls,perhapstoavoidlandingface-first.Theshinguard-cladthirdman,onhistoeswithkneesbentandfacetothesky,shares a staffwith the second, bywhich he is being pulled down. The othershaveyettostumble,butthesamefateappearsimminent.
Thechurchinthebackground,identifiedastheSint-AnnaChurch,atDilbeekin modern Belgium, has sparked much modern commentary. Some criticsbelieve that its inclusion is evidenceof thepainting’smoralistic intent— thatwhilethefirsttwoblindmenstumbleandarebeyondredemption,theotherfourarebehindthechurchandsomaybesaved.Anotherinterpretationsuggeststhatthechurch,withawitheredtreeplacedbeforeit,isananti-Catholicsymbol,andthat those who follow it will fall following a blind leader. Others deny anysymbolismin thebuilding,noting thatchurchesfrequentlyappear inBruegel’svillagescenes,astheywereacommonpartofthevillagelandscape.
Bruegel’sdepictionsofbeggarsleftastronginfluenceonthosethatfollowedhim,suchasDavidVinckboons.HieronymusWierixincorporatedacopyofThe
Blind Leading the Blind into the series Twelve Flemish Proverbs. A forgeryattributedtoJacobSaverycalledTheBlindappearedinc. 1600,bearingafalseinscriptiondatingitto1562.Bruegel’ssonPieterBruegheltheYoungerpaintedalargercopyinc. 1616withadditionaldetails,includingaflockofsheep,whichhangstodayintheLouvre.
Detail
Detail
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Detail
TheforgerybyJacobSavery,c. 1600
ThecopybyPieterBruegheltheYounger,c. 1616
ThevillagechurchofSint-Anna-Pede
THEMISANTHROPE
Thistemperacanvaspaintingwascompletedin1568andisheldattheNationalMuseumofCapodimonteinNaples,Italy.Encasedinasquareframe,itdepictsablack-robedandwhite-beardedelderlyman,whoclaspshishandsbeforehim.Asmallerbarefootedmansecretlyusesaknifetocutthestringsoftheotherman’smoney pouch. The oldman appears lost in thought, failing to notice both thetheftandthethornsthatlieinhispath.Atransparentspherewithacrossat itspeakencloses the thief.TheFlemish inscriptionat thebottomreads:“Becausetheworldisperfidious,/Iamgoingintomourning.”Themoralsuggeststhatarelinquishmentof theworld isnotpossible,aswemust faceup to theworld’sdifficultiesandrefusetoabandonourresponsibilities.
Theimageteemswithrichsymbolism.Thesmallfigureinaglassballservesasasymbolofvanity.Thehoodedmisanthropeiscontrastedwiththeshepherdin thebackground,whoguardshis sheepandappearsmorewiseandvirtuous,due to the simple, honourable performance of his duties and his sense ofresponsibilitytowardhischarges.Themisanthropeiswalkingunawarestowardsthemantrapssetforhimbytheworldand, inspiteofhis intentions,hecannotrenounceitashewouldwish.
Bruegel issaid tohavediedabout theyear1570at theageofsixty, thoughother accounts give 1590 as the date of his death. There are about 45authenticated surviving paintings, one third of which are housed in theKunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. A number of other oil paintings areknown to have been lost. Pieter the Elder had two sons: Pieter Brueghel theYoungerandJanBruegheltheElder,whowereverysmallchildrenwhentheirfatherdiedandsowerebroughtupbytheirgrandmother,MaykenVerhulst.Theolderbrother,PieterBrueghel,wasnot thebetterpainterof the two;hecopiedhis father’s style, but without any degree of great talent. Jan was moresuccessful;heturnedtotheBaroquestyleandevencollaboratedwithPeterPaulRubens.
Detail
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PieterBruegheltheYoungerbyAnthonyvanDyck
JanBreughelwithhissecondwifeandtheireldestchildrenbyPeterPaulRubens,1615
ThePaintings
Antwerp,acityinBelgium,intheregionofFlanders.In1551BruegelenteredtheguildofAntwerpasamasterpainter,whereheremaineduntil1563.
‘ViewofAntwerpwiththefrozenScheldt’byLucasvanValckenborch,1590
THECOMPLETEPAINTINGS
Bruegel’s paintings are presented in chronological order, with an alphabeticaltableofcontentsfollowingimmediatelyafter.
CONTENTS
LandscapewithChristandtheApostlesattheSeaofTiberiasTheAdorationoftheKingsParableoftheSowerTwelveProverbsNetherlandishProverbsTheFightBetweenCarnivalandLentChildren’sGamesBattleintheBayofNaplesLandscapewiththeFallofIcarus(copy)TheFalloftheRebelAngelsDullGretTheTriumphofDeathTwoMonkeysTheSuicideofSaulPortraitofanOldWomanYawningManLandscapewiththeFlightintoEgyptTheTowerofBabelTheAdorationoftheKingsDeathoftheVirginTheProcessiontoCalvaryTheHuntersintheSnowTheReturnoftheHerdHaymakingTheHarvestersTheGloomyDayChristandtheWomanTakeninAdultery
TheTowerofBabelMassacreoftheInnocentsTheWineofSaintMartin’sDayTheWineofSaintMartin’sDayTheCensusatBethlehemTheLandofCockaigneTheSermonofSaintJohntheBaptistTheWeddingDanceAdorationoftheKingsintheSnowConversionofPaulTheBeggarsTheThreeSoldiersTheMagpieontheGallowsParableoftheBlindTheMisanthropeThePeasantWeddingThePeasantDanceThePeasantandtheNestRobberTheDrunkardPushedintothePigstyTheStormatSea
ALPHABETICALLISTOFPAINTINGS
CONTENTS
AdorationoftheKingsintheSnowBattleintheBayofNaplesChildren’sGamesChristandtheWomanTakeninAdulteryConversionofPaulDeathoftheVirginDullGretHaymakingLandscapewithChristandtheApostlesattheSeaofTiberiasLandscapewiththeFallofIcarus(copy)LandscapewiththeFlightintoEgyptMassacreoftheInnocentsNetherlandishProverbsParableoftheBlindParableoftheSowerPortraitofanOldWomanTheAdorationoftheKingsTheAdorationoftheKingsTheBeggarsTheCensusatBethlehemTheDrunkardPushedintothePigstyTheFalloftheRebelAngelsTheFightBetweenCarnivalandLentTheGloomyDayTheHarvestersTheHuntersintheSnowTheLandofCockaigneTheMagpieontheGallowsTheMisanthropeThePeasantandtheNestRobber
ThePeasantDanceThePeasantWeddingTheProcessiontoCalvaryTheReturnoftheHerdTheSermonofSaintJohntheBaptistTheStormatSeaTheSuicideofSaulTheThreeSoldiersTheTowerofBabelTheTowerofBabelTheTriumphofDeathTheWeddingDanceTheWineofSaintMartin’sDayTheWineofSaintMartin’sDayTwelveProverbsTwoMonkeysYawningMan
LandscapewithChristandtheApostlesattheSeaofTiberias
1553Oilonpanel67x100Privatecollection
TheAdorationoftheKingsc.1556Temperaoncanvas124×169RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
ParableoftheSower1557Oilonpanel73.7×102.9TimkenMuseumofArt
TwelveProverbs1558Oilonpanel75×98MuseumMayervandenBergh
NetherlandishProverbs1559Oilonpanel117×163BerlinStateMuseums
TheFightBetweenCarnivalandLent1559Oilonpanel118×164KunsthistorischesMuseum
Children’sGames1560Oilonpanel118×161KunsthistorischesMuseum
BattleintheBayofNaples1560Oilonpanel42.2×71.2DoriaPamphiljGallery
LandscapewiththeFallofIcarus(copy)1560sOiloncanvas73.5×112RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
TheFalloftheRebelAngels1562Oilonpanel117×162RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
DullGret1562Oilonpanel117.4×162MuseumMayervandenBergh
TheTriumphofDeathс.1562Oilonpanel117×162Prado
TwoMonkeys1562Oiloncanvas20×23BerlinStateMuseums
TheSuicideofSaul1562Oilonpanel33.5×55KunsthistorischesMuseum
PortraitofanOldWoman1563Oilonpanel22×18AltePinakothek
YawningMan1563?Oilonpanel12.6x9.2RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
LandscapewiththeFlightintoEgypt1563Oilonpanel37.1×55.6CourtauldInstituteGalleries
TheTowerofBabel1563Oilonpanel114×155KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheAdorationoftheKings1564Oilonpanel111.1×83.2TheNationalGallery,London
DeathoftheVirgin1564Oilonpanel36×55UptonHouse
TheProcessiontoCalvary1564Oilonpanel124×170KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheHuntersintheSnow1565Oilonpanel117×162KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheReturnoftheHerd1565Oilonpanel117×159KunsthistorischesMuseum
Haymaking1565Oilonpanel117×161LobkowiczPalaceatthePragueCastleComplex
TheHarvesters1565Oilonpanel116.5×159.5MetropolitanMuseumofArt
TheGloomyDay1565Oilonpanel118×163KunsthistorischesMuseum
ChristandtheWomanTakeninAdulteryc.1565Oilonpanel24×34CourtauldInstituteGalleries
TheTowerofBabelc.1565Oilonpanel59.9×74.6MuseumBoijmansVanBeuningen
MassacreoftheInnocentsc.1565-1567Oilonpanel109.2×158.1RoyalCollectionandatUptonHouse,Warwickshire
TheWineofSaintMartin’sDay1565–1568Temperaoncanvas148×270.5Prado
TheWineofSaintMartin’sDayc.1565–1568Oiloncanvas147×269.5RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
TheCensusatBethlehem1566Oilonpanel115.5×163.5RoyalMuseumsofFineArtsofBelgium
TheLandofCockaigne1566Oilonpanel52×78AltePinakothek
TheSermonofSaintJohntheBaptist1566Oilonpanel95×160.5MuseumofFineArts(Budapest)
TheWeddingDancec.1566Oilonpanel119.4×157.5DetroitInstituteofArts
AdorationoftheKingsintheSnow1567Temperaonpanel35×55MuseumOskarReinhartamStadtgarten
ConversionofPaul1567Oilonpanel108×156KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheBeggars1568Oilonpanel18.5×21.5Louvre
TheThreeSoldiers1568Oilonpanel20.3×17.8TheFrickCollection
TheMagpieontheGallows1568Oilonpanel45.9×50.8HessischesLandesmuseum
ParableoftheBlind1568Temperaoncanvas85.5×154MuseodiCapodimonte
TheMisanthrope1568Temperaoncanvas86×85MuseodiCapodimonte
ThePeasantWedding1568Oilonpanel114×164KunsthistorischesMuseum
ThePeasantDance1568Oilonpanel114×164KunsthistorischesMuseum
ThePeasantandtheNestRobber1568Oilonpanel59.3×68.3KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheDrunkardPushedintothePigsty1568?Oilonpanel18cm.diam.PrivateCollection(SoldatChristiesin2002)
TheStormatSea1569Oilonpanel70.3×97KunsthistorischesMuseum
TheDrawings
Brussels,Belgium—Bruegel’shomefrom1563untilhisdeathin1569
LISTOFDRAWINGS
CONTENTS
RiverLandscapeSouthernCloisterinaValleyWoodedLandscapewithMillsPastoralLandscapeMountainLandscapewithRidgeandValleyPaththroughaVillageMuleCaravanonHillsideRipaGrandeinRomeAlpineLandscapeLandscapewithaFortifiedTownLandscapewithSaintJeromeMountainLandscapewithaRiverSylvanLandscapewithFiveBearsItalianLandscape(afterDomenicoCampagnola)LandscapewithaGroupofTreesandaMuleWoodedLandscapewithaDistantViewtowardtheSeaBigFishEatLittleFishGreedRestontheFlightintoEgyptTheTemptationsofSt.AnthonyDesidia(Sloth)TheAlchemistElckSevenvirtues-Love(Charitas)MadMegThePainterandtheBuyerSpringBeekeepersCalumnyofApellesAFoolTryingtoHatchanEmptyEggWildemansMaskeradeSevenDeadlySins-Greed(Avaritia)SevenDeadlySins-Pride(Superbia)SevenDeadlySins-Acedia(Desidia)SevenDeadlySins-Gluttony
SevenDeadlySins-Envy(Invidia)SevenDeadlySins-Wrath(Ira)SevenDeadlySins-Lechery(Luxuria)SevenDeadlySins-FinalDepictionoftheDoomSevenVirtues-Faith(Fides)SevenVirtues-Hope(Spes)SevenVirtues-Love(Charitas)SevenVirtues-Temperance(Temperantia)SevenVirtues-Wisdom(Prudentia)SevenVirtues-Justice(Iusticia)SevenVirtues-Force(Fortitudo)SevenVirtues-ChristinLimboTheFairofSaintGeorge’sDayLandscapewithRabbitHunt
RiverLandscape1552PenoninkDépartmentdesArtsGraphiquesduMuséeduLouvre,Paris
SouthernCloisterinaValley1552Penonink32.6×18.5cm(12.8×7.3in)StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin,Kupferstichkabinett
WoodedLandscapewithMills1552Inkonpaper28.1×21.3cm(11.1×8.4in)BibliotecaAmbrosiana,Milan
PastoralLandscape1552Inkonpaper21.5×31cm(8.5×12.2in)NationalMuseumofArt,Oslo
MountainLandscapewithRidgeandValleyc.1552Inkonpaper20.4×29.5cm(8×11.6in)HerzogAntonUlrich-MuseumBraunschweig,Kupferstichkabinett
PaththroughaVillagec.1552Inkonpaper20.7×33.1cm(8.1×13in)PrentenkabinetderRijksuniversiteit,Leiden
MuleCaravanonHillsidec.1552.Inkonpaper20.7×33.1cm(8.1×13in)PrentenkabinetderRijksuniversiteit,Leiden
RipaGrandeinRomec.1552-54Inkonpaper21.8×30.2cm(8.6×11.9in)MuseumBoijmansVanBeuningen,Rotterdam
AlpineLandscapec.1553Penonink23.6×34.3cm(9.3×13.5in)DépartmentdesArtsGraphiquesduMuséeduLouvre,Paris
LandscapewithaFortifiedTown1553Penonpaper23.6×33.3cm(9.3×13.1in)BritishMuseum,London
LandscapewithSaintJerome1553Penonpaper23.2×33.6cm(9.1×13.2in)NationalGalleryofArt,Washington
MountainLandscapewithaRiver1553Penonpaper22.9×33.8cm(9×13.3in)BritishMuseum,London
SylvanLandscapewithFiveBears1554PenonpaperNationalGalleryinPrague
ItalianLandscape(afterDomenicoCampagnola)1554Penonpaper46.6×33.3cm(18.3×13.1in)SaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin,Kupferstichkabinett
LandscapewithaGroupofTreesandaMule1554Penonink19.7×25.8cm(7.8×10.2in)Privatecollection
WoodedLandscapewithaDistantViewtowardtheSea
1554Penonpaper26×34.4cm(10.2×13.5in)TheFoggArtMuseum
BigFishEatLittleFish1556PenoninkAlbertina,Vienna
Greed1556Penonink22.8×29.7cm(9×11.7in)BritishMuseum,London
RestontheFlightintoEgypt1555-56Penonink20.3×28.2cm(8×11.1in)SaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin,Kupferstichkabinett
TheTemptationsofSt.Anthony1556DrawingOxford,AshmoleanMuseum
Desidia(Sloth)1557PenoninkAlbertina,Vienna
TheAlchemist1558PenoninkKupferstichkabinett,Berlin
Elck1558Penonink22.8×29.7cm(9×11.7in)BritishMuseum,London
Sevenvirtues-Love(Charitas)1559Penonink22.3×29.4cm(8.8×11.6in)MuseumBoijmansVanBeuningen,Rotterdam
MadMeg1561Penonink39×53.4cm(15.4×21in)MuseumKunstpalast,Düsseldorf
ThePainterandtheBuyer1565Penonink39×53.4cm(15.4×21in)Albertina,Vienna
Spring1565PenoninkAlbertina,Vienna
Beekeepersc.1568Drawing20.3×30.9cm(8×12.2in)StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin,Kupferstichkabinett
CalumnyofApelles1565-69Penonink20.2×30.6cm(8×12in)BritishMuseum,London
AFoolTryingtoHatchanEmptyEgg1569Penandbrowninkonpaper17.5×17.9cm(6.9×7in)London,BritishMuseum
WildemansMaskerade1566Woodcut27.5×41.3cm(10.8×16.3in)MuseumBojimansVanBeuningen,Rotterdam
SevenDeadlySins-Greed(Avaritia)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Pride(Superbia)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Acedia(Desidia)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Gluttony1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Envy(Invidia)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Wrath(Ira)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-Lechery(Luxuria)1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenDeadlySins-FinalDepictionoftheDoom1558Etchingandengraving22.5×29.5cm(8.9×11.6in)
SevenVirtues-Faith(Fides)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Hope(Spes)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Love(Charitas)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Temperance(Temperantia)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Wisdom(Prudentia)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Justice(Iusticia)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-Force(Fortitudo)1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
SevenVirtues-ChristinLimbo1561-62Etchingandengraving23.3×28.7cm(9.2×11.3in)
TheFairofSaintGeorge’sDay1559-62Etchingandengraving33.6×52.4cm(13.2×20.6in)MuseumofFineArts,Houston
LandscapewithRabbitHunt1560Etching21.3×29.2cm(8.4×11.5in)Rijksmuseum,Amsterdam
TheBiography
PortraitofPieterBruegeltheElderbyEdmedeBoulonois,1682
BRIEFBIOGRAPHY
FromTheEncyclopediaAmericana,1920
BRUEGEL,orBREUGHEL,BREUGELS,etc.,afamilyoriginatinginBrabantandofwhichnolessthan12individuals—duringaperiodoffivegenerations—wereartists.Onlyoneofthemisoffirst-rateimportance,butheissufficientto immortalize thename.This is the founderof the family,Pieter: b.Bruegel,nearBreda,about1528;d.Brussels1569.He isoftenspokenofas theOldorPeasantBruegel,by reasonofhis subjects, and is tobedistinguished fromhisson,PieterII,calledHellBruegel.Whilethelatermembersofthefamilymaybeconsidered as of the Flemish school, Pieter (I) is of the Dutch school. PieterBruegel, theelder,beganhis studiesunderapupilofHieronymusBosch,whopersuaded him to go toAntwerp andwork under P.Coeck d’Alast, painter toCharlesV.Hedidso,buthisadmirationforhisrobustcompatriot,Bosch,kepthim from accepting the Italian tendency ofCoeck, and it is toBosch thatwemusttraceBruegel’stechniqueandhisideaofart.In1551heenteredtheguildofAntwerpasamasterpainter.ShortlyafterwardhemadeajourneytoItaly,byway of France, arriving in Rome in 1553. By 1554 hewas back in Flanders,againbutlittleinfluencedbytheItalians.HelivedatAntwerptill1563,whenhemarried the daughter of Pieter Coeck and took up his residence at Brussels,whereheremaineduntilhisdeath.It isduringhislastsixyearsthathisgeniusreacheditsgreatestdevelopment.Hehadalreadyaccomplishedapowerfulandoriginal work in his earlier religious pictures and he continued with thesesubjects.But the realisticobservationofBruegelwasmoreat libertywhen, inhislastperiod,hefranklytookthelifeabouthimashissubject,forithadbeenthatwhich interested him chiefly evenwhen depicting sacred themes. All thevigoroushumorandsatireofBoschappearagaininafinerandmoreprofoundspirit.Thewhole outlook ofBrouwer,Ostade andTeniers in the 17th centuryandMilletinthe19thisforeseen,andtheyneverapproachedtheirpredecessor.The sane and healthy outlook on mankind is supplemented by a magnificentconceptionofnature.Onecanthinkofnootherpainterwhohasgiventhesenseof vastness in a landscape and at the same time kept the amazing realism ofdetailthatBruegelgivesus.Bestofall,hehasasenseofdesignthatcarrieshisphilosophicandemotionalqualitiesimmediatelyintotherealmofart.Heis,in
fact, one of the world’s great designers, and the admiration he inspires isincreased when we reflect that he is the originator of his style instead ofinheritingitfromothers.Aspainting,whetherintempera(asthe‘BlindMen’atNaples)orinoil(e.g.,‘Winter’atTournai)hisworksaremasterpieces.Amongotherimportantpicturestobementionedarethe‘MassacreoftheInnocents,’atBrussels; ‘The Brigands,’ at the University of Stockholm; ‘The WeddingDinner’attheViennaMuseum,and‘TheWolf,’inthecollectionofMr.JohnG.JohnsonofPhiladelphia.HisspiritedandimportantengravingshavebeeneditedbyVanBastelaer.Hiseldestson,PieterTheYounger,b.Brussels1564;d.there1637,studiedwithGillisvanConincxlooatAntwerp.Likehisfather,hepaintedruralandgenresubjects,butheisgenerallyknownas“Höllen-Bruegel,”becauseofhis fondness for representing the infernal regions and subjects likewitches,devilsandrobbers.JanBruegel,TheElder:b.Brussels1568;d.there1625.Theyounger son of Pieter the Elder is usually called “Velvet-Bruegel” from thesoftnessandsmoothnessofhistechnique.HestudiedwithGoetkindinAntwerpand spent several years in Italy.He returned toAntwerp about1597and soonacquiredwealthandhighhonors.Hewasdeanofthepainters’guild(1601-02)and, likehis intimate friend,Rubens,wasofficial painter to the regentsof theNetherlands. His landscapes are important in the development of landscapepainting.Theyusuallycontainmanysmall figuresandarenumerous inall theprincipal European collections. The most important are probably the 54examplesinthegalleryofMadrid.Hissonandpupil,JanBruegel,TheYounger:b.Brussels1601;d.1678.Itisdifficulttodistinguishhisworkfromhisfather’s.For the Bruegel family consult Rooses, ‘Geschiedenis der Antwerpschebilderschule’(Antwerp1887-90),andMichel,‘LesBrueghel’(Paris1892).
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BeatrixPotterBeaumontandFletcherBede
BenJonsonBenjaminDisraeli
Beowulf
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CamillePissarroCanaletto
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EdgarAllanPoe(poetry)EdgarDegasEdgarRiceBurroughsEdgarWallace
EdithWhartonEdmundBurkeEdmundSpenserÉdouardManetEdvardMunch
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FrancesHodgsonBurnettFrancesTrollopeFrancisBaconFranciscoGoyaFrankNorris
FrankR.StocktonFriedrichNietzsche
FriedrichSchiller(English)FrontiusFyodorDostoyevsky
G.A.HentyG.K.ChestertonGalileoGalilei
GeoffreyChaucerGeorgeBernardShawGeorgeChapmanGeorgeEliotGeorgeGissingGeorgeHerbert
GeorgeMacDonaldGeorgeMeredithGeorgeOrwell
GerardManleyHopkinsGertrudeSteinGilbertandSullivanGiotto
GiovanniBelliniGrantAllenGustavKlimt
GustaveCourbetGustaveFlaubert(English)GuyBoothby
GuydeMaupassantH.G.Wells
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HafezHallCaine
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HenryDavidThoreauHenryFielding
HenryHoward,EarlofSurreyHenryJamesHenryWadsworthLongfellowHenrykSienkiewicz
HermanMelvilleHerodotusHesiod
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HonorédeBalzac(English)HoraceHoraceWalpoleHughWalpoleIanFleming
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Jean-JacquesRousseauJeromeK.JeromeJohanLudvigRunebergJohannesVermeer
JohnBuchanJohnBunyanJohnClare
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JohnGalsworthyJohnKeatsJohnLockeJohnMiltonJohnMuirJohnRuskinJohnWebster
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LivyLongus
LordByronLordDunsany
LouisaMayAlcottLucanLucianLucretius
LudovicoAriostoLuísdeCamõesLyttonStracheyM.E.BraddonM.R.James
MarcelProust(English)MarcusAureliusMargaretOliphantMariaEdgeworthMarieCorelliMarkTwainMartial
MaryShelleyMaryWollstonecraftMatthewArnoldMatthewPriorMaximGorkyMichaelDrayton
MicheldeMontaigneMichelangelo
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NonnusO.Henry
OliverGoldsmithOneThousandandOneNightsOscarWilde
OuidaOvid
PaulCézannePaulGauguinPaulKleePausanias
PercyByssheShelleyPeterPaulRubensPetrarchPetronius
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PlinytheElderPlinytheYounger
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RalphWaldoEmersonRaphael
RembrandtvanRijnRenéDescartes
RichardBrinsleySheridanRichardMarshRobertBrowningRobertBurns
RobertE.HowardRobertFrost
RobertLouisStevensonRobertSoutheyRobertW.ChambersRudyardKipling
RumiRupertBrooke
SakiSallust
SamuelButlerSamuelJohnsonSamuelPepys
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SapphoSaxRohmer
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SheridanLeFanuSidonius
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SophoclesStanleyJ.Weyman
StatiusStendhal
StephenCraneStrabo
SuetoniusT.S.EliotTacitus
TalbotMundyTerence
TheBrontësTheBrothersGrimm
TheocritusTheodoreDreiser
ThomasBabingtonMacaulayThomasCarlyleThomasChattertonThomasDeQuinceyThomasGainsborough
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ThomasHardy(poetry)ThomasHoodThomasMiddletonThomasMooreThucydidesTibullusTintorettoTitian
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