Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record of ... of the... · Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record of Holocene Caspian sea-level changes Robert M. Hoogendoorna,*,

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=Marine Geology 222–22
Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record

of Holocene Caspian sea-level changes

Robert M. Hoogendoorn a,*, Jelle F. Boels a, Salomon B. Kroonenberg a,

Mike D. Simmons b,1, Elmira Aliyeva c, Aliya D. Babazadeh c, Dadash Huseynov c

aDelft University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department of Geotechnology,

Section of Applied Geology, Mijnbouwstraat 120, 2628 RX, Delft The NetherlandsbCASP, University of Cambridge, Department of Earth Sciences, West Building 181A Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DH, United Kingdom

cGeological Institute of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences, 29A H. Javid Avenue, Baku 370143, Azerbaijan

Accepted 15 June 2005

Abstract

Late Holocene deposits of the Kura delta indicate an alternating dominance of deltaic and shallow marine environments.

These major environment shifts are controlled by the high frequency sea-level changes of the Caspian Sea. The level of the

Caspian Sea, now at 27 m below Global Sea Level (GSL), changes at rates of up to a hundred times as fast as global sea level,

allowing observation of sedimentary processes on a decadal scale that would take millennia in an oceanic environment. The

modern Kura delta is a river-dominated delta with some wave action along its north-eastern flank, and without tidal influence.

Morphological and hydrological changes have been monitored for over 150 years, continuing up to the present day using

remote sensing imagery. Offshore sparker survey data, onshore and offshore corings, biostratigraphical analysis and radiometric

dating enable a reconstruction of the Holocene Kura delta.

Four phases of delta progradation alternating with erosional transgressive surfaces have been identified, representing just as

many cycles of sea-level fall and rise. The first cycle is represented by lowstand deposits truncated by a transgressive surface

(TS1) at ca. 80 m below GSL. TS1 is overlain by several metres of laminated clays and silts, deposited during a Late Holocene

forced regression (H1). These deposits are truncated by the prominent reflector (TS2), corresponding to the Derbent lowstand

around 1500 yr BP and subsequent transgression. This transgressive surface is overlain by prograding shallowing upwards

deposits, H2, in turn truncated by a third transgressive surface (TS3), correlated with a lowstand of ca. 32 m below GSL. The

last phase, H3, comprises an onshore progradational unit followed by an aggradational unit with an offshore veneer of clays and

silts, corresponding to the formation of the modern Kura delta that started at the beginning of the 19th century.

D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Kura River; Caspian Sea; delta progradation; regressive deposits; transgressive surface; marine erosion

0025-3227/$ - s

doi:10.1016/j.m

* Correspondi

E-mail addre1 Present addr

3 (2005) 359–380

ee front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

argeo.2005.06.007

ng author. Tel.: +31 15 278 8192; fax: +31 15 278 1189.

ss: [email protected] (R.M. Hoogendoorn).

ess: Neftex Petroleum Consultants Ltd, 80A Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxford, OX14 4RY, UK.

R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380360

1. Introduction

The interaction between (rapid) sea-level change

and deltaic systems has mainly been examined in

outcrop studies (Burns et al., 1997; Naish and

Kamp, 1997; Reynolds et al., 1996). The Kura delta

presents the possibility to study the effects of rapid

sea-level changes on active delta environments in a

well constrained setting. The Kura delta is located

along the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea,

Azerbaijan (Fig. 1). According to Galloway’s (1975)

classification, it is a fluvial-dominated delta, with

Fig. 1. (A) Schematic overview of the Kura delta study area with locations

(24 January 2004), (C) Location map including the bathymetry of the sou

located), major faults, syncline and anticline structures and oil and gas fi

location of the Kura basin in relation to the Caspian Sea.

redistribution of delta sediments through wave-action

on the northern shore. Beside the fluvial and shallow

marine processes, rapid sea-level change has a strong

influence on the formation of the Kura delta. The

present day subaerial delta covers ~200 km2 of largely

undeveloped arid lowland and shoreline swamps. This

area is the result of the latest phase of delta develop-

ment which started at the beginning of the 19th cen-

tury (Mikhailov et al., 2003). Major human

developments that have affected the delta dynamics

in the last 50 yrs have been the building of the

Mingechaur Reservoir, ca. 150 km upstream of Kura

of acquired field data. (B) ASTER satellite image of the Kura delta

thwestern Caspian Sea (rectangle indicates where the Kura delta is

elds of the Lower Kura basin from Inan et al. (1997). Inset shows

R.M. Hoogendoorn et al. / Marine Geology 222–223 (2005) 359–380 361

River mouth, and development of industrial fish and

rice ponds in the delta plain.

Earlier studies of the Kura delta undertaken by

Belyayev (1971), focussed on hydrology and delta

growth over the last 200 yrs. These have recently

been updated and expanded by Mikhailov et al.

(2003). Limited work has been done on the (late)

Holocene development of the Kura delta, as well as

on the determination of its depositional environments

and lithofacies. The data on delta growth and the

detailed hydrological data, combined with the work

of Rychagov (1997), on the fluctuations of Caspian

sea-level do provide a narrow constraint on the sedi-

mentation models and interpretations of the Kura delta

lithology.

Fig. 2. (A) Part of the map of Europe by Joseph Scheda (1845). At the l

evidence of a subaerial body. To the south of the river mouth, an active de

the Landsat TM7 Satellite image (2001) of the Kura delta and the Caspi

indicate active channel switching of the Kura River.

During 3 field campaigns 40 cores, up to 7 m

depth, were drilled onshore, and 8 wells drilled to

20 m depth in the offshore. In addition 14 piston

cores penetrated down to 3.5 m, and 18 sparker

profiles were shot in lines parallel and perpendicular

to the delta contours offshore, with a total survey

length of 215 km (Fig. 1). The resulting data reveal

that the Holocene delta consists of possibly four

progradational phases and three erosional phases.

During the Holocene the active delta has switched

location several times as a result of the sea-level

fluctuations, and fluvial dynamics of the Kura River,

resulting in the subsequent lateral displacement of

the delta apex over a distance of several tens of

kilometres from the Qizilagac Bay (formerly known

ocation of the Kura River mouth (centre of the square) there is no

lta body can be seen, consistent with the deltaic remains observed in

an Sea (B). These deltaic remains south of the modern Kura delta


as Kirov Bay) lying to the south of the present delta

(Fig. 2). There are historical records of the Kura

discharging into the Qizilagac Bay, as far back as

2500 yrs BP (Mikhailov et al., 2003), explaining the

presence of remnant deltaic features and spits and

barriers in this bay. Furthermore the onshore cores

disclosed the major role of the recent 3 m sea-level

fall and rise, during the last 200 yrs, in the devel-

opment of the Kura delta. Whereas fluvial and

marine processes are the primary forces affecting

the formation and morphology of most major deltas

(Galloway, 1975), the Kura delta has formed in

response to a combination of fluvial processes and

the rapid, high frequency sea-level changes in the

Caspian Sea.

2. Regional setting

2.1. Geologic setting

The modern Kura delta is located on the border

between the Kura and South Caspian basins (Fig. 1).

The South Caspian basin is part of an active tectonic

zone in which the Greater and Lesser Caucasus are

being uplifted (Mitchell and Westaway, 1999), while

the Caspian seafloor subsides at a rate of 2.5 mm

yr�1 (Inan et al., 1997). The Kura basin is situated in

the eastern part of the depression between the

Greater Caucasus to the North and the Lesser Cau-

casus to the South. Middle Jurassic volcanism,

together with shallow-marine Jurassic and Cretac-

eous sediments form the base of the succession in

the Kura basin, which has been encountered at a

depth of more than 8000 m in the Saatly ultra

deep borehole in the centre of the Kura basin

(Khain, 1984; Khain and Shardanov, 1952; Levin,

1995). From Miocene times onwards, shallow-mar-

ine and deltaic sedimentation has been dominant.

Major uplift occurred at the end of the Miocene as

a result of underplating of the Transcaucasian micro-

continent under the European plate. Folding of the

Kura basin sediments, and older units, into NW–SE

oriented anticlinal structures took place mainly at the

end of the Pliocene, leading to the development of

numerous mud volcanoes, still active today. These

mud volcanoes are unique geological features and

give rise to significant gas, water, and oil seepages

(Guliyev and Feizullayev, 1997). A mud volcano is

found several kilometres offshore, northeast of the

Kura delta.

Ever since the late Pleistocene periodic transgres-

sions and regressions of the Caspian Sea changed the

coast-line configuration of the present day Kura basin

lowland. During significant transgressions, this low-

land turned into an inland shallow water bay, in which

ancient deltas of the Kura River were formed. The

traces of several deltas can be found in the present

topography of the lowland. Over the period of large-

scale regressions, the delta of the Kura River pro-

truded into the sea far more to the east of the modern

delta (Mamedov, 1997).

2.2. River system characteristics

The Kura River is the largest watercourse in the

Southern Caucasus. It originates in the springs located

2720 m above sea level on the northeast slopes of

Kizil-Giadik (Turkey). It then flows through the ter-

ritory of Georgia and the lower reaches of the river are

in Azerbaijan, where it flows through the Kura basin

into the Caspian Sea. In the Kura basin the Kura River

merges with its major tributary, the Araks River. The

Araks River drains the eastern Lesser Caucasus.

According to Mamedov (1997), the Araks- and Kura

River had their own deltas in the past. The total length

of the Kura River is 1515 km and the total area of the

catchment is 188,000 km2 (including the Araks

River). The catchment occupies the greater part of

the Lesser Caucasus and the south-eastern Greater

Caucasus.

The Kura water discharge at the river mouth aver-

aged around 17.1 km3 yr�1 (550 m3 s�1) between

1938 and 1984 (Bousquet and Frenken, 1997). The

sediment (bedload and suspended load) of the Kura

River upon entering the delta is predominately clay,

silt and fine sand (b200 Am). The annual sediment

volume reaching the delta averaged 11.3*106 m3

yr�1 between 1967 and 1976 and from 1977 to

1986 the sediment volume dropped to 8.8*106 m3

yr�1 (Aybulatov, 2001; Mikhailov et al., 2003).

2.3. The Caspian Sea

The Caspian Sea, with surface area of 3.93�105

km2, is the largest inland water body on earth;


(Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994), it has virtually no

tides and its salinity is 13 mg/l. The Caspian basin is

divided into approximately equal-sized northern, mid-

dle and southern parts. The northern part is a shallow

shelf region reaching a maximum depth of about 10

m. The middle and southern regions are deeper areas,

separated by an east–west oriented underwater range

near the Apsheron peninsula. The depth of the south-

ern Caspian Sea is approximately 1025 m and the

shelf edge is located 20 to 40 km offshore of the

present day Kura delta. The sea level of the land-

locked Caspian basin, presently at approx. 27 m

below GSL, fluctuates rapidly on several time scales,

Fig. 3. (A) Estimated Holocene sea-level fluctuations of the Caspian Se

fluctuation, 1900–2000 AD (Klige and Myagkov, 1992).

seasonal to centuries. The measured seasonal sea-level

change is up to 0.4 m (Cazenave et al., 1997) while

the maximum measured inter-annual Caspian sea-

level change in the records has been 0.34 m yr�1.

These fluctuations are a result of the interaction

between differences in river discharge (predominantly

the Volga River), evaporation, precipitation and water

temperature (Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994; Rodio-

nov, 1994).

The sea-level curve for the last 160 yrs is accu-

rately known from the gauge at Makhachkala, and

since 1993 from satellite measurements (Fig. 3)

(Kosarev and Yablonskaya, 1994). From 1930 to

a (Rychagov, 1993a,b, 1997) and (B) measured Caspian sea-level

Fig. 4. Monitored shoreline progradation of the modern Kura delta

(Aybulatov, 2001; Mikhailov et al., 2003).


1977, sea level dropped by ~2.7 m, and from 1977 to

1995, it rose at a rate of 15 cm yr�1 (Kaplin and

Selivanov, 1995). Numerous transgressions and

regressions of the Caspian Sea have also occurred in

the more distant past (Ignatov et al., 1993; Svitoch,

1991). The Holocene sea-level history has been recon-

structed from a marine terrace section along the Dage-

stan coast. Results from these studies show five

transgressive phases that have been dated around

8000, 7000, 6000, 3000 and 200 BP (Rychagov,

1993a,b, 1997). The lowest documented sea level is

estimated at 50 m below global sea level at the end of

the Pleistocene or early Holocene (Mangyshlak

regression). The Derbent regression, around 1500

BP, reached a minimum of at least �32 m. The

highest level reached by the Caspian Sea during the

Holocene is around �22 m, the elevation of the

present delta apex.

2.4. Delta morphology

A barrier-breach around 1800 AD marked the

onset of the progradation of the present day Kura

delta. The morphological development has been

described in detail by Mikhailov et al. (2003). Pro-

gradation of the shoreline and the delta body have

been continuously monitored. Fig. 4 illustrates the

rapid progradation during the last ~180 yrs. The sub-

aerial modern Kura delta is elongated and slightly

lobate. Deposition is asymmetrical, and the delta

accretes to the south–east (1208) as a result of the

southward directed current. It measures 40 km from

the apex to the tip of the delta, is 55 km at its widest

point and has a surface of ~200 km2, making it the

third largest delta in the Caspian region (Warren and

Kukosh, 2003). The NW–SE oriented Kura River has

three channels oriented northeast (NE), southeast (SE)

and south (S). At present the SE channel is not active.

The channels have a low sinuosity in the delta plain.

During the latest period of sea-level fall, the main

channel flowed in south-easterly direction with a sin-

gle distributary flowing in north-easterly direction.

During the latest sea-level rise the SE channel closed

and was partly filled, the southern channel formed at

this time. Currently, the active main southern channel

bifurcates into numerous (ca. 20) smaller ones that are

10–100 m wide at the delta front. These are situated in

the leeward side of the delta, and are consequently

shielded from longshore currents and waves. The

northern flank of the delta is composed of a barrier

lagoon complex. The eastern flank is currently sus-

ceptible to erosion as no sediment is being transported

to the delta front by the SE channel.

3. Delta sediments and stratigraphy

3.1. Lithology

Lithological profiles of representative cores are

shown in Fig. 5, an overview of all lithofacies is

given in Table 1, while all core location are shown

in Fig. 1. The onshore cores were made using a hand

auger. This device provides quick and simple method

to recover a continuous subsurface sediment sample, 1

m length, in unconsolidated sediments ranging in

grain size from clay to fine sand. Most onshore

cores are 7–8 m deep. The piston cores were obtained

offshore using a 3.5 m long, 10 cm wide piston corer

Fig. 5. Lithologic profiles of selected cores, note that the vertical scale of well 4 (F) is in meters while the others are in centimetres.


profiler, and wells were drilled up to 20 m deep, in 2

m sections.

A typical onshore core (Fig. 5A, B and C) consists

of massive dark grey clays and silty sands at the base.

These pass up into laminated clays and silty clays

overlain by layered fine sand, silts and clays. These

deposits are often intercalated with sandy beds, mas-

sive and heterolithic sands, which vary in thickness

(10–100 cm.) and sorting. The massive sands are

relatively poorly sorted, dark reddish brown in colour,

very fine to medium silty/clayey sands, with a uni-

form grain size. The thickness of the massive sand

layers varies between 10 cm and 1.3 m. The hetero-

lithic sands are brownish and reddish and vary in

grain size resulting in fining—or coarsening up

sequences. They are well sorted with a thickness

that varies between 10 cm and 0.5 m. The top of the

cores consist of massive clays and silty clays (homo-

Table 1

Characteristics of the lithofacies of the Kura delta

Lithofacies Texture Observed sedimentary characteristics Location

Massive clay and silts Silty clay and clay Massive, roots, desiccation cracks Onshore

Massive sands Medium to very fine sand Massive, sharp boundaries Onshore

Heterolithic sands Medium to very fine sand,

silty sand

Coarsening up or fining up,

badly sorted

Onshore

Interstratified clays,

silts and sands

Fine to very fine sand,

silt and clay

Layers and lamination Onshore and offshore

Laminated clays and silts Silt and clay Lamination, mud dominated Onshore and offshore

Dark grey clays Clay and medium to very

fine sand

Dark grey colour, well sorted layers,

mud dominated

Onshore and offshore

Shelly sands Medium to fine sand Shells Offshore

Cemented shells Shells fragmented and cemented 100% shells Offshore


genous) which are rich with rootlets. The onshore

cores located away from the main channel often lack

sandy deposits. The cores towards the delta front

feature a set of layered fine sand, silts and clays on

top of the homogenous massive clays.

The offshore piston cores (3.5 m) consist of fine

sediment (Fig. 5D and E). The distal piston cores are

homogenous and consist primarily of laminated clays.

The colour-laminated clays and silty clays are found

with abundant mm- to cm-scaled colour transitions

A

N

0 10 km

Fig. 6. Depositional environments

and their colour varies from yellowish brown to olive

black. The continuous thickness of the laminated

clays reaches 260 cm. In some cases, in proximal as

well as distal cores, thin shelly, sandy deposits can be

found. Sometimes complete shells occur within these

coarser layers and vary in size from 1 mm to 5 cm.

The locations proximal to the delta shoreline generally

show laminated clays at the bottom of the proximal

piston cores which are overlain by layered clays and

silts. The layered clays and silts are sporadically

'

Delta plainProximal delta frontFluvial Sand (Levee & Channel fill)Mouth BarBarrier lagoon complexInterdistributary bayDistal delta frontProdeltaKura River

of the modern Kura delta.


intercalated with films of fine sand, the thickness of

the sand and silt layers varies from 1 mm to 1 cm.

There are also silty clays containing significant

amounts of organic material forming black layers,

5–20 cm thick.

The wells feature diverse lithofacies over their 24 m

thickness (Fig. 5F). Massive mottled clays or yellow-

ish brown sandy to silty clays, containing abundant,

coarse, red granules have been found at the bottom of

the wells at a depth of ca. 80 m below GSL. The colour

laminated clays and layered clays and silts are inter-

bedded. Whole as well as fragmented shells occur

within heterolithic, brown, poorly sorted fine sand to

silt. The thickness of the sandy deposits are up to 0.5

m. Though generally these deposits thinner than 10

cm. Shells vary in size from ca. 2 mm to 5 cm. Well

recovery is poor (30–70% recovery), therefore, these

well data should be interpreted with caution.

3.2. Depositional environments

Satellite images, field observations and surficial

sediments were used to classify the delta into several

Fig. 7. Sparker profile 5 (0105) showing the downlap of the modern delta

the middle of H2 and clinoform stacking in the southern part of the profi

depositional environments. Fig. 6 illustrates the spa-

tial distribution of these depositional environments.

Characteristic surficial sediments of the upper

and lower delta plain include massive silty clays,

sands, and layered sands and clays. These lithofa-

cies are interpreted subaerial deposits formed by

fluvial processes. The mottled clays which have

been observed in the lower portion of the well

cores have also been related to a lower delta plain

depositional environment. Sandy sediments on the

subaerial delta surface were only found at the bifur-

cation of the northern and southern distributaries,

forming a point bar on the inside of the river bend.

Sandy deposits in the subsurface samples of the

delta plain are represented by massive and hetero-

lithic sands locally deposited in higher energy envir-

onments in the vicinity of the distributaries, e.g.

channel fills, crevasses, or levees. However, the

poor sorting, ranging from fine sands to clays,

indicate an environment where flow energy is spor-

adically high enough to deposit such a mixture, but

not continuously high enough to effectively sort the

material.

to the NE, and the ddrapeT, comprising several, parallel reflectors in

le indicating the aggrading phase of H2.


The proximal delta front comprises the southern,

low angle dipping seafloor, and that part of the lower

floodplain that is occasionally submerged. Deposits of

the proximal delta front environment comprise layered

clays, silts and fine sands. Depending on the local

topography and hydrodynamics of the channels, parts

of the delta front deposits may contain organic mate-

rial, representing the marshy freshwater environment,

representing a transition zone between the delta plain

and the proximal delta front. The distal delta front is

the part of the delta comprising a high angle slope

varying between 0.38 and 0.58. The laminated clays are

found here. The distal delta front gradually changes

into the prodelta where sedimentation rates are low.

Between the prograding northern distributaries an

interdistributary bay has formed, ca. 0.5 to 1 m deep,

in which clay and silt has been deposited during

floods. This bay was dry during the last lowstand

(1977) and is currently submerged and overgrown

with aquatic vegetation.

Fig. 8. Sparker profile 2 (0102) coast-parallel profile, illustrating the two c

horizontally filled with sediments and incised the underlying strata. The mo

for an aggradation channel since it is still visible in the surface topograph

Mouth bar deposits occur seaward of the river

mouth (South). This facies is characterized in the

sub surface samples by laminated sands, and inter-

bedded sands and muds (85% sand).

The beach on the northern flank is a very diverse

geomorphological unit. The beach contains ripples,

storm berms, and washover channels. The beach pro-

graded seaward and facilitated the enclosure of the

back barrier lagoon. The beach consists of well sorted,

medium grained sand. The shelly sands from the wells

are interpreted as lower shoreface deposits as the

presence of whole shells indicate an open marine

environment.

3.3. Sparker data

The shallow subsurface of the offshore Kura has

been mapped using 215 km of sparker shallow acous-

tic profiles arranged in a grid of 18 profiles (Fig. 1).

Data quality is sub optimal due to multiples and back-

hannel types the most S-SE channel (right-hand side of the figure) is

st N-NW channel (left-hand side of the figure) serves as an example

y.


ground noise. This relates to the high degree of gas

saturation in the shallow subsurface. Nonetheless, the

quality is sufficient to determine the major elements of

the offshore delta geometry and its shallow subsur-

face. Five sparker profiles (Figs. 7–11) show the

typical features of the Kura delta. In addition to the

present day delta (H3), three prograding deposits PH,

H1 and H2, were identified. Two transgressive sur-

faces, TS1 and TS2 were defined as prominent dis-

continuity surfaces on the sparker data. Furthermore a

drape of continuous reflectors is recognisable on all

profiles and is considered to represent sedimentation

of the modern Kura delta. Consequently the base of

this drape is interpreted as TS3.

Four main features can be recognized within the

profiles: (1) horizontal/subhorizontal reflectors (delta

plain), (2) clinoform reflectors (delta front, prodelta)

(3) concave-upward reflectors (distributary channels

and possible incised channel), which are often asso-

ciated with (4) hyperbolic reflectors (levees, barrier).

The horizontal/subhorizontal reflectors represent

the topset facies. The stratigraphic position and the

Fig. 9. Sparker profile 11 (0111) Overview of the northern offshore part, w

the mud volcano. The data also shows the subhorizontal and clinoform refl

transgressive surface 2 (TS2) can be correlated to a facies change in well 3,

were dated at ca.1400 BP (Fig. 12).

parallel character of these reflectors implies vertical

aggradation in a delta plain depositional setting (Figs.

7, 8 and 9). The cores which penetrate these reflectors

show layered clays, silty clays and fine sands that are

interpreted as proximal delta front deposits. Typical

palaeo-floodplain deposits are only found at the base

in wells 4 and 5. Other subhorizontal reflectors are

interpreted to represent the mud volcano dynamics.

The clinoform reflectors are sigmoid clinoforms

and interpreted to the prograding delta front to pro-

delta deposits of the palaeo Kura River. The cores did

not reveal any crossbedding to confirm the observa-

tion of the sparker data, but did contain laminated and

layered clays and silty clays at the locations and

depths, similar to the modern distal delta and delta

front sediments (Figs. 7, 9, 10 and 11).

The concave-upward reflectors are mainly asso-

ciated with the topset deposits of Fig. 8. Two channel

types can be recognized: (1) Channel type 1 incises

and fills horizontally. The incised channel is asso-

ciated with a regressive system as it is filled up

when the sea level rises, (2) Channel type 2 aggrades

ith the sediment drape of the modern delta extending to the slope of

ectors representing the progradational phase of H2. Furthermore the

TS1 is correlated to the deeper sandy shelly horizon of well 3, which

Fig. 10. Sparker profile 7 (0107) data also shows the subhorizontal and clinoform reflectors representing the progradational phase of H2 and

reveals the depth interval at which erosive features occur (between 20 and 25 m), as well as interference of the delta with the slope of the

submerged mud volcano.


vertically, this channel type is associated with a trans-

gressive phase of delta development. When the regres-

sive channel is suffocated, other, smaller, channels

develop. These channel features are preserved under

a drape of sediment, in a similar way to the processes

observed in the modern delta.

Hyperbolic reflectors are commonly found near

the channel type 2 and may therefore be associated

with levee deposits, although no core has penetrated

these deposits. A second type of hyperbolic reflec-

tors is shown in Fig. 8, which shows a bump in the

centre on the figure which is not associated with a

channel in the subsurface. This feature may be

associated with a barrier bar, though evidence for

this is limited. Nevertheless, the core data show the

occurrence of shoreface deposits and the north flank

of the modern Kura delta has an active barrier

system. Subsequently this is thought to be an accep-

table assumption to relate the hyperbolic features to

levee’s and barriers.

4. Laboratory analyses

4.1. Radiometric dating

210Pb analysis was used to determine sedimenta-

tion speed for a maximum period of 150 yrs (Lami et

al., 2000). 210Pb analysis was used to determine sedi-

mentation speed for a maximum period of 150 yrs. the

results for 210Pb analyses for pistons 7 and 9 (Fig. 12)

give estimated sedimentation rates varying from 1.9 to

2.2 cm yr�1. The results of the 210Pb analyses from

the onshore core 12 were inconclusive. This can be

explained by a resetting of the internal clock of the210Pb isotope due to emergence of the sediment, and

Fig. 11. Sparker profile 14 (0114) in line with the progradational direction of the modern delta shows a high seafloor gradient (0.58) and also

depth-related erosive features. Steep clinoform features of the H2 phase appear at the slope.


the resulting contamination by fresh water. In contrast,

samples from the lower part of onshore core 13, taken

from the dark grey clays, show a constant low 210Pb

value.

Shells (all Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi) from

well 3 have been dated using 14C isotopes (Table 2 and

Fig. 12). From every sampled interval, shells were

examined to assess the likelihood that they were in

situ. Next the samples were dated to compare the

spread of results. Samples 6(1), 6(2), and 5(1) show

a decreasing age upward suggesting they are in situ.

The other samples, 3(1), 4(1), and 5(2) are older than

underlying shells from the other samples, indicating

that they may have been deposited after being

reworked. As a result, the sedimentation rate at the

location of well 3 over the past ~1400 yrs is estimated

at an average of 1.2 cm yr�1. At well 3 the reflective

surface of the sparker data (TS2) is located at a depth

of c. 10 m. Sample 5(1) is from depth 16–16.3 m.

Therefore, these datings indicate that TS2 is younger

than ~1400 yrs BP, and at a sedimentation rate of 1.2

cm yr�1 its age is around 875 yrs BP, i.e. the 11th

century AD. TS2 could therefore correspond to an

erosional level related to the sea-level rise of the

Caspian Sea following the Derbent regression.

4.2. Biostratigraphic dating and diatom analysis

Biostratigraphic analysis of the shells resulted in

the recognition of invasive species (Table 2). The

Fig. 12. Lithologic profiles with summary of all age data (based on 210Pb, 14C, Biostratigraphic and diatom data) and interpreted depositional

environment. Note that the vertical scale of well 3 is in meters while the others are in centimetres. In well 3 the datum level of the interpretated

TS2 of Fig. 9 is shown.


timing of first occurrence of invasive species in the

Caspian Sea is well known (Kosarev and Yablons-

kaya, 1994), and therefore can be used to date historic

deposits. Mytilaster lineatus invaded the Caspian Sea

around 1920–1930, attached to ships coming from the

Black/Azov Sea region. Abra ovata was deliberately

introduced in order to raise biological production and

consequently fish productivity in 1939. The barnacle

Balanus improvisus was introduced with the opening

of the Volga-Don Canal in 1954. The age estimates

and subsequent average sedimentation rates derived

from lowest occurring depth of invasive species are

given in Table 1. Piston cores 7 and 9 show an

average rate of approx. 2.3 cm yr�1. This is in agree-

ment with the results from the 210Pb analysis.

A total of 10 offshore sediment samples were

analysed for diatom content. Of these, 8 were found

to contain diatoms, with 5 containing sufficient num-

bers to allow counting and detailed environmental

interpretation. The samples typically contained a pro-

portion of inorganic material, including quartz and

mica, and diatom recovery from these samples was

Table 2

Overview of the 14C analyses and biostratigraphic results (Caspian reservoir age is ca. 290 yr, K. van der Borg personal comment)

Site Sample Depth (cm) Material Years BP Cal years

Well 3 3#3 1050–1060 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi *1844F32 1409–1335

Well 3 3#4 1530–1550 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi *2829F33 2674–2539

Well 3 3#5(1) 1600–1630 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi fresh 1368F36 947–888

Well 3 3#5(2) 1600–1630 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi old *1914F32 1495–1420

Well 3 3#6(1) 1710–1715 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi fresh 1414F37 984–918

Well 3 3#6(2) 1710–1715 Dreissena polymorpha/andrussovi old 1443F29 1009–944

Site Depth (cm) Invasive species Years

Piston core 7 244–246 Balanus improvisus 1954 AD

Piston core 9 109–111 Balanus improvisus 1954 AD

Well 2 305–310 Abra ovata 1939 AD

Well 3 920–925 Mytilaster lineatus 1920 AD


low. Recovery of diatoms tended to be highest in

samples with a high proportion of clay. Table 2 and

Fig. 12 show the results of the diatom analysis from

the piston core samples, and the interpretation of their

depositional environment. Although there were lim-

ited data the diatom analyses of layered silts and clays

from the piston cores indicate that the depositional

environment is related to a delta front, confirming the

sedimentological interpretations of the depositional

settings.

5. Depositional history

The unique sea-level situation of the Caspian Sea

does not allow a straight forward sequence strati-

graphic interpretation of the different deltaic deposits

using definitions as given by, e.g. Hunt and Tucker

(1992) and Plint and Nummendal (2000). Regressive

systems tracts (RST) (Myers and Milton, 1996) do

describe some features found in the deposits of the

Kura delta, for instance the boundaries, which can be

interpreted as transgressive surfaces (TS). Further-

more it could be argued that the overall (early) Holo-

cene Caspian sea-level shows an overall rising trend.

Nevertheless the lack of clear stacking patterns in the

sparker data for the different phases of delta deposi-

tion and the exceptional rate of change of the Caspian

sea-level restrains us from using sequence strati-

graphic terms, although similarities between the

deposits and systems tracts will be mentioned.

In order to be able to refer certain stratigraphic

features to former sea levels, all datum levels are

stated in absolute values calculated as h =d +w + z,

in which d is the depth of the feature in the well or

piston core, w is the water depth at the top of the well,

and z the datum level of the sea in 2001 with respect

to the Kronshtadt gauge in the Baltic (�27 m). A

schematic overview of the geochronolgy for the Kura

delta deposits in relation to the Holocene Caspian sea-

level curve (Rychagov, 1997) is shown in Fig. 13. The

overall depositional patterns, calculated datum levels

and 14C datings combined show 4 phases of deposi-

tion, one pre-Holocene and three late Holocene

phases. These phases are characterised by different

stages of deltaic deposition associated with erosive

marine surfaces, which are interpreted to represent

cessation of the sediment supply and transgression.

5.1. Phase 1, pre-Holocene deposits (PH, TS1)

The oldest deposits recovered are the stiff red

mottled clays at the bottom of the deepest wells 4

and 5, at absolute depths of about �89 and �82 m.

The mottling in these deposits indicates incipient soil

formation in floodplain deposits during a pronounced

lowstand. Such a lowstand did not occur in the Holo-

cene (Rychagov, 1997) therefore deposits of phase 1

are probably pre-Holocene. The late Pleistocene low-

stand of ca. �50 m below GSL of the Mangyshlak

regression (ca. 16 kyr BP) (Mamedov, 1997) corre-

sponds well with the well data when datum levels are

compensated for the regional subsidence of 2.5 mm

yr�1 (Inan et al., 1997). In both wells sandy shelly

deposits occur on top of the reddish clays at absolute

depths between �83 and �76 m which are associated

Fig. 13. Geochronological representation of the different phases of delta development superimposed on the Holocene Caspian sea-level curve

(Rychagov, 1997). Giving close constraint to the interpretation of the (late) Holocene deposits of Kura delta.


with shoreface environments, Sparker profile 7 (Fig.

10) shows a reflector at this level. The results from

Rychagov (1997), show that, after the lowstand, at the

Pleistocene–Holocene transition, a transgression

occurred. TS1 reflector is interpreted as a marine

erosion surface formed during this transgression.

Since well recovery is very poor, the TS1 reflector

only occurs in one profile and no biostratigraphic

information is available for this phase, the position

of these deposits in the overall stratigraphy remains

inconclusive.

5.2. Phase 2, late Holocene deposits 1, (H1, TS2)

The second phase consists of sedimentation of the

unit underlying the Transgressive Surface indicated by

TS2 in the sparker profiles. The seismic facies within

this unit is indistinct. The wells that intersect the TS2

continue 10–14 m down into this sedimentary unit.

The bottom of the unit is unknown except for the TS1

reflector of sparker profile 7. The unit consists mainly

of layered silty clays, with minor intervals of lami-

nated clays and silts, and, in Well 3 (Fig. 9), several

shell-rich horizons. Microfauna in Well 2 indicate a

decreasing depositional depth (with some fluctua-

tions). Depositional depth in Well 3 fluctuates

between 10 and 15 m, in harmony with the actual

water depth of 11.4 m. In the uppermost part of the

unit the ostracod Iliocypris brady was found, indica-

tive of fresh-water influence. Together these data

indicate a generally falling sea level during deposi-

tion. Six 14C datings were obtained from the shell-rich

horizons in Well 3, located underneath the boundary

between H1 and TS2, and indicated deposition at ca.

1400 BP. Therefore the H1 deposits are thought to be

associated with the forced regression preceding the

Derbent lowstand of 1500 BP (Rychagov, 1997).

Since the Derbent regression did not start before

3500 BP and no other depositional units were found

between TS1 and TS2 it is probable that no deposition

took place at the study site during the early-Holocene.

The TS2 is a prominent reflector in the sparker

sections, especially NE and E of the present delta. The

surface is highly irregular in shape between absolute

depths of 45 and 60 m, and truncates H1 sediments.

Below that it slopes smoothly down to 75 m, the

deepest level it has been recognised (Fig. 11), and

parallel to the stratification of the underlying unit. The

irregular topography of the reflector indicates either

an erosive origin, or an accumulative origin as over-

stepped barriers, or both, but in any case features that

occur in a coastal to onshore setting. The shell horizon

recovered in Piston Core 5 at an absolute depth of

�47 m can also be related to this phase. This is the


deepest appearance of TS2 in the sampled data and

suggests that this may be a lowstand. On the basis of14C datings this lowstand must have taken place

around 1400 yr BP. While a lowstand of �34 m is

inferred for the Derbent regression (Rodionov, 1994;

Rychagov, 1997; Varushchenko et al., 1987), our data

suggests that the lowstand fell, to an estimated depth

of �37 to �42 m when it is assumed that the shells

from Piston Core 5 were deposited at a water depth of

5–10 m. Hence this surface is interpreted to be asso-

ciated with the Derbent lowstand and the subsequent

transgression.

5.3. Phase 3, late Holocene deposits 2 (H2, TS3)

H2 consists of deltaic deposits between TS2 and

TS3 reflectors. In some places only a pocket of this

unit has been preserved between the two reflectors.

The succession consists of latterly varying facies that

are syndepositional. Proximally, organic-rich silty clay

was deposited in a delta front environment. A prograd-

ing deltaic sequence with clinoform-shaped reflectors

can be seen on the distal, more seaward side, shown in

profile 5 and 11 (Figs. 7 and 9). Furthermore this phase

is found at the base of the onshore cores and consists of

massive dark grey clays and silty sands, similar to the

modern delta plain deposits. The depositional depth

indicated by the microfauna in Well 2 first increases

and, then decreases back to its initial level of 25 m. In

Well 3 the depositional depth is uniformly about 15 m.

Both figures are similar to the present water depth of

�26.3 and �11.4, respectively. Organic-rich clays at

�38 m absolute depth in Piston core 7 contain fresh

water diatoms, and have higher vegetal organic com-

pounds than organic clays from organic clays in piston

cores sampled in deeper water. This suggests that also

this unit reflects an overall falling sea level. The

aggrading stacking patterns of sparker profile 5 (Fig.

7) indicate a transition from regression to transgression

during this phase, which suits the definition of a

Regressive Systems Tract. In view of the position of

the deposits between the two transgressive surfaces the

age of phase 3 is probably between the 11th and 16th

century AD when several alternating stages of rapid

regression and rapid transgression occurred (Rycha-

gov, 1997).

The TS3 reflector truncates the H2 unit with an

irregular topography with ridges, benches and depres-

sions, especially between �47 and �57 m absolute

depth. The reflector is smooth at �37 m depth along

the shallow SW part of the delta. The age of the

Transgressive Surface can only be established indir-

ectly, since datings from this unit are not available. The

overlying unit is known to have been deposited from

the start of the 19th century onward following the 200

BP highstand (Rychagov, 1997) . During the period

preceding this highstand major barrier complexes were

formed (Storms, 2002). Because at that time the Kura

River did not discharge at its present location, but

much further south, in the QVzVlagac bay, the barrier

complex at the apex of the present-day delta and

subsequently TS3 were formed during the 16th and

17th century (Mikhailov et al., 2003).

5.4. Phase 4, modern delta (H3)

As documented by Mikhailov et al. (2003) the

modern delta started to form at the start of the 19th

century and is closely constrained by data on delta

growth, sea-level change and hydrology. H3 is the

uppermost sedimentary unit seen in the sparker pro-

files and consists of the ddrapeT that covers TS3. The210Pb profile at Piston cores 7 and 9 shows that the

major part of the drape is less than 200 yrs old, and

therefore it is coeval with the major part of the surfi-

cial deposits in the onshore part of the delta. The

onshore sequence represents a complex of sandy, silt

and clayey sediments deposited on top of H2 deposits.

The onshore data reveal a rapid progradation that was

facilitated by the shallow offshore platform and the

sea-level fall, starting around 1933. By 1960, before

the sea-level reached the 1977 lowstand, the rapid

progradation was halted as a result of the increasing

accommodation. Sea-level rise after 1977 led to inun-

dation of the present delta plain and deposition of

uniform clayey sediments on top of the previous

progradational wedges, an aggradational process that

continues until today. This sequence is confined to the

tip of the delta and along the shoreline.

6. Discussion

The history of the Kura delta can be traced back

only for a relative small time interval in this study. The

present position of the delta corresponds with the axis


of the rapidly subsiding Kura basin (Khain and Shar-

danov, 1952) and it is also situated at the head of a

prominent submarine valley, suggesting a period of

deep incision in its early history. The bulge shape of

the submarine delta suggests a cumulated thickness of

at least 50 m. All these facts suggest that its history

must go back much further than can be retrieved from

our data. With respect to the available data, the historic

and newly collected data form only a part, although the

network of core and sparker data compliment one

another and clearly characterize the Kura delta.

For a better understanding of the significance of

the development of the late Holocene Kura delta it is

useful to compare it to other deltas, as many sedimen-

tological investigations of modern fluvial-dominated

deltas have concentrated on the Mississippi delta

(Coleman et al., 1998; Fisk, 1961; Frazier, 1967;

Gould, 1970; Roberts, 1997), it is logical to use it

as a reference point. A number of similarities exist

between the Mississippi and the Kura deltas. (1) All

sediment is concentrated in a single channel with a

limited number of outlets. (2) Both deltas build out on

their own unconsolidated sediments. (3) Present day

delta fronts are being (partly) redistributed by waves.

(4) Different phases of delta development can be

recognized. However, some differences in the

sequence of events leading to the above mentioned

analogues are also recognized. Primarily, a scale dif-

ference, both spatial and temporal is evident. The

Mississippi delta is bigger in all aspects, water and

sediment discharge, delta surface and delta volume

and has been at its current location for at least 2000

yrs (Coleman et al., 1998), whereas the current Kura

delta has switched at least 4 times during the same

period. Secondly, the Mississippi delta started to

develop after a major avulsion has occurred (Tornq-

vist et al., 1996). Avulsions are caused by decrease of

the river gradient as a result of several processes that

interact, such as subsidence, rise of floodplain lake

levels or relative sea-level rise (Overeem et al., 2003).

The sequence of events in the Kura delta seems to be

different: progradation starts as a result of sea-level

fall and the subsequent sea-level rise causes aggrada-

tion and eventually a switch of the delta lobe. Despite

the differences the Kura delta could be described as a

bbaby birdfootQ (Fig. 1) delta based on the similar

morphological development patterns as seen in the

Mississippi delta.

The important role of Caspian sea-level has been

described. Since all Caspian deltas, such as the Volga,

Ural and Terek deltas are subjected to the same rapid

base level change, it is essential to establish if simila-

rities occur in the development of the Kura and other

Caspian deltas. The Volga delta is the most studied

Caspian delta system; it is also a fluvial dominated

delta affected by the rapid Caspian sea-level fluctua-

tions. However, studies show that fluvial processes

and sea-level fluctuations are not the only primary

controls over the Volga delta development. A funda-

mental control on delta morphology and stratigraphy

is the low gradient (Aybulatov, 2001; Kroonenberg et

al., 1997, in press; Overeem et al., 2003). The Ural

River also enters the shallow northern Caspian Sea,

therefore delta morphology is similarly controlled by

the low gradient of the basement over which the delta

progrades. The Terek delta, in contrast, is largely

reworked by wave action resulting in a highly destruc-

tive delta environment (Mikhailov, 1997). So despite

the major influence of the Caspian sea-level on these

deltas, they all evolved differently. The general shelf

edge setting bathymetry of the Kura delta (Fig. 1), and

the minor influence of waves, make the Kura delta

more comparable with other delta settings. It is there-

fore the better suited as a natural laboratory to test

conceptual models of sea-level change in deltas.

The early Pliocene Productive Series in Azerbaijan

consist of fluvial deltaic sediments deposited in the

isolated South Caspian Basin by several large river

systems, which were also subjected to an unstable sea-

level regime (Hinds et al., 2004; Reynolds et al.,

1996). Many offshore and onshore hydrocarbon

occurrences are in this unit (Aliyeva, 1988; Bagirov

and Lerche, 1998). The Productive Series in the

southwest of the South Caspian Basin has volcano-

genic heavy mineral assemblage, indicating prove-

nance form the Kura River, which rains Jurassic and

Cenozoic volcanic deposits in the Lesser Caucasus

(Pashaly, 1964). Despite similarities with regards to

depositional setting of the early Pliocene Productive

Series, this study shows that any comparison between

the Kura delta and the Productive Series is difficult

because of the differences in lithology. Except for the

thin and narrow sand bodies in the channels and

barriers of the onshore plain, the whole late Holocene

Kura delta consists of clays and silts, while the Pro-

ductive Series is characterized by the presence of large


amounts of sand (Reynolds et al., 1996). Several

reasons can be put forward for the absence of sand

in the present delta. The Kura River occupies the axis

of a very rapidly subsiding basin. The strongest sub-

sidence in the past has occurred not close to the coast,

but ca. 100 km inland near Kurdamir (Inan et al.,

1997). Here part of the sand may be trapped before

it reaches the coast.

7. Conclusions

The modern Kura delta is a single-channel, river-

dominated delta, with some wave influence at its

northern edge. Its main offshore Holocene sediment

body is at least 20 m thick and consists of clays and

silts, with rare sandy shell horizons. On the surface of

the onshore delta plain channel-levee sands and sandy

Downlap of Mode

?

Breached Barrier

Modern progradingdelta H2

TS2H2

Coverage by onshore cores (A)

Modern aggradingdelta

Delta FrontDelta Plain

H3

H2

H1PH

Delta FrontDelta Plain

Environment

Major Accoustic Reflector

Barrier TS3

Data gap

Delta plainProximal delta frontFluvial Sand (Levee & Channel fill)

Mouth BarH2 (Paleo delta) 0

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

P.D.CaspianSea level

1977CaspianSea level

Depth (m)

5

D

0A

B

Depositonal environments modern delta (H3)

N

D

D'A

A'

Stage

Fig. 14. (A), interpretation of the main (D-AV) onshore core section throug

level and the delta front location at the time indicated. The delta front mov

the relatively stable sea level (1800–1933) and during the sea-level fall

recognized as an overlap on top of the progradational sequence near the del

and along the southern shoreline. (B) Schematic summary of the Kura

deposition and marine erosion.

coastal barriers are found. Its stratigraphy reflects both

rapid Caspian sea-level change, and variations in

sediment output of the Kura River. Reconstruction

of the detailed stratigraphy is made difficult by the

limited resolution of the sparker data, and low recov-

ery from the well samples. However the detailed

historical data, the reconstructed Caspian sea-level

curve, the knowledge of the onshore cross-section

and the offshore core data provide the possibility to

reconstruct a stratigraphic framework for the cyclic

late Holocene deposits that underlie the modern Kura

delta. Depositional geometries, key surfaces, and stra-

tal patterns based on sparker data are used to define

the architecture of the late Holocene depositional

cycles and their relation to Caspian sea-level change.

The interpretation of the late Holocene Kura delta

development can be summarised in seven stages (Fig.

14A and B).

rn Kura

? ? ?SB1

Coverage by offshore core- and sparker data

~-48m

~-80m

H1

PH

~-27m

TS3~-32m

TS21.5 ky

Well2

TS1Well3

TS1

km

A`2001194619291907D' A1860

h the Kura delta. Vertical dashed lines approximate the Caspian sea-

es along stream constructing a progradational delta sequence during

(1933–1977). The major sea-level rise (1977–present day) can be

ta front. The aggradational sequence is confined to the tip of the delta

delta development, in order to illustrate all phases/stages of delta


7.1. Stage 1 (PH)

Pre-Holocene fluvial sedimentation (probably top

of a lowstand deposits) identified by reddish soil in

the delta plain sediments recovered from deep well

data associated with the Mangyshlak regression based

on depositional depth.

7.2. Stage 2 (TS1)

PH was followed by formation of a Transgressive

Surface after the Mangyshlak lowstand, with no sedi-

ment transported to this location by the Kura River.

7.3. Stage 3 (H1)

Reactivation of sediment supply resulting in pro-

gradational deltaic deposition of a shallowing-

upwards sequence of clays, silts and shell horizons

deposited during the Derbent regression (before 1500

BP), depositional depths at the start of the regression

were comparable to the present-day and estimated at a

maximum 42 m below GSL at the end of this stage

(forced regressive deposits).

7.4. Stage 4 (TS2)

The absence of sediment supply and transgression,

following the Derbent lowstand (maximal, ca. �42 m

absolute depth, 1500 yr BP), resulted in a period of

marine erosion. Identified in the sparker profiles as

Transgressive Surface 2 (TS2).

7.5. Stage 5 (H2)

Renewed deltaic progradation with clayey and silty

sediments on top of the TS2 erosional discontinuity.

Sparker data shows that the prograding system gra-

dual changes into an aggrading system, becoming

more fluvial and organic near the top of the sequence.

7.6. Stage 6 (TS3)

A next phase of no sediment supply and trans-

gression resulting in an erosive surface, possibly

related to a 16th century lowstand and following

transgression ending in the highstand of 200 BP.

This stage probably related to the 17th–19th century,

when the Kura River was diverted southwards to the

Qzlagac Bay.

7.7. Stage 7 (H3; modern delta)

Deltaic sedimentation resumed at the present-day

position from the start of the 19th century onwards,

depositing a series of prograding sandy to clayey

bodies in the present delta plain, and a veneer of

clayey and silty sediments offshore on top of the

last erosional discontinuity (TS3). The last 1929–

2000 sea-level cycle is expressed onshore by progra-

dation during base level fall, and aggradation due to

flooding of the delta plain during sea-level rise in

most recent times. This single sea-level cycle can be

distinguished in the cross section of Fig. 14A.

The Kura delta evolution shows cyclic behaviour; a

progradational delta body is formed during 3 regres-

sions at or near the present location while during

transgression the delta body probably shifts to the

Qzlagac Bay. The resulting erosional phases at the

present location are good markers for the Caspian Sea

lowstand. Therefore it can be concluded that the major

control of the Kura delta is the rapid sea-level change

of the Caspian Sea as well as the Kura River

dynamics.

Acknowledgements

Shell, BP, and ConocoPhilips are thanked for spon-

soring this project. Part of this research was co-funded

by the DUT-DIOC WATER 1.6 project. This paper is

part of the PhD thesis of R.M. Hoogendoorn. 210Pb

analyses were carried out by ing. W. Boer associated

with the NIOZ (Dutch Institute for Sea Research). Dr.

K. van der Borg of the Utrecht University (UU) per-

formed the 14C AMS analysis. Dr. A. Mitlehner,

micropalaeontologist from Millennia Limited, UK car-

ried out diatom analysis. Frank Wesselingh of Natur-

alis determined the shell samples. K. Scholte of the

Delft University of Technology (DUT) processed

satellite images and assisted in the field. Furthermore

we would like to thank P.J. Kloosterman (y), R. Von-hof, the KMGRU, CASP and GIA for their coopera-

tion and support. B. Ibrahimov is specially thanked for

his assistance in the field. Colleagues at DUT, G.J

Weltje and J, Noad helped substantially with their


comments on several versions of the manuscript. The

reviewers, one anonymous, M. Roveri and guest editor

F. Trincardi are thanked for their time and effort. Their

suggestions improved the manuscript considerably.

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Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record of ... of the... · Development of the Kura delta, Azerbaijan; a record of Holocene Caspian sea-level changes Robert M. Hoogendoorna,*,