DesignforNext

12thEADConferenceSapienzaUniversityofRome

12-14April2017

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TheMapAsAnObjectofServiceDesign

QianSuna,HyunyimParkb

aServiceDesign,SchoolofDesign,RoyalCollegeofArtbServiceDesign,SchoolofDesign,RoyalCollegeofArt*Correspondingauthore-mail:qian.sun@rca.ac.uk,hyunyim.park@network.rca.ac.uk

Abstract:TherapiddevelopmentofICThasledtothetransformationofmapsfromprinted paper to virtual digital publishing and three-dimensional mapping. Thisallows speculation tobe replacedwith certainty and accuracy inmaps. This alsoallows maps to function as participatory platforms with the capacity to collect,create,storeandprocessdatathroughpeople’s interactionwithotherindividuals,the environment and cities. This has significantly changed the way that keystakeholders interact with each other through mapping and raised fundamentalontologicalandepistemologicalquestionsaboutthenatureofmapsandmapping.Thispaperreviewsliteratureincriticalcartographyandmapexamplestoseehowrecenttechnologicaldevelopmentsrelatetomapmaking.Thecurrentpracticeandthinking in cartography has been challenged, as cartography is traditionallyconsidered the core mapmaking profession. When maps start to function asparticipatoryplatformsandbecomedemocratized, cartography seems tobecomeobsolete. In light of this, we suggest that maps become the objects of servicedesign. In this role, servicedesigners considermaps as services and takeauser-centred approach to facilitate the engagement of key stakeholders in complexsystems. The key contribution of this paper lies in the fact that it initiates adiscussionof thepotentialofservicedesign indevelopingdigitalplatforms,smartcities and public services throughmapping. It suggests that future studies couldcontextualize the involvement of service design in this new territory andinvestigatesitsimplicationsandlimitations.

Keywords:ServiceDesign,DigitalPlatform,Cartography,BigData

1.IntroductionTheemergenceofWeb2.0technologiesandtheincreasingavailabilityofsatelliteimageryhaveenabledtherapidgrowthofspatialknowledgeproductionanddissemination(e.g.Haklay,SingletonandParker,2008).Mappinghasevolvedrapidlyfrompaper,toGIS,toweb-basedmapping.Inparticular,theInternetanddigitalmappingtechnologyallowmapstofunctionasparticipatoryplatformswiththecapacitytocollect,create,storeandprocessdatathroughpeople’sinteractionswithotherindividuals,theenvironmentandcities.Therecentrapiddevelopmentandadoptionofsmartdevicetechnologies(e.g.wearable)andtheInternetofThings,togetherwiththegrowthinBig

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DataandVolunteeredGeographicInformation(VGI)mappingpractices,havesignificantimplicationsforsocialrelationsandoureverydaylife(ZookandGraham2007;WilsonandGraham,2013).Inparticular,thesedevelopmentshavesignificantlychangedthewaythatusers,serviceproviders,governmentsandotherkeystakeholdersinteractwitheachotherthroughmapping.AsrecentepisodeoftheBBCradioprogramme“TheForum”(2012)discussed,thefactthatwearenowenteringacrucialmomentoftechnologicalandsocialtransformation;therebywearenowexperiencingoneofmostcompleteshiftsinmappinginoururbanlife.Lin(2015)urgesthatitistime“wecallformoreresearchonsituating,tracing,understanding,andpotentiallyremakingthemap”(p.43)inlightofthiswaveoftransformation.

Thispaperaimstounderstandthecurrentstatusofmappingpracticeinrelationtotherapiddevelopmentoftechnology.Itattemptstoconceptualizethechangingdynamicsamongststakeholdersinvolvedinmappingby:

• Reviewingliteratureincriticalcartographytounderstandexistingviewsandtheknowledgegapsinthecurrentdebate;

• Reviewingmapexamplestounderstandhowtherecentdevelopmentoftechnologieshaschangedthewaymapsaredeveloped,usedanddisseminated.

Thispaperreportsthesefindingsbeforeturningtoadiscussionthatconcludesthatthenatureofmappinghaschangedsignificantlyasaresultoftherapiddevelopmentoftechnology.Thisrequiresanewkindofprofessiontofacilitatecollaborativemappingactivitiesthroughdigitalplatforms.Itissuggestedthatservicedesign,withitsuser-centeredapproachandsystemicorientation,isrelevantinthiscontext.

2.CriticalCartography2.1ABriefReviewofCriticalCartographyLiteratureThefollowingtablesummarizeskeydiscoursesinthefieldofcriticalcartography.Itappearsthatboththeepistemologicalandontologicalviewsofcartographyhaveevolvedsincethestartofthepracticeofmapping.

Table1 CriticalCartographyCharacteristics(adaptedfromKitchin,2008)

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EarlyMaps.Formanycenturies,mapswereconsideredtobeliterarymetaphorsandtoolsinanalogicalthinking(Harley,1987).Earlymapsalsodealtwithnaturalphilosophy,thedescriptionofplacesandpeople,geography,history,navigationanddirectionand(whatwewouldnowadayscall)methodologicalissues.Interestingly,becauseinthemedievalperiodmapsreflecteddominantreligiousviews,somemapswereproducedtoguidebehaviourinaccordancewithreligiousritualsandorders.Forexample,theHerefordMappaMundidoesnotonlyshowthegeographicinformationbutalsosignifiesreligiousritual.(Figure1).Thesewereusedinasimilarwayasvisualencyclopaedias(i.e.mappamundi,learningandthinkingtools).Thoseearlycartographicimagescontainedmessagesabouthowhumansocietyshouldbeorderedaswellasfactsabouttheorganizationofspaceandhowthiscouldbecommunicatedwithpeople.Duringthisera,mapswerepredominantlyproducedbycartographers.Withoutthesupportofanymoderntechnologytoproducemapsandtocapturetheinformationneededformodernmaps,cartographersreliedlargelyontheirknowledge,cultureandspeculationsabouttheworld.

Figure1. HerefordMappaMundi.Oneofthemostfamousmedievalmapsinexistence,datesfromaround1300andiskeptatHerefordCathedralinEngland.Itwasdrawnoncalfskin,anddepictsJerusalemasbeingatthecentreoftheworld.GreatBritainandIrelandaresqueezedintothebottomlefthandcorner.

ModernCartographicEra:TheScientificView.Fromtheearlymoderncartographiceraonwards,technicalinnovationinphysicalmeasurementandvisualizationskillsledtothegrowthofstatisticalgraphicsandthematicmapping.Thediscussionstartedtobeconcernedwith‘mapeffectiveness’(Robinson,1952),whichsuggestedthatcartography’sfundamentalaimwastocapturetheabiding(inherent)truthaboutspaceandthatitbelievedtheworldcouldbeobjectivelyknownandfaithfullymappedusingscientifictechniquesthatcapturedanddisplayedspatialinformation.Thisviewplacedgreatemphasisonissuessuchasmaps’readabilityandaccuratecorrespondencebetweenphysical

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objectandgraphicalrepresentation(e.g.interpretability,useofcolor,scale,projection,datacategorizationandsymbology).Therefore,self-referentialandtechnicalquestionswereexplored,andcartographersaimedtoproducerulesandstandardstorefineandimprovehowmaprepresentationscouldbedesignedandcommunicated(Kitchin,Gleeson&Dodge,2013).Figure2isamapprojectionofaworldmap,whichshowstheentireworldatonce.Itwasspecificallycreatedinanattempttofindagoodcompromisetotheproblemofreadilyshowingglobeasaflatimage.

Thekeythemesofthiscartographiceraseemtorelatetotheideasofmapsastruth;representation(descriptive);essentialism;mapsasontologicallysecure(fullyformed/immutable);inherent,objectivetruth;andthenon-ideologicalnatureofmaps(Kitchin,2008).

Figure2. Robinsonprojectionoftheworld.source:TheNewYorkTimesNovember15,2004:AboutthedevelopmentoftheRobinsonprojection.15°graticule.ImageryisaderivativeofNASA’sBlueMarblesummermonthcompositewithoceanslightenedtoenhancelegibilityandcontrast.ImagecreatedwiththeGeocartmapprojectionsoftware.

Representational.Thescientificviewthendevelopedintocriticalcartography,whichstartedbyfocusingontheunderlyingnotionofmapsaswaysofknowingabouttheworld.Criticalcartographypresentedthisasformalizedknowledgeandthesocialconstructionofpower(Harley,1989).Inthisway,mapsweredefinedasasetofgraphicalarrangementsthatrepresentedhumanphenomenasuchasthings,concepts,conditions,processesoreventsinthehumanworld(HarleyandWoodward,1987).Therefore,inthisstrandofliterature,mapswereconsideredasrepresentational.Incriticalcartography,“deconstruction”wasthemethodofunderstandingmapswithinthewidercontextoftheirproduction,circulationandapplication,andofrevealingthemeanings,ideologyandpowerinherentwithintheirdesign,focusandpresentation(Harley,1989).

Post-representational.Bycontrast,thepost-representationalviewclaimedthatmapshadneverbeenneutralanddidnotsimplymirrortheworld;instead,eachmapwasadramaticreductionoftheworldfromanextensivesetoffacts.TurningfromthephilosophyofrepresentationtopracticesofinteractionfollowsMichaelLynch’s(1994,p.149)suggestionthatifwewishtoproducemeaningfulanalysesofimagesinscience,weoughttoceasecomparingrepresentationswith‘reality’andfocusourattentionon‘whatpeopledowhentheyengageinanactivitythatmakesoneoranother“representation”perspicuous’.

Thewayinwhichunquantifiableinformationwasabstracted,symbolizedandaccentuatedinthebestrepresentativeoutcomedependedlargelyonthechoicesanddecisionsmadebymapmakersaswellasonhowthemapswerereadbyusers(Wood,1992;Pickles,2004;DodgeandKitchin,2000;

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WoodandFels,2008).Thisviewhassignificantlychallengedthescientific(e.g.Robinson)andrepresentational(e.g.Harley)viewsofmaps.Thecoreargumentofthisviewwasthattheprocessofmappingconsistsofcreating,ratherthansimplyrevealing,knowledge.

Figure3. LondonUndergroundMap,HarryBeck,1931.Theideaofcreatingafullsystemmapincolour.BeckbelievedthatUndergroundpassengerswerenotconcernedwithgeographicalaccuracyandweremoreinterestedinhowtogetfromonestationtoanotherandwheretochangetrains.Whiledrawinganelectricalcircuitdiagram,heappliednewideaforamapthatwasbaseduponconceptratherageographicmaponwhichallstationsweremoreorlessequallyspaced.

EmergentCartography.Asmappingisaboutcreatingknowledge,itwasarguedthatmapsshouldbeunderstoodas“processual”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007;Mackenzie,2003).Thismeansthattheimportantquestionisnotwhatamapis,norwhatamapdoes,but“howthemapemergesthroughcontingent,relational,context-embeddedpracticestosolverelationproblems(theirabilitytomakeadifferencetotheworld);tomovefromessentialistandconstructivistcartographytowhatwetermemergentcartography”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007,342).Therefore,thepracticeofcartographyandthetheoreticalanalysisofcartographyarebothprocessualinnature.Inthisway,“cartographyshiftsfrombeingonticalinstatus,whereintheontologicalassumptionsabouthowtheworldcanbeknownandmeasuredareimplicitlysecure,toanontologicalprojectthatquestionsmorefullytheworkmapsdointheworld”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007,343).

2.2ChallengestoCriticalCartographyTherecentshiftofontologicalassumptionstowardemergentcartographymeansthattherehavebeensignificantchallengestowhatweknowaboutmapsandhowmapsnowadaysarerelatedtotheworldthroughtheprocessofmapping.Itisalsounclearwhereemergentcartographyleadstheargument.Ifthequestionisnolongerabout“whatamapis”or“whatamapdoes,”but“howamapemergesandmakesadifferencetotheworld,”thereisasignificantgapinourknowledge.

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3.TechnologyandMapmakingTheshiftofontologicalassumptionsisalsocloselyalignedwiththerecentdevelopmentandwideusageofadvancedtechnologiesineveryaspectofourlives.ThefutureofcartographyhasbecomeawidelydiscussedtopicinthefieldofGeographylikeHumanGeographyandCriticalGeography.Forexample,Kitchin,Perkins&Dodge(2009)suggestthatthecartographiccommunicationmodelasanorganizingframeworkforacademicresearchwasbeginningtowanebythemid-1980s.Theydescribetheimpactoftechnologicalchangesinthefollowingway:

“Technologicalchangesrenderedproblematicasingleauthoritativeviewoftheworldatatimewhendatawerebecomingmuchmorereadilyavailable,andwhentechnologiesforthemanipulationanddisseminationofmappingwerealsobeingsignificantlychanged.Userscouldbecomemappersandmanypossiblemappingscouldbemade.Digitalmappingtechnologiesseparateddisplayfromprintingandremovedtheconstraintoffixedspecifications.GISincreasinglysupplantedmanytechnicalaspectsofcartographiccompilationandproduction.Digitalposition,elevationandattributedatacouldbecapturedfromremotelysensedsources,andeasilystoredandmanipulatedinadigitalform.Imagerycouldbegeneratedtoprovidefrequentupdatesofchangingcontexts.Mapscouldbecomeanimated.Fromthelate1990stheInternethasallowedmapstobeevermorewidelysharedanddisseminatedatlowcost.Mappingneededtobeunderstoodasmuchmoreofaprocessthanwaspossibleincommunicationmodels.”(Kitchinetal.,2009,p.7)

Jelfs,Cartwright&Pupedis(2014)furthersuggestthatthefutureofcartographyandnewrepresentationsofgeographywillcontinuetobeinfluencedbytheoutcomesofexplorationsoftheavailabledataandthecreationofinnovative,technologicallyproducedandtechnologicallydeliveredproducts.Wood(2003)takesacriticalviewofthefutureofcartographyandassertsthat“cartographyisdead”:mapmakingbecametoouniversalandthuseventuallylostitsprofessionalismwiththemarchoftechnologicalinnovation.

Thefollowingsectioninvestigateshowmappinghasbeeninfluencedbythesetechnologies.Thepaperthenturnstoareviewofmapexamplesinordertounderstand“howmapsemerge”inrelationtothecurrentstateoftechnologicaldevelopment.

3.1TheTraditionalMappingProcessandTechnologyTechnologyhasalwaysbeenrecognizedasanessentialpartofmapmakingandanimportantdriverinchangingboththepracticeandtheanalysisofit.Inordertounderstandhowtechnologyinteractswiththeprocessofmapmaking,Ackoff’s(1989)frameworkofKnowledgeHierarchy(showninDiagram1)isusedasthebasisforunderstandingtheflowofinformationrepresentedintheprocessofmapmaking.

Diagram1.Ackoff’sKnowledgeHierarchy

Ackoff’sframeworkcontextualizesdata,informationandknowledge(andsometimeswisdom)withrespecttooneanothersoastoidentifyanddescribetheprocessesinvolvedinthetransformationofanentityatalowerlevelinthehierarchy(e.g.data)intoanentityatahigherlevelinthehierarchy

DATA INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE

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(e.g.information).Thishierarchyisconsideredacentralmodelofinformationmanagement,informationsystemsandknowledgemanagement(Rowley,2007).Inthismodel,Dataaremerelysymbolsthatweassociatewithspecificfeaturesintheoutsideworld,informationiscontextualiseddatathatallowsustoanswerquestions,knowledgeisproceduralisedinformationthatallowsustoactonandsolveproblems,andwisdomisknowingunderwhichsituationstoact(Ackoff,1989).

Basedontheassumptionthattheflowofknowledgeandinformationrepresentstheprocessofmapmaking,Diagram2illustratesthisprocess.Fromtheoriginaldatatothefinalusageofmaps,thereareatleastthreeareasthattechnologymaybeessential:technologytogatherdata(includingboththegeographicorspecialdataandotherlayersofdatainsomemaps),technologytomakemaps(e.g.printtechnology)andtechnologytodisseminate(e.g.themapmedia).Conventionally,cartographersplayanessentialroleinprocessingthesestepsbyinnovatingandapplyingdifferenttypesoftechnology.Inhistory,wehaveseenthatbreakthroughtechnologyhasbeenoneofthekeydriversinchangingthepracticeofcartography.Forexample,themodernprinttechnologystartedinthenineteenthcenturyshiftedmapmakingfrommanuscriptstomassprintproduction,allowingmapstobewidelydisseminatedandtobecomeanimportantpartofoureverydaylives.

Inthisprocess,thereisaclearboundarybetweenmapproductionandconsumption,aswidelyrecognizedinliterature(Dodge&Kitchin,2013).Mapsaretheinterfacebetweentheprofessionalswhoproducemapsandtheuserswhousethem.Theskillsandknowledgeessentialforproducingmapsunderpintheprofessionalismofcartographersinmanyways.Keystakeholders,e.g.usersandmapproducers,areclearlydefinedbasedonhowtheyinteractintheprocess.

Diagram2:TheTraditionalMappingProcess

3.2TheRecentDevelopmentinTechnologiesInordertounderstandtheextenttowhichtherecentdevelopmentintechnologieshaschangedthetraditionalprocessofmapmakingandhowitrelatestotechnology,Table2summarizesthekeytechnologicaldevelopments(andrelevanttermsthatsummarizetheapplicationofthesetechnologies)sincetheearly1990s.

Other layers of informaiton

MapMaking

MapUsage

DATAproduction consumption

INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE

Technologyto gather

data

Tech. to disseminate

Technologyto make

Geography spatial data

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Table2:RecentTechnologiesandTheirImplicationsforMapping

GIS.Ageographicinformationsystem(orGIS)isasystemdesignedtocapture,store,manipulate,analyze,manageandpresentspatialorgeographicaldata.Sincethelate1990s,theInternethasallowedGISmapstobeevermorewidelysharedanddisseminatedatlowcosts.ModernGISandothercomputermappingapplicationassistsanalysisandcansowmanydifferentkindsofdataononemap,suchasstreets,buildingsandvegetation.Thisenablespeopletomoresanityseeanalyseandunderstandpatternsandrelationship(seefigure4).GISproducesa“god-like”view(Dodge,2008;Kitchin&Dodge,2007)thatrepresentstheworldinanobjectivefashion.AsCosgrove(2001,p92)putsit,dataaredisplayed‘naturistically’asifonaplanetseenfromspace.GISalsosupplantsmanytechnicalaspectsofcartographiccompilation,productionanddissemination,allowingthedevelopmentofarangeofInternetmappingportals(e.g.GoogleMaps,OSMandotherfreeopen-sourceplatforms).Thishassignificantlychallengedtraditionalcartographiccommunicationmodelsaswellasthecoretheoriesofcriticalcartography.

Figure4.IllustrationcourtesyU.S.source:GovernmentAccountabilityOffice

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Web-based Digitial Mapping

(Google Maps/OSM)

Web 2.0(Ajax, Web API)

Geographic Information system

(GIS)

Early 1990s 2010ishTi

mel

ine

Impl

icatio

nM

ap e

xam

ples

*Te

chno

logy

AugmentedReality (AR)

From static web-pages to dynamicThe growth of social media

Platform with costeffective scalability

Collective intelligence (i.e. Crowdsourced)

Users as co-developer

Internetworking with connected devices enable object to collect and exchange data through internet

Computergenerated sensory input

Interactive display, data from different sources can be inte-grated and easily layered

Computer system for capturing, stor-ing, checking, and displaying data re-lated to positions on Earth’s surface

Big Data generation with geographical reference

Combines real and virtual

Interactive in real time

Registers in 3D

Interactive Maps

Data Intergration

API

God-like View

Supplanter of cartographic compilation and production

LoveCleanStreet, 2009Urban Mobs, 2009Invisible City Map, 2011Transportation Map, 2011Flickr Luminous Cities, 2011Livehoods Map, 2011Chatty map of London, 2012 Park Life London Map, 2013NY Sentiment Map, 2013Sight seeing heat Map, 2014Sentiment mapper, 2014 Scenic Route Map, 2014 Urban Mind Maps, 2015

NYC Tunnel Vision, 2014UCL Campus Map, 2013Continental AR HUD, 2014

Noise Pollution Map, 2012London Air Pollution, 2012OysterCard Flow Map, 2013Boston Bus Journey speeds Map, 2013Live bus-tracking Map, 2013Bikeshare Map, 2014 Most Stressful Places, 2015MindRider Map, 2015

OpenStreetMap, 2004Google Street Map, 2005Google Earth, 2005Google Sphere, 2012Map Creator HERE, 2013Postcode for Quick Com-muteMap, 2013Whereabout London, 2014Manhattan Tree Map,2015Everyvine Map, 2015Patho Map, 2015Health Map, 2006

Crime Mapping, 1986Oakland Crime Map, 2007

2005

Ubiquitous Computing(Internet of Things, Wearable Devices)

* Please see appendix for more information about this map examples

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DigitalMappingTechnology.From2000,incrediblyaccuratedigitalmappingtechnologyandautomaticallyrenderedmaprepresentation(GoogleMaps,satelliteimagery)hasinfusedandalmostreplacedconventionalmapmaking(Farman,2010;Goodchild,2000).Thesemappingportalsallowuserstoaccessandinteractwithgrowingvolumesofgeographicaldatabyusingstraightforwardinterfacestoproducetheirownmaps(Crampton,2009).GoogleMaps(launchedin2005)inparticular—empoweredbysatelliteimages,street-levelperspectivesandotherfunctions—hasenabledafullspectrumofinteractivemapping(Seefigure5).Datafromdifferentsourcescanbeintegratedandeasilylayered.ItalsooffersanAPI(ApplicationProgrammingInterface)thatallowsmapstobeembeddedonthird-partywebsitesorapplications.

Figure5.GoogleMap(2005onwards)InApril2007,MyMapswasanewfeatureaddedtoGoogle'slocalsearchmaps.MyMapsletsusersandbusinessescreatetheirownmapbypositioningmarkers,polylinesandpolygonsontoamap.OnMay25,2007,GooglereleasednewfeatureofGoogleMapswhichprovides360°panoramicstreet-levelviewsoflocations.

Web2.0Technology.Theterm“Web2.0”reflectschangesinthewaysthattheInternetisdeployedbothbysoftwaredevelopersandbyend-users,changesthatsuggestapotentiallyrevolutionaryshiftinthenatureoftheInternet.ThecorecompetenciesofWeb2.0include:thewebasaplatformwithcost-effectivescalability(O’Reilly,2005),collectiveintelligence(O’Reilly,2005;Allen,2009)throughuserparticipation(Best,2006),dynamiccontents,opennessandfreedom(GreenemeierandGaudin,2008).ThetermMap2.0hasbeenused(Gartner,2008)torefertoWeb2.0applicationsthatprovidesuitableplatformsfordynamicandinteractivemapsthatalloweveryonetoproduceandchangetheirownindividualmapswithoutprofessionalknowledge.Thiscollaborativeandsocialaspectofnewmappinghasledtodemocraticapproachestomapmakingandmapping.ThetermsVolunteeredGeographicalInformation(VGI)(Goodchild,2007),crowdsourcing(Dodge&Kitchin,2013),counter-mappingandcounter-knowledge(Harris&Hazen,2006)canbeunderstoodundertheumbrellatermUGC(UserGeneratedContents).

Somearguethatthismeanstheendoftraditionalcartography(asin,forexample,Wood’s(2003)claimthat“cartographyisdead.”)However,others(e.g.Sui,2007)thinkWeb2.0enablestheintegrationofsocialandtechnicalaspectsinto“wikified”modelsofcartographiccommunicationormapping(seeFigure6).

Figure6. PanoramioMaps(2007)wasgeo-locatedtagging,photosharingmashupownedbygoogle.

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UbiquitousComputing(IoT&ICT).TheInternetofThings(IoT)isarecenttrendinthefieldofcommunicationsthatrenderstheInternetauniversalthing.Itmakesallobjectsconnectwithoneanotherandwithotherphysicaldevices—referredtoas“connecteddevices”and“smartdevices”—andotheritemsenabletheseobjectstocollectandexchangedata(Brown,2016).Thewideadoptionofthesetechnologiesisdrivenbythedecliningcostofsensorsandmicroprocessors,coupledwiththeincreasingarrayofaffordableconnectivitytechnologies.Thesetrendsaredrivingeffortstoincreaseaccesstoconnectivitytechnologies(InformationandCommunicationsTechnologiesforDevelopment.i.e.ICT4D).IoTisseenasthenextfrontierininformationandcommunicationstechnologies(ICTs).TheimpactofIoTonmapmakingissignificantaseachobjectcanbeequippedwithsensors,micro-controllersandreceiversforthedigitalcommunicationofgeographicaldata.GIShasanabilitytogather,store,examineandmanagespatialdataandallowuserstomanagedatainmaps.IoTandGISmaybecoupledtogethertoprovideanevenbetterunderstandingofgeographicaldataandpatterns.Forexample,MindRiderisahead-basedIoTandwearabledevicesthattracksinreal-timehowuser’sride,movement,andlocationengagewithhis/hermindgivingnewinsightintoridingexperiencewithoutuser’sdirectparticipation(seefigure7).Thistie-upallowsforinteractivemappingthatusersreal-timedataandtakesintoaccountcontextualinformation,includingtheuser’sparticularinterestthattheywanttoaddress(Priya,2016).

Figure7.MindRiderMap(2015)isahead-basedwearablethattracks,inrealtime,howusersrides,movement,andlocationengagetheirmindthatprovidingnewinsightintoridingexperience.Itusedbiosensortocollecthumanexperiencedataandprocessitinalarge-scale,location-awarecontext.

AugmentedReality.AugmentedReality(AR)isdefinedasthemixtureofsensoryperceptionoftherealenvironmentandfictionalvisualobjects(Milgram,1994).Ingeneralterms,ARcombinesrealandvirtualrealityallowsinteractioninrealtimeandisregisteredin3D(Azuma,1997).ARhasmanyapplicationsinmedicine,navigation,energy,militaryanddatavisualization.Stanek(2010)suggeststhatARmaybeusedasagraphicaluserinterfaceforspatialdatathatenablesthevisualizationoflandscapeandothercartographicobjectsinaflexibleway.Itblursthedistinctionbetweentherealworldandtheuserinterfaceinawayfamiliarfromthephenomenonofubiquitouscomputing(asdescribedbyWeiser(1991).Whileubiquitouscomputingfocusesonthecomputerbecominginvisibleamongtheobjectsofeverydaylife,ARseekstoaddtotheexperienceofreality,therebycreatingnewformsofinteractionbetweenhumansandcomputers.ThismeansthattheARhelpsustoaddinformationandcontexttotherealitythatsurroundsusvirtuallyandwiththeuseroftechnology(seeFigure8).MobilecomputersrunningARapplicationscanprovidesuchubiquity.Thecommonadvantagesofthistypeofcomputerenvironment—likeuserinteractivityandvisualandcontextualvariability—allowfortheadaptationofmapsandforenhancedgeo-locationsupport(Stanek,2010).

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Figure8. AugmentedNYCTunnelVision(2014)usesthemapasaplatformtoexplorethecitythroughdata-visualization.Theapppullsdatafromavarietyofsourcesandseamlesslyintegratesthemintothemapbydrawingoverthecamerafeed.

3.3IllustrationoftheCurrentMappingProcessBasedontheforegoingreviewofrecenttechnologicalinnovations,Diagram3integratesthistechnologyintoadepictionofthemapmakingprocess.First,itappearsthattechnologicalinnovationsdonothappeninoneareaalonebutinallofthethreeareasthattechnologyisrelevanttomapmaking:technologytogatherdata,technologytomakemapsandtechnologytodisseminatemaps.Theimpactofthesetechnologieshasundoubtedlytransformedthewholeprocess.Second,theproductionandconsumptionofmapshavebeenbroughttogether,andtheboundariesintheprocesshaveblurred.Thishasledtoachangeinthedynamicsbetweenmapproducers,cartographersandusers.Thereorderingofthepowerstructurechallengestraditionalmappingpracticesinmanyways,and,atthesametime,itopensupopportunitiesfornewpracticesandnewformsofrelationshiptobeformedformoreeffectivecollaboration.

Diagram3:Currentmappingprocess

Someofthekeychallengesandopportunitiesinclude:

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Theubiquityofdata.Theaccurategeographicalinformationandbase-mapsgeneratedthroughGIShavemadethespeculationandknowledgeofcartographerssuperfluouswhenitcomestothemapmakingprocess.Accuracyandmapreliabilityhadlongbeenachallengeinmapmaking,buttheserecentdevelopmentsseemtohavemadecartographicpracticethatreliesonphysicalmeasurementtechnologiesandvisualizationskillsobsolete.Theotherkeychangeisthedramaticallyincreasedcomplexityinthetypeandamountofdataavailableformapping.Usersareinvolvedindatageneration.Ontheoneside,usersconsciouslylayerinformationontomapsthroughsocialmediaandothertools.Theyvoluntarilycontribute,collect,cleananduploadGPStracksandaddattributedata,termedVolunteeredGeographicInformation(Stefanidis,Crooks&Radzikowski,2013;Dodge&Kitchin,2013).Ontheotherside,supportedbyIoTtechnologyembeddedinthesystem,datacanbeautomaticallygeneratedintheformofBigData.Thedataareharvestedfromsmartphones,socialmediaandsensorsembeddedinthebuiltenvironment(fixedandwirelesstelecomsnetworks,digitallycontrolledutilityservicesandtransportinfrastructure,sensorandcameranetworks,buildingmanagementsystemsandsoon).Dataarenowubiquitous.AsGrahamandShelton(2013)argue,althoughBigDataseemstoallowfortheobjectivemeasurementandmappingoftheworldasitactuallyis,andsoseemstoenableustoarriveatfundamentaltruths,itisquestionablewhetherandinwhatwaycartographyisrelevant,especiallywhenthecoreargumentincriticalcartographyseemstohavepointedtowardadifferentfuture.

DemocratizedMapmaking.Digitalmappingtechnologynotonlyenhancesmapsintermsoftheirscaleandresolution,butalsomakesthisimageryinvirtualspaceavailabletothepublicandtobusinessthroughmappingplatforms.Thisallowsuserseasilytolayerinformationontotheplatformandcustomizeitsusage.Mapsbegintofunctionasparticipatoryplatforms;mappingbecomesdemocratizedasneverbefore.Public-andcitizen-orientatedmapmakingeffortsaredistinctfromtraditionalmapmaking,andthishaschangedtherelationshipbetweentheuserandthemapprovider/maker.Thousandsofpeoplecollectivelyactasgeographicallydistributedsensors;theyconnecttoplatformssocially,communicatemeaningfullyandcontributecollectively.Theyvoluntarilycollect,cleananduploadgeospatialinformationandcontributedata.

Mappinghasbecomedistributed,participatoryandsocial.Itoffersanewformofmappingexperienceinwhichuserscanbecomeauthorsandthroughwhichthecontentisconstructedcollaboratively.Thiscollaborationisaformofso-called“crowdsourcing,”whereinmanypeoplevolunteerpertinentinformation,usuallyabouttheirlocalarea;inthisway,citizensbecometobeassensors(asdetailedbyGoodchild(2007)

Thismeansthattheproductionofknowledgeisinthehandsofthepublicratherthaninthoseofaccreditedandtrainedprofessionals.Theshiftfrommapusertomapmaker(ZookandGraham,2007)isnotonlyaboutblurringboundariesbylettinguserscontrolgeographicalinformation,butalsoaboutcounter-mappingandcounter-knowledgeactivities(HarrisandHazen,2006).Thishasledtoeitherade-professionalizationofcartographerorare-professionalizationofmapusers(Crampton,2009).

TheExpandedUsageofMaps.Evergreaternumbersofpeopleareusingmapmediatosearchandnavigatethisdigitalspace;theyproducespatialknowledgejustastheyconsumespatialinformation.Nowadays,hugeamountsofdataarerecorded,storedandanalysedwhileweproducevariouskindsofspatialdatainourdailylives,includingtravelbehaviour,energyusage,noiselevelsandemotionalattributionsfromcrowdsourcing.Asdigitaldatahavebecomeubiquitous,unprecedentedinsightsproducedandmappedintheformofBigDatahavechangedusers’perceptionsandinformedtheirknowledgeofplace,thusaidingthemintheirdecision-makingregardinghowbesttointeractinthecity;thisispotentiallyproducingnewwaysofknowingandbeingintheworld(Batty,2013;Graham

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&Shelton,2013).Althoughwestillusetraditionaldatacollectionmethodssuchassurveys,interviewsandquestionnairesformapmakingintheurbansetting,newwaysofcollectingdataareincreasinglyeffectivetorevealpatternsinpeople’sactivityonalargescaleinphysicalplaces.Describingthedynamicsofcitiesisacrucialstepinbothunderstandingpeople’sactivityinurbanenvironmentsandinplanninganddesigningcitiesaccordingly.

Thereproductionofurbandatathroughinterconnected,map-basedsocialmediaandlocation-awareservicesaffordsusinformationabouttheurbanexperience:Thelayersofdatageneratedbytheinteractionbetweenpeopleandplacescanbeunderstoodasadescriptionofhumanbehaviouralpatternsintimeandspace.Cityplannersandgovernmentsareabletolookaturbandatafromvarioussourcesforthesakeoffutureurbandevelopmentsandfortheinhabitants’benefit;theynolongerhavetospeculatebutcanobserveandmeasurebehaviouralpatternsandharvestinsightsformeaningfuldecision-makingthatpotentiallysupportsthecity’skeystakeholders.Inthisrespect,depictinggeo-referenceddatacanoffernewperspectivesoncityservicesandthewayprocessesandstrategiesaredesignedandimplemented(Ciuccarelli,2014;Graham&Shelton,2013).

4.ServiceDesigninMappingAllthesechangeschallengethetraditionalwayofproducingandthinkingaboutmaps.Wearguethatinsteadoffocusingonexploringtherelevanceoftraditionalcartographypracticeinthisspaceandseekingakindof“re-professionalization,”itistimetoinvestigateandseekrelevantpracticesanddisciplines.Inwhatfollows,weexploretherelevanceofservicedesignformapmaking.

4.1MapsasServiceEcosystemsOstrom(2010)describesservicedesignas“acollaborative,cross-disciplinaryactivity”thatinvolves“theorchestrationofclues,places,processes,andinteractionsthattogethercreateholisticserviceexperienceforcustomers,client,employee,businesspartnerorcitizen”(p.17).Inotherwords,servicedesigninvolvesaholisticapproachtothedesignofexperiencesandsystemsthatrequiretheintegrationofmultipledesigndisciplinesinasystemicsolution.

Aswehavediscussed,recenttechnologicaldevelopmentshaveallowedforcollaborativemappingactivities.Usershavebecomeco-producersofmaps,ashaveserviceandtechnologyproviders,governmentsandotherstakeholders.Inthisway,therolesofproduceranduserarenotdistinct,whichmeansvalueisco-createdininteractionsamongentities—includingmapserviceproviders,users,governmentsandotherrelatedentities—throughtheintegrationofresources.Thisparallelsthediscussionin“servicescience”ofservicesasinvolvingaco-productiveprocessinwhich“theserviceisproducedinacustomerprocesswherecustomer,companyandsubcontractorsareactors”(Edvardsson,1997,p.31).Thisconceptisfurtherdevelopedintheconceptsof“serviceecosystems”(Maglio&Spohrer,2008;Spohrer&Maglio,2010;Lusch&Vargo,2009;SatishNambisan&Lusch,2015)or“servicesystems”(Maglio&Spohrer,2008;Lusch,Vargo&Wessels,2008).Underpinnedbythefundamentalconceptsofservicescience,servicedesignpracticeintendstoapplyascientificunderstandingofservicestodesign,improveandscaleservicesystemsforbusinessandsocietalpurposes(e.g.efficiency,effectivenessandsustainability)(Spohrer,Maglio,Bailey&Gruhl,2007).Therefore,therationaleforexploringservicedesigninmappingliesinthistheoreticalexplanationofserviceandthesharedmeaningsbetweenmappingplatformsandservicesystems.

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4.2TheFacilitationofCollaborativeActivitiesViewingmappingasco-creation,servicedesignmayfacilitatecollaborativeactivitiesbecauseofitsuniquewayofadaptingarangeofmultidisciplinarytoolsandmethods,includingstakeholdermapping,userjourneymapping,co-creationandblueprints.Incomparisonwithmoreconventionaldesignmethods(e.g.taskanalysis,sketchingandmodelling),thissetofmethodsfacilitatesuserparticipation,interdisciplinaryteamworkandcreativecollaboration.Thesemethodsareopen,interactiveandtransparent.Bycontrastwiththewaythesemethodsareusedintheirownfields,servicedesignershavetheabilitytomakethemmorecommunicableandaccessible.Inthisnewspace,designers’expertiseliesintheirabilitytoempathizewithpeopleinrelationtothesystemandtoapplythinkingtoaction.Further,participatoryexperienceisconsidered“notsimplyamethodorsetofmethodologies”butas“amindsetandanattitudeaboutpeople”(Sanders&Rim,2002,p.1).Intheshift,theconceptof“designforpeople”isreplacedwith“designwithpeople.”

4.3DevelopingServicestoExploretheUsageofMapsAsserviceistheprimaryconcernofservicedesign,itaimsat

“Designingservicesthatareuseful,usableanddesirablefromtheuserperspective,andefficient,effectiveanddifferentfromtheproviderperspective.Itisastrategicapproachthathelpsproviderstodevelopclearstrategicpositioningfortheirserviceofferings.Servicesaresystemsthatinvolvemanydifferentinfluentialfactors,soservicedesigntakesholisticapproachinordertogetanunderstandingofthesystemandthedifferentactorswithinthesystem.”(Mager&Sung,2011)

Inthecontextofmapping,thecentralchallengehasbeenhowtoexploittheopportunitiesprovidedbytechnology.Servicedesignisthereforecentraltoexploringthepotentialfornewopportunitiesandfornewservicesystemsandexperiencestobedevelopedforalargevarietyofusers(Moritz,2005).Thisisparticularlyevidentinthedebatearoundthereformofpublicservices,inwhichbothorganizationsandcitizensareaskedtoevolveandadapttomorecollaborativeservicemodels,therebychangingtheirrolesandinteractionpatterns(ParkerandParker,2007).

5.ConclusionThispaperreviewsliteratureincriticalcartographyandmapexamplestounpackhowrecenttechnologicaldevelopmentsrelatetomapmaking.Thefindingssuggestthattechnologyhassignificantlychangedthewaymapsaredeveloped,usedanddisseminated.Thekeyimpactsarethreefold:(1)datahavebecomeubiquitous,andnowallowustomeasureandmaptheworldasitactuallyisandsotoarriveatfundamentaltruths;(2)mapshavebecomeaplatformandtheoutcomeoftheprocessofvalueco-creationamongusersandotherkeystakeholders,whichhasopenedupopportunitiesfornewservicesandnewmappingexperiences;and(3)theusageofmapshasbecomediversifiedandhighlypersonalized,andtheuser’sexperiencehasbeensignificantlyenhanced;thishasgreatpotentialinvariousnewareassuchascitydevelopmentandpublicserviceinnovation.

Thesechangeshave,inturn,challengedcurrentpracticesandthinkingincartography,whichistraditionallyconsideredthecoremapmakingprofession.Whenmapsstarttofunctionasparticipatoryplatformsandbecomedemocratisedasneverbefore,cartographyseemstobecomeobsolete.Thishasledtoeitherade-professionalizationorare-professionalization.

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Inthispaper,theseconsiderationshaveledustosuggestredefiningthedesigner’sroleasafacilitatorofvalueco-creationthroughmapservices,inwhichmapsaretheobjectofservicedesign.Inthisrole,servicedesignersconsidermapsasservicesandtakeauser-centeredapproachtofacilitatetheengagementofkeystakeholdersincomplexsystems.Thekeycontributionofthispaperliesinthefactthatitinitiatesadiscussionofthepotentialofservicedesignindevelopingdigitalplatforms,smartcitiesandpublicservices,takingmapsasthemedia.Futurestudiescouldcontextualizetheinvolvementofservicedesigninthisnewterritoryandinvestigateitsimplicationsandlimitations.

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Appendix.ListofMapsinTable2GeographicInformationsystem(GIS)

• CrimeMapping(1986)• OaklandCrimeMap(2007)http://tinyurl.com/475pxb

Web-basedDigitalMapping(GoogleMaps/OSM)• OpenStreetMap(2004)http://bit.ly/1TBmDpn• GoogleStreetMap(2005)http://bit.ly/18mqnSF• GoogleEarth(2005)http://bit.ly/2iOOHIK• HealthMap(2006)http://bit.ly/2irQbMH• GoogleSphere(2012)http://tinyurl.com/nwjvarb• MapCreatorHERE(2013)http://tinyurl.com/nsvzhoc• PostcodeforQuickCommuteMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/q52mzwg• WhereaboutLondon(2014)http://tinyurl.com/ogfjqps• ManhattanTreeMap(2015)http://bit.ly/2hCmgjK• EveryvineMap(2015)http://tinyurl.com/o9qwmhn• PathoMap(2015)http://bit.ly/2hVO8wW• UrbanMindMaps(2015)http://bit.ly/2inUgij

UbiquitousComputing(InternetofThings,WearableDevices)• LoveCleanStreet(2009)http://bit.ly/2hxqsOe• UrbanMobs(2009)http://bit.ly/1z1gclg• InvisibleCityMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/pfmb5xb• TransportationMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/nbjmqvl• FlickrLuminousCities(2011)http://tinyurl.com/pv7t6j4• LivehoodsMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/7ouaz2v• ChattymapofLondon(2012)http://tinyurl.com/pgqa5dq• NoisePollutionMap(2012)http://tinyurl.com/pc9ndep• LondonAirPollution(2012)http://tinyurl.com/6seg8d7

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• UCLCampusMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/qjr6udw• ParkLifeLondonMap(2013)http://bit.ly/2inNNnH• OysterCardFlowMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/padtm4z• BostonBusJourneyspeedsMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/ok9ul7a• Livebus-trackingMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/pw7neg4• BikeshareMap(2014)http://tinyurl.com/ntrhoo9• MostStressfulPlaces(2015)http://tinyurl.com/pestjpd• MindRiderMap(2015)http://bit.ly/1c6oaMH

AugmentedReality(AR)• NYSentimentMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/pan8pl9• SightseeingheatMap(2014)http://bit.ly/2hE69DP• Sentimentmapper(2014)http://tinyurl.com/pan8pl9• ScenicRouteMap(2014)http://bit.ly/1z1gclg• NYCTunnelVision(2014)http://bit.ly/2hE6ma5

AbouttheAuthors:

Dr.QianSunisaseniortutorinServiceDesignattheRoyalCollegeofArt.HerresearchinterestsincludeDesignManagement,DesignPolicy,DesignThinking,andServiceDesign.

HyunyimParkisaPhDcandidateatRoyalCollegeofArt.Shehasworkedinmulti-disciplinaryprojectscrossingdesignanddigitalmarketingstrategy.Currentresearchexploresnewperspectiveofpotentialservicedesignandservicesystemthinkingindevelopingmapanddigitalplatform,smartcitiesandpublicservices.