Download pdf - DfN full paper The Map As An Object of Service Design · The map as an object of service design 3 Early Maps. For many centuries, maps were considered to be literary metaphors and

DesignforNext

12thEADConferenceSapienzaUniversityofRome

12-14April2017

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TheMapAsAnObjectofServiceDesign

QianSuna,HyunyimParkb

aServiceDesign,SchoolofDesign,RoyalCollegeofArtbServiceDesign,SchoolofDesign,RoyalCollegeofArt*Correspondingauthore-mail:[email protected],[email protected]

Abstract:TherapiddevelopmentofICThasledtothetransformationofmapsfromprinted paper to virtual digital publishing and three-dimensional mapping. Thisallows speculation tobe replacedwith certainty and accuracy inmaps. This alsoallows maps to function as participatory platforms with the capacity to collect,create,storeandprocessdatathroughpeople’s interactionwithotherindividuals,the environment and cities. This has significantly changed the way that keystakeholders interact with each other through mapping and raised fundamentalontologicalandepistemologicalquestionsaboutthenatureofmapsandmapping.Thispaperreviewsliteratureincriticalcartographyandmapexamplestoseehowrecenttechnologicaldevelopmentsrelatetomapmaking.Thecurrentpracticeandthinking in cartography has been challenged, as cartography is traditionallyconsidered the core mapmaking profession. When maps start to function asparticipatoryplatformsandbecomedemocratized, cartography seems tobecomeobsolete. In light of this, we suggest that maps become the objects of servicedesign. In this role, servicedesigners considermaps as services and takeauser-centred approach to facilitate the engagement of key stakeholders in complexsystems. The key contribution of this paper lies in the fact that it initiates adiscussionof thepotentialofservicedesign indevelopingdigitalplatforms,smartcities and public services throughmapping. It suggests that future studies couldcontextualize the involvement of service design in this new territory andinvestigatesitsimplicationsandlimitations.

Keywords:ServiceDesign,DigitalPlatform,Cartography,BigData

1.IntroductionTheemergenceofWeb2.0technologiesandtheincreasingavailabilityofsatelliteimageryhaveenabledtherapidgrowthofspatialknowledgeproductionanddissemination(e.g.Haklay,SingletonandParker,2008).Mappinghasevolvedrapidlyfrompaper,toGIS,toweb-basedmapping.Inparticular,theInternetanddigitalmappingtechnologyallowmapstofunctionasparticipatoryplatformswiththecapacitytocollect,create,storeandprocessdatathroughpeople’sinteractionswithotherindividuals,theenvironmentandcities.Therecentrapiddevelopmentandadoptionofsmartdevicetechnologies(e.g.wearable)andtheInternetofThings,togetherwiththegrowthinBig

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DataandVolunteeredGeographicInformation(VGI)mappingpractices,havesignificantimplicationsforsocialrelationsandoureverydaylife(ZookandGraham2007;WilsonandGraham,2013).Inparticular,thesedevelopmentshavesignificantlychangedthewaythatusers,serviceproviders,governmentsandotherkeystakeholdersinteractwitheachotherthroughmapping.AsrecentepisodeoftheBBCradioprogramme“TheForum”(2012)discussed,thefactthatwearenowenteringacrucialmomentoftechnologicalandsocialtransformation;therebywearenowexperiencingoneofmostcompleteshiftsinmappinginoururbanlife.Lin(2015)urgesthatitistime“wecallformoreresearchonsituating,tracing,understanding,andpotentiallyremakingthemap”(p.43)inlightofthiswaveoftransformation.

Thispaperaimstounderstandthecurrentstatusofmappingpracticeinrelationtotherapiddevelopmentoftechnology.Itattemptstoconceptualizethechangingdynamicsamongststakeholdersinvolvedinmappingby:

• Reviewingliteratureincriticalcartographytounderstandexistingviewsandtheknowledgegapsinthecurrentdebate;

• Reviewingmapexamplestounderstandhowtherecentdevelopmentoftechnologieshaschangedthewaymapsaredeveloped,usedanddisseminated.

Thispaperreportsthesefindingsbeforeturningtoadiscussionthatconcludesthatthenatureofmappinghaschangedsignificantlyasaresultoftherapiddevelopmentoftechnology.Thisrequiresanewkindofprofessiontofacilitatecollaborativemappingactivitiesthroughdigitalplatforms.Itissuggestedthatservicedesign,withitsuser-centeredapproachandsystemicorientation,isrelevantinthiscontext.

2.CriticalCartography2.1ABriefReviewofCriticalCartographyLiteratureThefollowingtablesummarizeskeydiscoursesinthefieldofcriticalcartography.Itappearsthatboththeepistemologicalandontologicalviewsofcartographyhaveevolvedsincethestartofthepracticeofmapping.

Table1 CriticalCartographyCharacteristics(adaptedfromKitchin,2008)

Themapasanobjectofservicedesign

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EarlyMaps.Formanycenturies,mapswereconsideredtobeliterarymetaphorsandtoolsinanalogicalthinking(Harley,1987).Earlymapsalsodealtwithnaturalphilosophy,thedescriptionofplacesandpeople,geography,history,navigationanddirectionand(whatwewouldnowadayscall)methodologicalissues.Interestingly,becauseinthemedievalperiodmapsreflecteddominantreligiousviews,somemapswereproducedtoguidebehaviourinaccordancewithreligiousritualsandorders.Forexample,theHerefordMappaMundidoesnotonlyshowthegeographicinformationbutalsosignifiesreligiousritual.(Figure1).Thesewereusedinasimilarwayasvisualencyclopaedias(i.e.mappamundi,learningandthinkingtools).Thoseearlycartographicimagescontainedmessagesabouthowhumansocietyshouldbeorderedaswellasfactsabouttheorganizationofspaceandhowthiscouldbecommunicatedwithpeople.Duringthisera,mapswerepredominantlyproducedbycartographers.Withoutthesupportofanymoderntechnologytoproducemapsandtocapturetheinformationneededformodernmaps,cartographersreliedlargelyontheirknowledge,cultureandspeculationsabouttheworld.

Figure1. HerefordMappaMundi.Oneofthemostfamousmedievalmapsinexistence,datesfromaround1300andiskeptatHerefordCathedralinEngland.Itwasdrawnoncalfskin,anddepictsJerusalemasbeingatthecentreoftheworld.GreatBritainandIrelandaresqueezedintothebottomlefthandcorner.

ModernCartographicEra:TheScientificView.Fromtheearlymoderncartographiceraonwards,technicalinnovationinphysicalmeasurementandvisualizationskillsledtothegrowthofstatisticalgraphicsandthematicmapping.Thediscussionstartedtobeconcernedwith‘mapeffectiveness’(Robinson,1952),whichsuggestedthatcartography’sfundamentalaimwastocapturetheabiding(inherent)truthaboutspaceandthatitbelievedtheworldcouldbeobjectivelyknownandfaithfullymappedusingscientifictechniquesthatcapturedanddisplayedspatialinformation.Thisviewplacedgreatemphasisonissuessuchasmaps’readabilityandaccuratecorrespondencebetweenphysical

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objectandgraphicalrepresentation(e.g.interpretability,useofcolor,scale,projection,datacategorizationandsymbology).Therefore,self-referentialandtechnicalquestionswereexplored,andcartographersaimedtoproducerulesandstandardstorefineandimprovehowmaprepresentationscouldbedesignedandcommunicated(Kitchin,Gleeson&Dodge,2013).Figure2isamapprojectionofaworldmap,whichshowstheentireworldatonce.Itwasspecificallycreatedinanattempttofindagoodcompromisetotheproblemofreadilyshowingglobeasaflatimage.

Thekeythemesofthiscartographiceraseemtorelatetotheideasofmapsastruth;representation(descriptive);essentialism;mapsasontologicallysecure(fullyformed/immutable);inherent,objectivetruth;andthenon-ideologicalnatureofmaps(Kitchin,2008).

Figure2. Robinsonprojectionoftheworld.source:TheNewYorkTimesNovember15,2004:AboutthedevelopmentoftheRobinsonprojection.15°graticule.ImageryisaderivativeofNASA’sBlueMarblesummermonthcompositewithoceanslightenedtoenhancelegibilityandcontrast.ImagecreatedwiththeGeocartmapprojectionsoftware.

Representational.Thescientificviewthendevelopedintocriticalcartography,whichstartedbyfocusingontheunderlyingnotionofmapsaswaysofknowingabouttheworld.Criticalcartographypresentedthisasformalizedknowledgeandthesocialconstructionofpower(Harley,1989).Inthisway,mapsweredefinedasasetofgraphicalarrangementsthatrepresentedhumanphenomenasuchasthings,concepts,conditions,processesoreventsinthehumanworld(HarleyandWoodward,1987).Therefore,inthisstrandofliterature,mapswereconsideredasrepresentational.Incriticalcartography,“deconstruction”wasthemethodofunderstandingmapswithinthewidercontextoftheirproduction,circulationandapplication,andofrevealingthemeanings,ideologyandpowerinherentwithintheirdesign,focusandpresentation(Harley,1989).

Post-representational.Bycontrast,thepost-representationalviewclaimedthatmapshadneverbeenneutralanddidnotsimplymirrortheworld;instead,eachmapwasadramaticreductionoftheworldfromanextensivesetoffacts.TurningfromthephilosophyofrepresentationtopracticesofinteractionfollowsMichaelLynch’s(1994,p.149)suggestionthatifwewishtoproducemeaningfulanalysesofimagesinscience,weoughttoceasecomparingrepresentationswith‘reality’andfocusourattentionon‘whatpeopledowhentheyengageinanactivitythatmakesoneoranother“representation”perspicuous’.

Thewayinwhichunquantifiableinformationwasabstracted,symbolizedandaccentuatedinthebestrepresentativeoutcomedependedlargelyonthechoicesanddecisionsmadebymapmakersaswellasonhowthemapswerereadbyusers(Wood,1992;Pickles,2004;DodgeandKitchin,2000;


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WoodandFels,2008).Thisviewhassignificantlychallengedthescientific(e.g.Robinson)andrepresentational(e.g.Harley)viewsofmaps.Thecoreargumentofthisviewwasthattheprocessofmappingconsistsofcreating,ratherthansimplyrevealing,knowledge.

Figure3. LondonUndergroundMap,HarryBeck,1931.Theideaofcreatingafullsystemmapincolour.BeckbelievedthatUndergroundpassengerswerenotconcernedwithgeographicalaccuracyandweremoreinterestedinhowtogetfromonestationtoanotherandwheretochangetrains.Whiledrawinganelectricalcircuitdiagram,heappliednewideaforamapthatwasbaseduponconceptratherageographicmaponwhichallstationsweremoreorlessequallyspaced.

EmergentCartography.Asmappingisaboutcreatingknowledge,itwasarguedthatmapsshouldbeunderstoodas“processual”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007;Mackenzie,2003).Thismeansthattheimportantquestionisnotwhatamapis,norwhatamapdoes,but“howthemapemergesthroughcontingent,relational,context-embeddedpracticestosolverelationproblems(theirabilitytomakeadifferencetotheworld);tomovefromessentialistandconstructivistcartographytowhatwetermemergentcartography”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007,342).Therefore,thepracticeofcartographyandthetheoreticalanalysisofcartographyarebothprocessualinnature.Inthisway,“cartographyshiftsfrombeingonticalinstatus,whereintheontologicalassumptionsabouthowtheworldcanbeknownandmeasuredareimplicitlysecure,toanontologicalprojectthatquestionsmorefullytheworkmapsdointheworld”(Kitchin&Dodge,2007,343).

2.2ChallengestoCriticalCartographyTherecentshiftofontologicalassumptionstowardemergentcartographymeansthattherehavebeensignificantchallengestowhatweknowaboutmapsandhowmapsnowadaysarerelatedtotheworldthroughtheprocessofmapping.Itisalsounclearwhereemergentcartographyleadstheargument.Ifthequestionisnolongerabout“whatamapis”or“whatamapdoes,”but“howamapemergesandmakesadifferencetotheworld,”thereisasignificantgapinourknowledge.

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3.TechnologyandMapmakingTheshiftofontologicalassumptionsisalsocloselyalignedwiththerecentdevelopmentandwideusageofadvancedtechnologiesineveryaspectofourlives.ThefutureofcartographyhasbecomeawidelydiscussedtopicinthefieldofGeographylikeHumanGeographyandCriticalGeography.Forexample,Kitchin,Perkins&Dodge(2009)suggestthatthecartographiccommunicationmodelasanorganizingframeworkforacademicresearchwasbeginningtowanebythemid-1980s.Theydescribetheimpactoftechnologicalchangesinthefollowingway:

“Technologicalchangesrenderedproblematicasingleauthoritativeviewoftheworldatatimewhendatawerebecomingmuchmorereadilyavailable,andwhentechnologiesforthemanipulationanddisseminationofmappingwerealsobeingsignificantlychanged.Userscouldbecomemappersandmanypossiblemappingscouldbemade.Digitalmappingtechnologiesseparateddisplayfromprintingandremovedtheconstraintoffixedspecifications.GISincreasinglysupplantedmanytechnicalaspectsofcartographiccompilationandproduction.Digitalposition,elevationandattributedatacouldbecapturedfromremotelysensedsources,andeasilystoredandmanipulatedinadigitalform.Imagerycouldbegeneratedtoprovidefrequentupdatesofchangingcontexts.Mapscouldbecomeanimated.Fromthelate1990stheInternethasallowedmapstobeevermorewidelysharedanddisseminatedatlowcost.Mappingneededtobeunderstoodasmuchmoreofaprocessthanwaspossibleincommunicationmodels.”(Kitchinetal.,2009,p.7)

Jelfs,Cartwright&Pupedis(2014)furthersuggestthatthefutureofcartographyandnewrepresentationsofgeographywillcontinuetobeinfluencedbytheoutcomesofexplorationsoftheavailabledataandthecreationofinnovative,technologicallyproducedandtechnologicallydeliveredproducts.Wood(2003)takesacriticalviewofthefutureofcartographyandassertsthat“cartographyisdead”:mapmakingbecametoouniversalandthuseventuallylostitsprofessionalismwiththemarchoftechnologicalinnovation.

Thefollowingsectioninvestigateshowmappinghasbeeninfluencedbythesetechnologies.Thepaperthenturnstoareviewofmapexamplesinordertounderstand“howmapsemerge”inrelationtothecurrentstateoftechnologicaldevelopment.

3.1TheTraditionalMappingProcessandTechnologyTechnologyhasalwaysbeenrecognizedasanessentialpartofmapmakingandanimportantdriverinchangingboththepracticeandtheanalysisofit.Inordertounderstandhowtechnologyinteractswiththeprocessofmapmaking,Ackoff’s(1989)frameworkofKnowledgeHierarchy(showninDiagram1)isusedasthebasisforunderstandingtheflowofinformationrepresentedintheprocessofmapmaking.

Diagram1.Ackoff’sKnowledgeHierarchy

Ackoff’sframeworkcontextualizesdata,informationandknowledge(andsometimeswisdom)withrespecttooneanothersoastoidentifyanddescribetheprocessesinvolvedinthetransformationofanentityatalowerlevelinthehierarchy(e.g.data)intoanentityatahigherlevelinthehierarchy

DATA INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE


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(e.g.information).Thishierarchyisconsideredacentralmodelofinformationmanagement,informationsystemsandknowledgemanagement(Rowley,2007).Inthismodel,Dataaremerelysymbolsthatweassociatewithspecificfeaturesintheoutsideworld,informationiscontextualiseddatathatallowsustoanswerquestions,knowledgeisproceduralisedinformationthatallowsustoactonandsolveproblems,andwisdomisknowingunderwhichsituationstoact(Ackoff,1989).

Basedontheassumptionthattheflowofknowledgeandinformationrepresentstheprocessofmapmaking,Diagram2illustratesthisprocess.Fromtheoriginaldatatothefinalusageofmaps,thereareatleastthreeareasthattechnologymaybeessential:technologytogatherdata(includingboththegeographicorspecialdataandotherlayersofdatainsomemaps),technologytomakemaps(e.g.printtechnology)andtechnologytodisseminate(e.g.themapmedia).Conventionally,cartographersplayanessentialroleinprocessingthesestepsbyinnovatingandapplyingdifferenttypesoftechnology.Inhistory,wehaveseenthatbreakthroughtechnologyhasbeenoneofthekeydriversinchangingthepracticeofcartography.Forexample,themodernprinttechnologystartedinthenineteenthcenturyshiftedmapmakingfrommanuscriptstomassprintproduction,allowingmapstobewidelydisseminatedandtobecomeanimportantpartofoureverydaylives.

Inthisprocess,thereisaclearboundarybetweenmapproductionandconsumption,aswidelyrecognizedinliterature(Dodge&Kitchin,2013).Mapsaretheinterfacebetweentheprofessionalswhoproducemapsandtheuserswhousethem.Theskillsandknowledgeessentialforproducingmapsunderpintheprofessionalismofcartographersinmanyways.Keystakeholders,e.g.usersandmapproducers,areclearlydefinedbasedonhowtheyinteractintheprocess.

Diagram2:TheTraditionalMappingProcess

3.2TheRecentDevelopmentinTechnologiesInordertounderstandtheextenttowhichtherecentdevelopmentintechnologieshaschangedthetraditionalprocessofmapmakingandhowitrelatestotechnology,Table2summarizesthekeytechnologicaldevelopments(andrelevanttermsthatsummarizetheapplicationofthesetechnologies)sincetheearly1990s.

Other layers of informaiton

MapMaking

MapUsage

DATAproduction consumption

INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE

Technologyto gather

data

Tech. to disseminate

Technologyto make

Geography spatial data

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Table2:RecentTechnologiesandTheirImplicationsforMapping

GIS.Ageographicinformationsystem(orGIS)isasystemdesignedtocapture,store,manipulate,analyze,manageandpresentspatialorgeographicaldata.Sincethelate1990s,theInternethasallowedGISmapstobeevermorewidelysharedanddisseminatedatlowcosts.ModernGISandothercomputermappingapplicationassistsanalysisandcansowmanydifferentkindsofdataononemap,suchasstreets,buildingsandvegetation.Thisenablespeopletomoresanityseeanalyseandunderstandpatternsandrelationship(seefigure4).GISproducesa“god-like”view(Dodge,2008;Kitchin&Dodge,2007)thatrepresentstheworldinanobjectivefashion.AsCosgrove(2001,p92)putsit,dataaredisplayed‘naturistically’asifonaplanetseenfromspace.GISalsosupplantsmanytechnicalaspectsofcartographiccompilation,productionanddissemination,allowingthedevelopmentofarangeofInternetmappingportals(e.g.GoogleMaps,OSMandotherfreeopen-sourceplatforms).Thishassignificantlychallengedtraditionalcartographiccommunicationmodelsaswellasthecoretheoriesofcriticalcartography.

Figure4.IllustrationcourtesyU.S.source:GovernmentAccountabilityOffice

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Web-based Digitial Mapping

(Google Maps/OSM)

Web 2.0(Ajax, Web API)

Geographic Information system

(GIS)

Early 1990s 2010ishTi

mel

ine

Impl

icatio

nM

ap e

xam

ples

*Te

chno

logy

AugmentedReality (AR)

From static web-pages to dynamicThe growth of social media

Platform with costeffective scalability

Collective intelligence (i.e. Crowdsourced)

Users as co-developer

Internetworking with connected devices enable object to collect and exchange data through internet

Computergenerated sensory input

Interactive display, data from different sources can be inte-grated and easily layered

Computer system for capturing, stor-ing, checking, and displaying data re-lated to positions on Earth’s surface

Big Data generation with geographical reference

Combines real and virtual

Interactive in real time

Registers in 3D

Interactive Maps

Data Intergration

API

God-like View

Supplanter of cartographic compilation and production

LoveCleanStreet, 2009Urban Mobs, 2009Invisible City Map, 2011Transportation Map, 2011Flickr Luminous Cities, 2011Livehoods Map, 2011Chatty map of London, 2012 Park Life London Map, 2013NY Sentiment Map, 2013Sight seeing heat Map, 2014Sentiment mapper, 2014 Scenic Route Map, 2014 Urban Mind Maps, 2015

NYC Tunnel Vision, 2014UCL Campus Map, 2013Continental AR HUD, 2014

Noise Pollution Map, 2012London Air Pollution, 2012OysterCard Flow Map, 2013Boston Bus Journey speeds Map, 2013Live bus-tracking Map, 2013Bikeshare Map, 2014 Most Stressful Places, 2015MindRider Map, 2015

OpenStreetMap, 2004Google Street Map, 2005Google Earth, 2005Google Sphere, 2012Map Creator HERE, 2013Postcode for Quick Com-muteMap, 2013Whereabout London, 2014Manhattan Tree Map,2015Everyvine Map, 2015Patho Map, 2015Health Map, 2006

Crime Mapping, 1986Oakland Crime Map, 2007

2005

Ubiquitous Computing(Internet of Things, Wearable Devices)

* Please see appendix for more information about this map examples


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DigitalMappingTechnology.From2000,incrediblyaccuratedigitalmappingtechnologyandautomaticallyrenderedmaprepresentation(GoogleMaps,satelliteimagery)hasinfusedandalmostreplacedconventionalmapmaking(Farman,2010;Goodchild,2000).Thesemappingportalsallowuserstoaccessandinteractwithgrowingvolumesofgeographicaldatabyusingstraightforwardinterfacestoproducetheirownmaps(Crampton,2009).GoogleMaps(launchedin2005)inparticular—empoweredbysatelliteimages,street-levelperspectivesandotherfunctions—hasenabledafullspectrumofinteractivemapping(Seefigure5).Datafromdifferentsourcescanbeintegratedandeasilylayered.ItalsooffersanAPI(ApplicationProgrammingInterface)thatallowsmapstobeembeddedonthird-partywebsitesorapplications.

Figure5.GoogleMap(2005onwards)InApril2007,MyMapswasanewfeatureaddedtoGoogle'slocalsearchmaps.MyMapsletsusersandbusinessescreatetheirownmapbypositioningmarkers,polylinesandpolygonsontoamap.OnMay25,2007,GooglereleasednewfeatureofGoogleMapswhichprovides360°panoramicstreet-levelviewsoflocations.

Web2.0Technology.Theterm“Web2.0”reflectschangesinthewaysthattheInternetisdeployedbothbysoftwaredevelopersandbyend-users,changesthatsuggestapotentiallyrevolutionaryshiftinthenatureoftheInternet.ThecorecompetenciesofWeb2.0include:thewebasaplatformwithcost-effectivescalability(O’Reilly,2005),collectiveintelligence(O’Reilly,2005;Allen,2009)throughuserparticipation(Best,2006),dynamiccontents,opennessandfreedom(GreenemeierandGaudin,2008).ThetermMap2.0hasbeenused(Gartner,2008)torefertoWeb2.0applicationsthatprovidesuitableplatformsfordynamicandinteractivemapsthatalloweveryonetoproduceandchangetheirownindividualmapswithoutprofessionalknowledge.Thiscollaborativeandsocialaspectofnewmappinghasledtodemocraticapproachestomapmakingandmapping.ThetermsVolunteeredGeographicalInformation(VGI)(Goodchild,2007),crowdsourcing(Dodge&Kitchin,2013),counter-mappingandcounter-knowledge(Harris&Hazen,2006)canbeunderstoodundertheumbrellatermUGC(UserGeneratedContents).

Somearguethatthismeanstheendoftraditionalcartography(asin,forexample,Wood’s(2003)claimthat“cartographyisdead.”)However,others(e.g.Sui,2007)thinkWeb2.0enablestheintegrationofsocialandtechnicalaspectsinto“wikified”modelsofcartographiccommunicationormapping(seeFigure6).

Figure6. PanoramioMaps(2007)wasgeo-locatedtagging,photosharingmashupownedbygoogle.

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UbiquitousComputing(IoT&ICT).TheInternetofThings(IoT)isarecenttrendinthefieldofcommunicationsthatrenderstheInternetauniversalthing.Itmakesallobjectsconnectwithoneanotherandwithotherphysicaldevices—referredtoas“connecteddevices”and“smartdevices”—andotheritemsenabletheseobjectstocollectandexchangedata(Brown,2016).Thewideadoptionofthesetechnologiesisdrivenbythedecliningcostofsensorsandmicroprocessors,coupledwiththeincreasingarrayofaffordableconnectivitytechnologies.Thesetrendsaredrivingeffortstoincreaseaccesstoconnectivitytechnologies(InformationandCommunicationsTechnologiesforDevelopment.i.e.ICT4D).IoTisseenasthenextfrontierininformationandcommunicationstechnologies(ICTs).TheimpactofIoTonmapmakingissignificantaseachobjectcanbeequippedwithsensors,micro-controllersandreceiversforthedigitalcommunicationofgeographicaldata.GIShasanabilitytogather,store,examineandmanagespatialdataandallowuserstomanagedatainmaps.IoTandGISmaybecoupledtogethertoprovideanevenbetterunderstandingofgeographicaldataandpatterns.Forexample,MindRiderisahead-basedIoTandwearabledevicesthattracksinreal-timehowuser’sride,movement,andlocationengagewithhis/hermindgivingnewinsightintoridingexperiencewithoutuser’sdirectparticipation(seefigure7).Thistie-upallowsforinteractivemappingthatusersreal-timedataandtakesintoaccountcontextualinformation,includingtheuser’sparticularinterestthattheywanttoaddress(Priya,2016).

Figure7.MindRiderMap(2015)isahead-basedwearablethattracks,inrealtime,howusersrides,movement,andlocationengagetheirmindthatprovidingnewinsightintoridingexperience.Itusedbiosensortocollecthumanexperiencedataandprocessitinalarge-scale,location-awarecontext.

AugmentedReality.AugmentedReality(AR)isdefinedasthemixtureofsensoryperceptionoftherealenvironmentandfictionalvisualobjects(Milgram,1994).Ingeneralterms,ARcombinesrealandvirtualrealityallowsinteractioninrealtimeandisregisteredin3D(Azuma,1997).ARhasmanyapplicationsinmedicine,navigation,energy,militaryanddatavisualization.Stanek(2010)suggeststhatARmaybeusedasagraphicaluserinterfaceforspatialdatathatenablesthevisualizationoflandscapeandothercartographicobjectsinaflexibleway.Itblursthedistinctionbetweentherealworldandtheuserinterfaceinawayfamiliarfromthephenomenonofubiquitouscomputing(asdescribedbyWeiser(1991).Whileubiquitouscomputingfocusesonthecomputerbecominginvisibleamongtheobjectsofeverydaylife,ARseekstoaddtotheexperienceofreality,therebycreatingnewformsofinteractionbetweenhumansandcomputers.ThismeansthattheARhelpsustoaddinformationandcontexttotherealitythatsurroundsusvirtuallyandwiththeuseroftechnology(seeFigure8).MobilecomputersrunningARapplicationscanprovidesuchubiquity.Thecommonadvantagesofthistypeofcomputerenvironment—likeuserinteractivityandvisualandcontextualvariability—allowfortheadaptationofmapsandforenhancedgeo-locationsupport(Stanek,2010).


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Figure8. AugmentedNYCTunnelVision(2014)usesthemapasaplatformtoexplorethecitythroughdata-visualization.Theapppullsdatafromavarietyofsourcesandseamlesslyintegratesthemintothemapbydrawingoverthecamerafeed.

3.3IllustrationoftheCurrentMappingProcessBasedontheforegoingreviewofrecenttechnologicalinnovations,Diagram3integratesthistechnologyintoadepictionofthemapmakingprocess.First,itappearsthattechnologicalinnovationsdonothappeninoneareaalonebutinallofthethreeareasthattechnologyisrelevanttomapmaking:technologytogatherdata,technologytomakemapsandtechnologytodisseminatemaps.Theimpactofthesetechnologieshasundoubtedlytransformedthewholeprocess.Second,theproductionandconsumptionofmapshavebeenbroughttogether,andtheboundariesintheprocesshaveblurred.Thishasledtoachangeinthedynamicsbetweenmapproducers,cartographersandusers.Thereorderingofthepowerstructurechallengestraditionalmappingpracticesinmanyways,and,atthesametime,itopensupopportunitiesfornewpracticesandnewformsofrelationshiptobeformedformoreeffectivecollaboration.

Diagram3:Currentmappingprocess

Someofthekeychallengesandopportunitiesinclude:

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Theubiquityofdata.Theaccurategeographicalinformationandbase-mapsgeneratedthroughGIShavemadethespeculationandknowledgeofcartographerssuperfluouswhenitcomestothemapmakingprocess.Accuracyandmapreliabilityhadlongbeenachallengeinmapmaking,buttheserecentdevelopmentsseemtohavemadecartographicpracticethatreliesonphysicalmeasurementtechnologiesandvisualizationskillsobsolete.Theotherkeychangeisthedramaticallyincreasedcomplexityinthetypeandamountofdataavailableformapping.Usersareinvolvedindatageneration.Ontheoneside,usersconsciouslylayerinformationontomapsthroughsocialmediaandothertools.Theyvoluntarilycontribute,collect,cleananduploadGPStracksandaddattributedata,termedVolunteeredGeographicInformation(Stefanidis,Crooks&Radzikowski,2013;Dodge&Kitchin,2013).Ontheotherside,supportedbyIoTtechnologyembeddedinthesystem,datacanbeautomaticallygeneratedintheformofBigData.Thedataareharvestedfromsmartphones,socialmediaandsensorsembeddedinthebuiltenvironment(fixedandwirelesstelecomsnetworks,digitallycontrolledutilityservicesandtransportinfrastructure,sensorandcameranetworks,buildingmanagementsystemsandsoon).Dataarenowubiquitous.AsGrahamandShelton(2013)argue,althoughBigDataseemstoallowfortheobjectivemeasurementandmappingoftheworldasitactuallyis,andsoseemstoenableustoarriveatfundamentaltruths,itisquestionablewhetherandinwhatwaycartographyisrelevant,especiallywhenthecoreargumentincriticalcartographyseemstohavepointedtowardadifferentfuture.

DemocratizedMapmaking.Digitalmappingtechnologynotonlyenhancesmapsintermsoftheirscaleandresolution,butalsomakesthisimageryinvirtualspaceavailabletothepublicandtobusinessthroughmappingplatforms.Thisallowsuserseasilytolayerinformationontotheplatformandcustomizeitsusage.Mapsbegintofunctionasparticipatoryplatforms;mappingbecomesdemocratizedasneverbefore.Public-andcitizen-orientatedmapmakingeffortsaredistinctfromtraditionalmapmaking,andthishaschangedtherelationshipbetweentheuserandthemapprovider/maker.Thousandsofpeoplecollectivelyactasgeographicallydistributedsensors;theyconnecttoplatformssocially,communicatemeaningfullyandcontributecollectively.Theyvoluntarilycollect,cleananduploadgeospatialinformationandcontributedata.

Mappinghasbecomedistributed,participatoryandsocial.Itoffersanewformofmappingexperienceinwhichuserscanbecomeauthorsandthroughwhichthecontentisconstructedcollaboratively.Thiscollaborationisaformofso-called“crowdsourcing,”whereinmanypeoplevolunteerpertinentinformation,usuallyabouttheirlocalarea;inthisway,citizensbecometobeassensors(asdetailedbyGoodchild(2007)

Thismeansthattheproductionofknowledgeisinthehandsofthepublicratherthaninthoseofaccreditedandtrainedprofessionals.Theshiftfrommapusertomapmaker(ZookandGraham,2007)isnotonlyaboutblurringboundariesbylettinguserscontrolgeographicalinformation,butalsoaboutcounter-mappingandcounter-knowledgeactivities(HarrisandHazen,2006).Thishasledtoeitherade-professionalizationofcartographerorare-professionalizationofmapusers(Crampton,2009).

TheExpandedUsageofMaps.Evergreaternumbersofpeopleareusingmapmediatosearchandnavigatethisdigitalspace;theyproducespatialknowledgejustastheyconsumespatialinformation.Nowadays,hugeamountsofdataarerecorded,storedandanalysedwhileweproducevariouskindsofspatialdatainourdailylives,includingtravelbehaviour,energyusage,noiselevelsandemotionalattributionsfromcrowdsourcing.Asdigitaldatahavebecomeubiquitous,unprecedentedinsightsproducedandmappedintheformofBigDatahavechangedusers’perceptionsandinformedtheirknowledgeofplace,thusaidingthemintheirdecision-makingregardinghowbesttointeractinthecity;thisispotentiallyproducingnewwaysofknowingandbeingintheworld(Batty,2013;Graham


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&Shelton,2013).Althoughwestillusetraditionaldatacollectionmethodssuchassurveys,interviewsandquestionnairesformapmakingintheurbansetting,newwaysofcollectingdataareincreasinglyeffectivetorevealpatternsinpeople’sactivityonalargescaleinphysicalplaces.Describingthedynamicsofcitiesisacrucialstepinbothunderstandingpeople’sactivityinurbanenvironmentsandinplanninganddesigningcitiesaccordingly.

Thereproductionofurbandatathroughinterconnected,map-basedsocialmediaandlocation-awareservicesaffordsusinformationabouttheurbanexperience:Thelayersofdatageneratedbytheinteractionbetweenpeopleandplacescanbeunderstoodasadescriptionofhumanbehaviouralpatternsintimeandspace.Cityplannersandgovernmentsareabletolookaturbandatafromvarioussourcesforthesakeoffutureurbandevelopmentsandfortheinhabitants’benefit;theynolongerhavetospeculatebutcanobserveandmeasurebehaviouralpatternsandharvestinsightsformeaningfuldecision-makingthatpotentiallysupportsthecity’skeystakeholders.Inthisrespect,depictinggeo-referenceddatacanoffernewperspectivesoncityservicesandthewayprocessesandstrategiesaredesignedandimplemented(Ciuccarelli,2014;Graham&Shelton,2013).

4.ServiceDesigninMappingAllthesechangeschallengethetraditionalwayofproducingandthinkingaboutmaps.Wearguethatinsteadoffocusingonexploringtherelevanceoftraditionalcartographypracticeinthisspaceandseekingakindof“re-professionalization,”itistimetoinvestigateandseekrelevantpracticesanddisciplines.Inwhatfollows,weexploretherelevanceofservicedesignformapmaking.

4.1MapsasServiceEcosystemsOstrom(2010)describesservicedesignas“acollaborative,cross-disciplinaryactivity”thatinvolves“theorchestrationofclues,places,processes,andinteractionsthattogethercreateholisticserviceexperienceforcustomers,client,employee,businesspartnerorcitizen”(p.17).Inotherwords,servicedesigninvolvesaholisticapproachtothedesignofexperiencesandsystemsthatrequiretheintegrationofmultipledesigndisciplinesinasystemicsolution.

Aswehavediscussed,recenttechnologicaldevelopmentshaveallowedforcollaborativemappingactivities.Usershavebecomeco-producersofmaps,ashaveserviceandtechnologyproviders,governmentsandotherstakeholders.Inthisway,therolesofproduceranduserarenotdistinct,whichmeansvalueisco-createdininteractionsamongentities—includingmapserviceproviders,users,governmentsandotherrelatedentities—throughtheintegrationofresources.Thisparallelsthediscussionin“servicescience”ofservicesasinvolvingaco-productiveprocessinwhich“theserviceisproducedinacustomerprocesswherecustomer,companyandsubcontractorsareactors”(Edvardsson,1997,p.31).Thisconceptisfurtherdevelopedintheconceptsof“serviceecosystems”(Maglio&Spohrer,2008;Spohrer&Maglio,2010;Lusch&Vargo,2009;SatishNambisan&Lusch,2015)or“servicesystems”(Maglio&Spohrer,2008;Lusch,Vargo&Wessels,2008).Underpinnedbythefundamentalconceptsofservicescience,servicedesignpracticeintendstoapplyascientificunderstandingofservicestodesign,improveandscaleservicesystemsforbusinessandsocietalpurposes(e.g.efficiency,effectivenessandsustainability)(Spohrer,Maglio,Bailey&Gruhl,2007).Therefore,therationaleforexploringservicedesigninmappingliesinthistheoreticalexplanationofserviceandthesharedmeaningsbetweenmappingplatformsandservicesystems.

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4.2TheFacilitationofCollaborativeActivitiesViewingmappingasco-creation,servicedesignmayfacilitatecollaborativeactivitiesbecauseofitsuniquewayofadaptingarangeofmultidisciplinarytoolsandmethods,includingstakeholdermapping,userjourneymapping,co-creationandblueprints.Incomparisonwithmoreconventionaldesignmethods(e.g.taskanalysis,sketchingandmodelling),thissetofmethodsfacilitatesuserparticipation,interdisciplinaryteamworkandcreativecollaboration.Thesemethodsareopen,interactiveandtransparent.Bycontrastwiththewaythesemethodsareusedintheirownfields,servicedesignershavetheabilitytomakethemmorecommunicableandaccessible.Inthisnewspace,designers’expertiseliesintheirabilitytoempathizewithpeopleinrelationtothesystemandtoapplythinkingtoaction.Further,participatoryexperienceisconsidered“notsimplyamethodorsetofmethodologies”butas“amindsetandanattitudeaboutpeople”(Sanders&Rim,2002,p.1).Intheshift,theconceptof“designforpeople”isreplacedwith“designwithpeople.”

4.3DevelopingServicestoExploretheUsageofMapsAsserviceistheprimaryconcernofservicedesign,itaimsat

“Designingservicesthatareuseful,usableanddesirablefromtheuserperspective,andefficient,effectiveanddifferentfromtheproviderperspective.Itisastrategicapproachthathelpsproviderstodevelopclearstrategicpositioningfortheirserviceofferings.Servicesaresystemsthatinvolvemanydifferentinfluentialfactors,soservicedesigntakesholisticapproachinordertogetanunderstandingofthesystemandthedifferentactorswithinthesystem.”(Mager&Sung,2011)

Inthecontextofmapping,thecentralchallengehasbeenhowtoexploittheopportunitiesprovidedbytechnology.Servicedesignisthereforecentraltoexploringthepotentialfornewopportunitiesandfornewservicesystemsandexperiencestobedevelopedforalargevarietyofusers(Moritz,2005).Thisisparticularlyevidentinthedebatearoundthereformofpublicservices,inwhichbothorganizationsandcitizensareaskedtoevolveandadapttomorecollaborativeservicemodels,therebychangingtheirrolesandinteractionpatterns(ParkerandParker,2007).

5.ConclusionThispaperreviewsliteratureincriticalcartographyandmapexamplestounpackhowrecenttechnologicaldevelopmentsrelatetomapmaking.Thefindingssuggestthattechnologyhassignificantlychangedthewaymapsaredeveloped,usedanddisseminated.Thekeyimpactsarethreefold:(1)datahavebecomeubiquitous,andnowallowustomeasureandmaptheworldasitactuallyisandsotoarriveatfundamentaltruths;(2)mapshavebecomeaplatformandtheoutcomeoftheprocessofvalueco-creationamongusersandotherkeystakeholders,whichhasopenedupopportunitiesfornewservicesandnewmappingexperiences;and(3)theusageofmapshasbecomediversifiedandhighlypersonalized,andtheuser’sexperiencehasbeensignificantlyenhanced;thishasgreatpotentialinvariousnewareassuchascitydevelopmentandpublicserviceinnovation.

Thesechangeshave,inturn,challengedcurrentpracticesandthinkingincartography,whichistraditionallyconsideredthecoremapmakingprofession.Whenmapsstarttofunctionasparticipatoryplatformsandbecomedemocratisedasneverbefore,cartographyseemstobecomeobsolete.Thishasledtoeitherade-professionalizationorare-professionalization.


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Inthispaper,theseconsiderationshaveledustosuggestredefiningthedesigner’sroleasafacilitatorofvalueco-creationthroughmapservices,inwhichmapsaretheobjectofservicedesign.Inthisrole,servicedesignersconsidermapsasservicesandtakeauser-centeredapproachtofacilitatetheengagementofkeystakeholdersincomplexsystems.Thekeycontributionofthispaperliesinthefactthatitinitiatesadiscussionofthepotentialofservicedesignindevelopingdigitalplatforms,smartcitiesandpublicservices,takingmapsasthemedia.Futurestudiescouldcontextualizetheinvolvementofservicedesigninthisnewterritoryandinvestigateitsimplicationsandlimitations.

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Appendix.ListofMapsinTable2GeographicInformationsystem(GIS)

• CrimeMapping(1986)• OaklandCrimeMap(2007)http://tinyurl.com/475pxb

Web-basedDigitalMapping(GoogleMaps/OSM)• OpenStreetMap(2004)http://bit.ly/1TBmDpn• GoogleStreetMap(2005)http://bit.ly/18mqnSF• GoogleEarth(2005)http://bit.ly/2iOOHIK• HealthMap(2006)http://bit.ly/2irQbMH• GoogleSphere(2012)http://tinyurl.com/nwjvarb• MapCreatorHERE(2013)http://tinyurl.com/nsvzhoc• PostcodeforQuickCommuteMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/q52mzwg• WhereaboutLondon(2014)http://tinyurl.com/ogfjqps• ManhattanTreeMap(2015)http://bit.ly/2hCmgjK• EveryvineMap(2015)http://tinyurl.com/o9qwmhn• PathoMap(2015)http://bit.ly/2hVO8wW• UrbanMindMaps(2015)http://bit.ly/2inUgij

UbiquitousComputing(InternetofThings,WearableDevices)• LoveCleanStreet(2009)http://bit.ly/2hxqsOe• UrbanMobs(2009)http://bit.ly/1z1gclg• InvisibleCityMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/pfmb5xb• TransportationMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/nbjmqvl• FlickrLuminousCities(2011)http://tinyurl.com/pv7t6j4• LivehoodsMap(2011)http://tinyurl.com/7ouaz2v• ChattymapofLondon(2012)http://tinyurl.com/pgqa5dq• NoisePollutionMap(2012)http://tinyurl.com/pc9ndep• LondonAirPollution(2012)http://tinyurl.com/6seg8d7


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• UCLCampusMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/qjr6udw• ParkLifeLondonMap(2013)http://bit.ly/2inNNnH• OysterCardFlowMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/padtm4z• BostonBusJourneyspeedsMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/ok9ul7a• Livebus-trackingMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/pw7neg4• BikeshareMap(2014)http://tinyurl.com/ntrhoo9• MostStressfulPlaces(2015)http://tinyurl.com/pestjpd• MindRiderMap(2015)http://bit.ly/1c6oaMH

AugmentedReality(AR)• NYSentimentMap(2013)http://tinyurl.com/pan8pl9• SightseeingheatMap(2014)http://bit.ly/2hE69DP• Sentimentmapper(2014)http://tinyurl.com/pan8pl9• ScenicRouteMap(2014)http://bit.ly/1z1gclg• NYCTunnelVision(2014)http://bit.ly/2hE6ma5

AbouttheAuthors:

Dr.QianSunisaseniortutorinServiceDesignattheRoyalCollegeofArt.HerresearchinterestsincludeDesignManagement,DesignPolicy,DesignThinking,andServiceDesign.

HyunyimParkisaPhDcandidateatRoyalCollegeofArt.Shehasworkedinmulti-disciplinaryprojectscrossingdesignanddigitalmarketingstrategy.Currentresearchexploresnewperspectiveofpotentialservicedesignandservicesystemthinkingindevelopingmapanddigitalplatform,smartcitiesandpublicservices.