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DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA. Labor Economics Series. Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia. Raden Adjeng Kartini 21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904. Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini. Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan kungkungan adat, antara lain :. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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DISKRIMINASIPASAR TENAGA KERJA
Labor Economics Series
2
Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia
Raden Adjeng Kartini21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904
3
Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini
Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok rumah.
Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses pendidikan.
Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria yang tidak dikenal.
Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan kungkungan adat, antara lain :
4
Fakta di Indonesia
5
Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012)
Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id
Tena
ga Pr
ofesio
nal
Kepe
mimpin
an
Tata
Usaha
TU Pe
njuala
n
TU Ja
sa
TU Pe
rtania
n
Produ
ksi
Lainn
ya 0
5,000,000
10,000,000
15,000,000
20,000,000
25,000,000
30,000,000
35,000,000
40,000,000
45,000,000
3,473,057 934,988 3,541,7499,755,566
3,108,946
25,116,020 22,938,665
610,650
3,983,193
184,1252,518,306
11,003,698
3,295,852
15,441,120
6,876,405
20,465
Pria Wanita
6
Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012)
Jenis Pekerjaan Utama
JENIS KELAMIN Jumlah
Pria WanitaTenaga Profesional 3.473.057 3.983.193 7.456.250Kepemimpinan 934.988 184.125 1.119.113Tata Usaha 3.541.749 2.518.306 6.060.055
TU Penjualan 9.755.566 11.003.698 20.759.264
TU Jasa 3.108.946 3.295.852 6.404.798
TU Pertanian 25.116.02
015.441.12
0 40.557.140
Produksi 22.938.66
5 6.876.405 29.815.070Lainnya 610.65 20.465 631.115
Jumlah 69.479.64
143.323.16
4112.802.80
5
Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id
7
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
0
400,000
800,000
1,200,000
1,600,000
Pertanian
Pertambangan
Industri
ListrikBangunan
Perdagangan
Angkutan
Keuangan
JasaWan
ita Pria
Wanita Pria
8
Rata-rata Upah (2006)SEKTOR LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA
1 Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan (Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery) 438.149 234.586
2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415
3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768
4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737
5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573
6 Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale Trade,Restaurant & Hotel) 806.110 621.248
7 Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage & Communication) 934.761 944.419
8 Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business Services) 1.422.252 1.461.926
9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557
Rata-rata 827.101 612.131
9
Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan Jam Kerja (Februari 2012)
0 1-9 10-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-59 ≥ 600
5,000,000
10,000,000
15,000,000
20,000,000
25,000,000
30,000,000
35,000,000
40,000,000
1,379,487 1,039,073 1,590,396
5,718,802
8,668,913
17,927,986
24,757,499
8,397,485
794,465 1,658,2182,567,256
6,952,926
7,354,950
10,293,078
8,874,959
4,827,312
Pria Wanita
10
Konsep Diskriminasi
11
Konsep Diskriminasi
Differences in EARNINGS and EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES among equally skilled workers employed in the same job simply because of the worker’s race, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, or other seemingly irrelevant characteristics.
George Borjas :
12
Konsep Diskriminasi
Discrimination means treating people differently and less favourably because of characteristics that are not related to their merit or the requirements of the job.
These include race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction and social origin.
13
The Discrimination
Coefficient
14
The Discrimination Coefficient
The Economics of Discrimination (1957)
Lauched for the first time by Gary S. Becker
15
The Discrimination Coefficient
Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination
Assumption Two types of workers :
White workers : wage wW Black workers : wage wB
16
The Discrimination Coefficient
If the employer is prejudiced againts black, employer gets disutility from hiring black workers.
Disutility : employer will act as if costs for black worker wB (1 + d), where d is positive number and is called :The Discrimination Coefficient
17
The Discrimination Coefficient
Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ; the employer will then act as if hiring a black worker costs $ 15
The greater the prejudiced, the greater is the disutility from hiring black workers, and the greater is the discrimination coefficient d.
18
The Discrimination Coefficient
If these black employers prefer to hire black workers, they will act as if hiring a black worker is cheaper than it actually is.
Nepotism Coefficient wB (1 – n )
19
Labor Market Discrimination Analysis
FIRM
Non DiscriminatoryFirm
W = VMP
DiscriminatoryFirm
White Firmagaints Black
Black Firmagaints Black
DiscriminationCoefficientis very High
DiscriminationCoefficient
is relatively Low
20
1. Employer Discrimination
21
Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)
WHITE BLACK HISPANICMale Female Male Female Male Female
Highschool Graduate or more (Percent) 84.3 85.2 78.5 78.9 56.1 57.9
Bachelor’s degree or more (Percent) 29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2
Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent) 79.9 59.9 72.1 65.2 83.8 59.3
Unemployment Rate (Percent) 4.7 3.6 8.0 7.0 5.2 6.6
Annual Earnings (in $1,000) 49.8 29.6 33.5 26.0 30.8 22.3
Annual Earnings(Full Time) 55.4 37.1 38.5 30.8 34.3 28.0
22
Fact :
White Wage > Black Wage
23
1. Employer Discrimination Assumption : White Workers and Black Workers
are Perfect Subtitutes in Production.
Firms’s output depends on the total number of workers hired, regardless of their race have the same Marginal Product of Labor ( MPE )
24
Employer Discrimination
Production function:
q = f ( EW + EB )
q firm’s output
EW number of white workers hired
EB number of black workers hired
25
Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm
26
Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm
Both groups of workers have the same Value of Marginal Product, a non discriminatory firms will hire whichever group is Cheaper
Suppose that wW > wB , a firms that doesn’t discriminate will hire black workers up to the point where
wB = VMPE
*BE
27
The Employment Decision of a Firm That Does Not Discriminate
Bw
*BE
Dollar
Employment
Black workers wage is less than white
wage How many workerwill be hired..??
?VMPE
wB = VMPE
28
Employment in a
Discriminatory Firm
29
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
The employer act as if black wage is not wB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d). Where d is discrimination coefficient.
The employer’s hiring decision based on a comparison wW and wB (1 + d)
Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW
Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW
30
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
As long as black and white workers are perfect subtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.
Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence have small discrimination coefficient, will hire only BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).
Employer’s who are very prejudice and have very large discrimination coefficient, will hire only WHITES (called “White Firm”).
31
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
The white firm hires workers up to the point where : wW = VMPE
Assumption : wW > WB
The white firm is paying an excessively high price for its workers and hires relatively few workers ( )
WHITE FIRM
*WE
32
The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm
Ww
*WE
Dollar
Employment
VMPE
White Firm
33
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
Non discriminatory firms : wB = VMPE
If discrimination coefficient d0 :Price of Black Labor wB ( 1 +
d0 )
Amount of Labor hired : wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE
BLACK FIRM
*BE
34
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
The number of black workers hired, therefore, is smaller for firms that have larger discrimination coefficient.
35
The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm
Bw
*BE
1BE
0BE
Dollar
Employment
VMPE
Black Firm 01 dwB
11 dwB
Discrimination Coefficient
36
Discrimination and
Profits
37
Discrimination and ProfitsFirms that discriminate lose on two counts :
The prejudiced employer could have hired the same number of black worker at lower wage. Because black and white workers are perfect subtitutes.
Discriminatory black firms are hiring too few workers ( or ) they are giving up profits in order to minimize contact with black workers.
0BE
1BE
38
Profit and Discrimination Coefficient
Dollar
DiscriminationCoefficient
BlackFirm
max
w
dw0
White Firm
Max Profit
39
Discrimination and Profits
The Most Profitable Firm
Zero Discrimination
40
2. Employee Discrimination
41
Employee Discrimination
Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”
Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat upah wW (1- d).
Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms” karena white worker dan black worker adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm membayar jumlah upah yang sama.
42
3. CustomerDiscrimination
43
Customer Discrimination
Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R. Ihlanfeldt (1998) research di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.
Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price p (1 + d).
Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi.
44
Customer Discrimination
TYPE FIRM
More than 50 %Of the firm’s
customers are Black
More than 75 %Of the firm’s
customers are White
PERBEDAAN
Customer & worker bertemu 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %
Customer & worker tidak bertemu 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 %
Perbedaan - - 14,6 %
Relation between customer discrimination and percent of newly hired worked who are Black
45
Customer Discrimination and NBA
Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :
A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an
eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year.
At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000
46
Measuring Discrimination
47
Measuring Discrimination
___
MW___
FW
_________
FM WWW
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari• Male, dengan average wage
• Female, dengan average wage
48
Measuring DiscriminationPengembangan model : Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning Function :• Male :
• Female :
MMMM Sw
FFFF Sw
M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.
49
Measuring Discrimination
Model Regresi :
FFFMMMFM ssWWW _________
50
Measuring The Impact of Discrimination on the Wage
M
F
___
FW
___
MW
Dollars
Schooling
Women’s Earning Function*
Fw
__
Fs__
Ms
Men’s Earning Function
Women’s Schooling
Women’s Earning
Men’s Schooling
Men’s Earning
Measure Discrimination :*Fw
___
FWWoman’s Earning
Men’s Earning
51
Global Gender Gap 2012
52
Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Rank
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
6881
93 92 87 90 97
53
Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Score
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 20120.64
0.645
0.65
0.655
0.66
0.665
0.6541 0.655
0.6473
0.658
0.66150.6594 0.6591
Global Gender Gap Index 2012
55
Global Gender Gap 2012
56
Global Gender Gap 2012
57
Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia
58Terima kasih…