Dyslexia and the learning of a foreign language in school: where are we going?

Dyslexia and the Learning ofa Foreign Language inSchool: Where Are WeGoing?Margaret A. Crombie*Faculty of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

The difficulties which many dyslexic students encounter in thelearning of the English language often extend to the learning ofa foreign language in school. Although this problem has beenacknowledged for some time, and although the learning of amodern foreign language is a core element in the Scottishcurriculum, there has been little research into how modernlanguages can be presented to offer the best learningopportunities to dyslexic students. Dyslexic students are likely tobenefit from a multisensory approach to the learning of amodern foreign language, and it seems likely that they will needto utilize similar strategies to those used for learning their firstlanguage. Strategies are discussed with a view to makingmodern language learning more appropriate for students withdifficulties in learning. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons,Ltd.

Keywords: dyslexia; modern languages; specific learning difficulties; curriculum;differentiation; Scotland

INTRODUCTION

In a previous paper, Crombie (1997b) discussed the effects of dyslexia onthe learning of a modern foreign language in school. While there hasbeen much debate over the use of the term ‘dyslexia’, it is viewed here as

specific language difficulties, within a continuum from mild to extremelysevere, which are discrepant with performance in other areas. The researchwas carried out in Scotland and therefore related to the Scottish educationsystem. The language studied was French, but it is likely that the difficultiesmay extend to other foreign languages. The exact nature of problemsmay vary dependent on the language being studied, with factors such as

* Correspondence to: Margaret A. Crombie, 10 Troon Drive, Bridge of Weir, RenfrewshirePA11 3HF, UK.

DYSLEXIA 6: 112–123 (2000)Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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phonology, grammar and syntax causing different manifestations depen-dent on the precise pattern and degree of dyslexic difficulties (Sparks,Ganschow and Pohlman, 1989). Results of this and other studies (Sparks etal., 1991; Ganschow, Sparks and Schneider, 1995) indicate that teachingmethodology may require reconsideration. In the present paper the authorexamines the current situation on foreign language learning and discusseswhere we might go from here.

Current government education policy states that all children in Scottishschools should learn a modern European language in addition to theirmother tongue. The current European language learning programme ap-plies to all children. Almost all pupils with learning difficulties shouldparticipate (SOED, 1993). While few would debate the usefulness and de-sirability to young people of learning a modern foreign language, few itseems have found the secret of achieving success for all. While dyslexicpupils exhibit considerable variability in their pattern of difficulties (Sey-mour, 1994), there are nonetheless distinctive weaknesses in tasks whichinvolve language (Pumfrey and Elliott, 1990; Thomson and Watkins, 1990;Miles, 1991). The general assumption that anyone who has learned tospeak her or his native language can also learn a foreign language has notbeen substantiated (Dinklage, 1971; Crombie, 1997a,b; Ganschow, Sparksand Javorsky, 1998). It is therefore important to examine where the com-pulsory requirement of learning a second European language is taking us,and further consideration must be given to appropriate and effectiveteaching strategies that meet the needs of all pupils.

Dyslexia exists on a continuum of special educational needs (Pumfreyand Reason, 1991), and therefore any study of dyslexia and languagelearning must be set in the scene of language learning for all. For childrenwho have language learning problems, dyslexic or not, many of the issuesand possible solutions seem likely to be the same. The question ofwhether language teaching is successful for the majority is therefore im-portant, and it seems that in Scotland at present the answer must be inconsiderable doubt (SCRE, 1999). Over the last 20 years there has been aconsiderable drop in the number of pupils studying modern languagesbeyond the compulsory stage. In investigating this decline, SCRE hasfound a 56% drop in the number of pupils studying French to Higherstandard (i.e. to examination beyond the compulsory stage). At a timewhen Europe may present greater employment opportunities than everbefore, we must look to making the teaching of modern foreign languagesas appealing as possible for all children. Findings from a previous studyinvolving dyslexic school pupils indicate that this group of young peopleoften encounter serious problems in learning modern foreign languages.Therefore the establishment of appropriate teaching methodology is vitalto achieve maximum learning for all, especially those who, dyslexic ornot, find language learning difficult.

Reasons given for teaching a modern European language to all pupils,including those with learning difficulties, are that it will improve motiva-tion, open up access to culture, foster European identity, enhance under-standing of the pupil’s mother tongue, improve cognitive learning, helpconcentration, be a self-generating process, require little knowledge of a

Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 112–123 (2000)

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pupil’s own language, initially generate confidence through short-term,easily attainable primary objectives and facilitate visits abroad (Atkinson,1992; Brown, 1992).

While all of these reasons seem admirable, a number of them may bequestioned. For example, there may be negative effects on motivation result-ing from failure to learn a foreign language after considerable effort. Alsothis failure may result in subsequent negative effects on cognitive learning,concentration and confidence. For dyslexic pupils who are at risk of failure,appropriate and timely assistance is essential if failure is to be minimized or,whenever possible, avoided. In teaching English to dyslexic pupils, studiesindicate that what is good practice for dyslexic youngsters may be goodpractice for most if not all learners, especially those with learning difficulties,whether these difficulties are of a dyslexic nature or not (Ganschow andSparks, 1995). The purpose of this paper is to describe problems and issuesin teaching a modern foreign language to dyslexic youngsters, and to discusssolutions that are likely to be beneficial to all those who find languagelearning difficult.

THE PROBLEMS

There are a number of problems associated with dyslexia that seem likely toaffect the learning of languages. They include weakness in phonologicalprocessing, poor working memory, poor auditory discrimination, confusionover syntax, faulty auditory sequencing, poor self esteem, difficulties withmotor skill and automaticity, poor organizational skills, slow speed ofinformation processing, difficulties in object naming and limited attentionspan (see e.g. Ganschow and Sparks, 1986; Snowling, van Wagtendonk andStafford, 1988; Gathercole and Baddeley, 1989; Rack, Snowling and Olson,1992, Sparks et al., 1992; Miles, 1993; Griffiths, 1994; Crombie, 1995, 1997a,b;Nicolson and Fawcett, 1995; Goswami, 1997).

When dyslexia is viewed as part of the ‘continuum of need’ (Pumfrey andReason, 1991), there are likely to be considerable numbers of pupils whoexperience some of these problems. For children who are required to learn amodern foreign language in the first four years of their secondary schooling,when they are aged 12–16 approximately, there could be problems at somestage (SOED, 1989, 1990). With the introduction of foreign language learningin primary schools, many dyslexic pupils may have to learn a Europeanlanguage before they reach a fair level of competency in their own language.It would appear however that there has still been no major research inBritain to evaluate how useful the learning of a second language is to thegroup of dyslexic pupils for whom learning their own mother tongue hasproved a major obstacle.

ISSUES

There are a number of issues and questions which need to be addressed if aresolution to the problems is to be found:



Is It Appropriate to Withdraw a Pupil Who is Encountering Difficulties?

Withdrawing the young person from the modern language appeals to anumber of parents, and often to the children themselves. However, ifdyslexic students are deprived of opportunities to participate in learning asubject that their peers find useful and which may be important for theirfuture, then we may fail to meet the needs of these students. On the otherhand, if able students are compelled to persist in learning a subject in whichthey constantly fail, then they may become unmotivated. Emotional andbehavioural problems may result, with effects on the rest of the curriculum.Careful and considered judgement must be exercised before decisions aremade. More importantly, initial methods of foreign language teaching mustbe appropriate for all learners. The fact that modern foreign languagelearning is not popular with a large number pupils beyond the compulsorystage suggests that teaching methods are not meeting the needs of allstudents.

Is Any One Language Easier to Learn than Another?

It may be that dyslexic children would find another European language thatis orthographically more similar to English easier to learn than French.Languages such as Spanish and Italian may be easier for dyslexic pupils astheir phonology is more similar to English. For example, for pupils who mayjust be coming to terms with the phonology of their own native language,the fact that vowels consistently make the same sound, or that there are nosilent letters, could ease their learning. However, the usefulness and practi-cality of this notion must be taken into account. Firstly, the language desiredmust be taught in the school, and secondly, the pupil should foresee someusefulness from learning the language.

If Failure is Encountered, Should a Dyslexic Student Persist in Trying to Learn?

It would seem that in the case of severely dyslexic pupils, initial experiencesof foreign language learning are manageable. However, as the demands onmemory become greater and the amount of vocabulary which the pupilrequires to know increases, memory becomes overloaded with subsequentconfusion and difficulty (Crombie, 1997b). Without a firm grasp of phonol-ogy the pupil cannot fall back on props such as vocabulary lists or dictionar-ies. Dictionaries are particularly problematic because of the sequencing andworking memory difficulties which dyslexic pupils often encounter. Notonly do dyslexic pupils find difficulties with letter order, they also find theycannot remember the order even when they have practised many, manytimes. It would seem likely therefore that as foreign languages are intro-duced to pupils in primary schools, the quantity of vocabulary expected willhave reached a critical level by early in the pupil’s secondary school career.This factor has implications for class and school management, and makes itall the more important that effective methodologies are found to enablepupils to cope.


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Should Dyslexic Pupils Avoid the Reading and Written Elements of ModernLanguage Learning?

In order to ‘help’ those who find learning difficult, many modern languageteachers believe that these pupils should avoid the reading and writingelements of language learning and concentrate on speaking and listening atthe early stages of learning a foreign language. Reading and writing are theareas that dyslexic children in particular find difficult; therefore manyteachers believe that to avoid these areas will be to avoid difficulties.Advocates of this oral/aural approach consider it to be the more naturalmeans of communication, and suggest that concentration on speaking andlistening will enable children to understand the language being taught andwill enable children to communicate with others in the chosen language.These assumptions however must be questioned (Sparks et al., 1991). Poorworking memory, faulty auditory sequencing and difficulties with objectnaming can make retention and reproduction of vocabulary particularlydifficult for dyslexic young people. Poor auditory discrimination, poorworking memory, phonological processing difficulties and slow speed ofprocessing information are but a few of the problems that may makeunderstanding a foreign language difficult for some students. All of theseproblems are well substantiated in the literature for first language acquisi-tion in dyslexic children (Thomson, 1982; Jorm, 1983; Brady, 1986; Snowling,1987; Gathercole and Baddeley, 1989; Rack, Snowling and Olson, 1992;Sparks et al., 1992).

Should Modern Foreign Language Learning be Compulsory?

The difficulties that dyslexic pupils face in learning a foreign language haveonly become real problems in countries where foreign language learning hasbecome compulsory. In some schools in the United Kingdom it is expectedthat children (even those with difficulties) will learn two foreign languages.Confusion over vocabulary and syntax that exists between English and oneforeign language can only be exacerbated by the learning of a second foreignlanguage.

Levine (1987) argues that those who have been unable to benefit fromforeign language teaching by conventional means should receive intensivelearning support. If this fails to meet with success, the struggle should not beallowed to destroy their confidence in other areas. For those unable to learna foreign language, he contests, ‘It is certainly not worth sacrificing thechild’s academic career’ (p. 382). There may be a few children to whom thisstatement might apply, but this can only be established by first providing allpupils with the appropriate learning opportunities.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

While very little research has taken place into understanding foreign lan-guage learning problems in the United Kingdom, American research mayindicate how we might best proceed. Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky (1998)



attest that success or failure in learning a foreign language is primarilydependent on linguistic ability, and that first language skills play a criticalrole in foreign language learning. Their Linguistic Coding Differences Hy-pothesis (LCDH) proposes that poor readers and writers primarily haveproblems with the structural aspects of foreign language learning but notwith semantic aspects. Phonology, orthography and syntax therefore arelikely to be problematic in the learning of second and subsequent foreignlanguages. The LCDH further suggests that both foreign language andnative language learning depend on basic home language skill and that‘problems with one language component (for example, phonological/ortho-graphic processing) will have a negative effect on other components (forexample, vocabulary or syntax) of both native language and foreign lan-guage acquisition’ (Sparks et al., 1998, p. 241).

In several studies, at-risk students were taught using a multisensorystructured language approach in learning Spanish, and although they didnot catch up with their peers, they made significant gains over a two yearperiod on measures of phonology/orthography and a foreign languageaptitude test when compared with traditional language instruction (Sparksand Ganschow, 1993; Ganschow and Sparks, 1995; Sparks et al., 1997). Whilethe term ‘at risk’ is not used to refer specifically to dyslexic learners, it doesinclude them in the studies.

Self-esteem

Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky (1998) argue that attitude problems and lackof motivation are a result rather than a cause of foreign language learningdifficulties. For dyslexic pupils for whom the learning of their first languagehas been problematic then, motivation and the maintenance of self-esteemare likely to require consideration. It is therefore vitally important thatteachers and those who work with young language learners ensure thateverything possible is done to promote learning and eliminate failure.

Teaching Phonemic Awareness

The term ‘phonology’ can be taken to mean not only the ability to pronouncewords in native and foreign languages, but also the ability to learn sound/symbol (phoneme/grapheme) correspondences in the language beinglearned. It includes therefore the ability to discriminate between sounds andto report the constituent sounds within words. This ability to identify andreport sounds is often referred to as ‘phonemic awareness’. Dyslexic childrenrequire the explicit teaching of phonemic awareness before they can assimi-late and understand their first language. In the same way the explicitteaching of the phonology of a foreign language may benefit their learning ofanother language (Sparks et al., 1991). This may include specific training inlistening for sounds, and identifying them in words in the same way as thisis done in English. Visual clues however are also needed to provide amemory hook. Just as dyslexic students benefit from pictures as an ‘aidememoire’ in English, so they may benefit in a modern foreign language.


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Use of Multisensory Techniques

Highly structured cumulative multisensory teaching programmes work wellfor first language learning (Gillingham and Stillman, 1956; Hickey, 1977;Crombie, 1997a, 1999). While perfection in reading and writing may beunattainable for the dyslexic child, nonetheless it cannot be overstated thatlearning by hearing, seeing, saying and writing may provide the greatestchance of success, especially when these processes interact simultaneously.Fundamental components of language such as grammar, semantics andphonology should be taught in a systematic way (Sparks et al., 1991; Gan-schow, Sparks and Schneider, 1995). To make learning multisensory, nochannel of learning should be excluded. These recommendations are in linewith what Scottish curricular documents for primary and the early stages ofsecondary schools (The 5–14 Programme) advise: that the four attainmentoutcomes of language are in constant interaction and should be developed ina balanced and progressive manner. Writing is seen as having ‘an importantfunction in supporting language acquisition’ (SOED, 1993, pp. 2–3).

Additional Time for Children to Process Information

The time taken by dyslexic pupils to tackle phonological tasks too hasimplications for teaching. Just as dyslexic students often require time toprocess instructions given in English, they may require additional time toprocess a different language (Myer and Ganschow, 1988; Crombie, 1997b).While it is important that students hear the language at the speed it isactually spoken, in the early stages of learning it may be important to slowthe speed of language presentation to allow those who process more slowlya chance to understand.

Differentiation

‘Differentiation could be defined as a planned process of intervention in theclassroom to maximize potential, based on individual needs’ (Edwards, 1998,p. 38). Differentiation needs to be planned for children at different levels,and should enable all pupils to demonstrate what they can achieve. Whenwork is effectively differentiated, all pupils should experience satisfaction intheir learning. Differentiation can take various forms: for example whenassessing listening skills, differentiating material by task may involve somepupils in writing their responses while another group draw them, and yetanother put their answers onto audiotape. In a group assignment, goodreaders and writers can present the reading and written elements of thepresentation while the less able language learners make an oral or artisticpresentation. Differentiation by outcome happens during oral work as teach-ers accept varying levels of response to questions and activities knowing thatnot all pupils are able to produce the same answers. Teachers’ responses towritten work can similarly be suited to the known abilities of the pupil, insuch a way that all pupils feel their work is being valued. Spelling al-lowances where appropriate can be made (Ganschow, Sparks and Javorsky,1998). Sensitivity is required on the part of the teacher to ensure that



marking criteria do not deter the pupils from presenting their best efforts,even though these may not match other pupils (Edwards, 1998). Homeworkmay also need to be differentiated. Differentiation however does not need totake place all the time, and the multisensory teaching which suits thedyslexic learner may prove helpful to others as well.

Modelling

Dyslexic students could have a model of written work from which to copyor check. This can involve the use of vocabulary cards, each with wordswritten on them. Dyslexic students can sequence the cards into sentences,and use as a model from which to copy. It may not be possible for dyslexicstudents to produce significant written work owing to the problems theyhave. Any written homework must be checked before it is sent home,because even when students have a model from which to copy, they maymake mistakes. Teachers need to be aware of this so that they can ensureaccuracy. Picture and word cards (words on one side and vocabulary on theother) are an effective method of presenting vocabulary. Where possible, thisshould be supported by a tape to give the correct pronunciation of thevocabulary words.

Video Presentation

Video is an excellent means of presenting material in an authentic way tostudents. Subtitles are essential to offer maximum learning. It has beenfound that in many European countries, dyslexic students are less dyslexic inEnglish than they are in their first language (Miller-Guron and Lundberg,1997). In most European countries except Britain, English language televisionis readily available with subtitles. As most young people spend a consider-able amount of time watching television, it seems likely that television isbenefiting foreign language learning of English for European students. AsEuropean language programmes are not readily available to British children,this means that European students bring to their language learning a dimen-sion which is not generally found in the United Kingdom. While it may bethat dyslexic students will not benefit much from the reading of the subtitlesif their reading is weak, even a small amount of information gained may stillbe worthwhile.

Making Learning Fun

Activities and games carried out in the target language are vital to increasethe pleasure that can be gained from language learning. Early learningactivities, such as following instructions to touch their heads, feet, etc., canoffer not just vocabulary reinforcement, but opportunities for overlearningand repetition which will increase all-round competence. Physical move-ment and exercise can play a significant role in enhancing learning generallyand increasing the multisensory nature of the language experience (Hanni-ford, 1995; Dobie, 1996). Overlearning through repetition of activities is a keyprinciple in first language teaching for dyslexic students (Miles, 1989; Augur


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and Briggs, 1992), and the avoidance of boredom is vital if interest andmotivation are to be maintained. The use of games and activities which offeropportunities for overlearning in an attractive and enjoyable multisensoryway can give the reinforcement necessary and can still be fun for thestudents (McColl and Thomas, 1997).

Making Learning Realistic

All children need to have experiences which they can personally relate totheir lives. While it may be relatively easy to teach pupils to respond whenasked for their age in another language, the reality of going to a Europeancountry is that they will seldom be asked this in casual discourse. They willhowever have to find their way from one place to another, buy food in theshops, order food in a restaurant and offer money and check change. It isimportant to teach children the skills they will require to survive andcommunicate effectively in a foreign country.

Metacognition

Metacognition, which is essentially thinking about thinking, can be vital toenable young people to maximize their learning (Reid, 1998). Just asmetacognition is important to learning generally, so it is important tomodern foreign language learning (Myer and Ganschow, 1988; Schneider,1999). Students need to know how they learn best and be able to apply whatthey know. They need to know which learning strategies work for them; forexample, they need to know about visual and auditory mnemonics and beable to choose which type will work best for them. They need to know thebest technique for practising spelling. The desirability of using a LOOK,SAY, COVER, WRITE and CHECK routine will for many be vital if they areto remember spellings in any language (Bryant and Bradley, 1985).

Paired Learning

Paired reading, writing and spelling are strategies which most teachersknow and use; yet they are seldom used to help in modern languagelearning. Schools that do use these techniques find them helpful (Topping,1995). In any mainstream secondary school there may be a handful ofstudents who have reached a high standard in their modern language andwho will pursue it into higher education. If these students have any extratime in their timetables or can offer part of a lunch break, this can often helpyounger struggling students.

Information Technology

The potential of information technology is huge, and yet few teachers andschools are currently making use of this potential. The computer is not justa tool that can be used to reinforce teaching of a foreign language. It can beused for a whole variety of activities. Opportunities to have an e-mail pal aswell as a pen pal are challenging, and accessing information in the language



being taught for subjects other than languages must surely be anotherchallenge. For students who find reading and typing hard, help and supportwill be required. The potential of voice-to-text and text-to-voice technologyis gradually coming into use, yet there are many teachers, schools andstudents who are not yet aware of its potential (Crombie and Crombie, 2000).

Support to Foreign Language Teachers

The importance of support to foreign language teachers as well as theirstudents must be recognized. Classroom teachers need the help and supportof specialists who understand students’ difficulties and how these may beameliorated. This need has been recognized by the Scottish Office, whichrecommends that ‘for the class teacher with little or no experience or trainingin providing for pupils with special educational needs, these tasks will beformidable. The SEN specialist’s role will then be to provide whateverassistance the class teacher requires in order to come to terms with thesenew aspects of his/her role’ (SOEID, 1996, Section 1, p. 14). The report alsosuggests that where a number of class teachers can be gathered together,then staff development can be conducted on a whole-school or area basis.

CONCLUSION

The effect of failure to successfully learn a foreign language on a dyslexicstudent who may have experienced considerable failure throughout his orher learning can be to cause a lack of motivation and a lowering ofself-esteem. Experimental work is needed to determine if the previouslymentioned techniques found successful for pupils with difficulties in firstlanguage learning will indeed be successful in the modern language class-room. While work is under way to encourage teachers to reflect on currentpractice (e.g. SCRE, 1999), the long-term effectiveness of various techniquesfor the learning of modern languages can only be established by furtherresearch. Where this concerns dyslexic students, it must not become thepreserve of special needs staff. Effective provision for all will require modernlanguage teachers to collaborate with special needs staff to find the mosteffective solutions.

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Documents

Dyslexia and the learning of a foreign language in school: where are we going?