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EARTH SCIENCE REFERENCE TABLES
Page 1
Radioactive Decay Data
Specific Heats of Common Materials
Properties of Water
Equations
Ruler
Eurypterus (NY State Fossil)
Page 2
Generalized Landscape Regions of NY State
Page 3
Generalized Bedrock Geology of NY State
Page 4
Surface Ocean Currents
Page 5
Tectonic Plates
Page 6
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Relationship of Transported Particle Size to
Water Velocity
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Page 7
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Page 8 and 9
Geologic History of NY State
Page 10
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
Page 11
Average Chemical Composition of Earth’s Crust,
Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
Earthquake P-wave and S-wave Travel Time
Page 12
Dewpoint Temperatures (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
Page 13
Temperature
Pressure
Weather Map Symbols:
Station Model
Present Weather
Air Masses
Front Symbols / Hurricane
Page 14
Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere
Page 15
Luminosity and Temperature of Stars
Solar System Data
Page 16
Properties of Common Minerals
RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE
(years)
Carbon-14
Potassium-40
Uranium-238
Rubidium-87
C14
K40
U238
Rb87
N14
Pb206
Sr87
5.7 × 103
1.3 × 109
4.5 × 109
4.9 × 1010
Ar40
Ca40
Radioactive Decay Data
MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(calories/gram • Cº)
Water
Dry airBasaltGraniteIronCopperLead
solidliquidgas
{0.51.00.50.240.200.190.110.090.03
Specific Heats of Common Materials
Energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 calories/gram
Energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 calories/gram
Energy gained during vaporization . . . . . . . . 540 calories/gram
Energy released during condensation . . . . 540 calories/gram
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.00 gram/milliliter
Properties of Water
Percent deviationfrom accepted value
Eccentricity of an ellipse
Gradient
Density of a substance
deviation (%) = × 100
eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis
difference from accepted valueaccepted value
gradient =change in field value
distance
density = massvolume
Rate of change rate of change =change in field value
time
EQUATIONS
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25151 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14cm
New York State Fossil
EURYPTERUS
TUGHILLPLATEAU
THECATSKILLS
ALLEGHENY PLATEAU
LAKEERIE
LAKE ONTARIO
ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS
ST. LAWRENCE LOWLANDS
ERIE–ONTARIO LOWLANDS(PLAINS)
GRENVILLE PROVINCE(HIGHLANDS)
NEWENGLAND P
ROVINCE
(HIG
HLANDS)
INTERIOR LOWLANDS
TAC
ON
IC M
OU
NTA
INS
NEW
ARK
LOW
LAN
DS
HUDSON HIGHLANDS
MANHATTAN PRONG
CH
AM
PLA
INLO
WLA
ND
S
Generalized Landscape Regions of New York StateA
PPA
LACHIA
N
PLATEAU(U
PLANDS)
ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN
HU
DS
ON
–M
OH
AW
KLO
WLA
ND
S
KEY
Major Geographic Province Boundary
Landscape Region Boundary
State Boundary
International Boundary
N
N
Earth
Scien
ce Referen
ce Tables —
2001 Ed
ition
3
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
modified fromGEOLOGICAL SURVEY
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM1989
Niaga
raR
iver
GEOLOGICAL PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK
CRETACEOUS, TERTIARY, PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and claysLATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, and diabase (in Palisades Sill)PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shalesDEVONIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomeratesSILURIAN Silurian also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite.
ORDOVICIAN limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostonesCAMBRIAN
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones Moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River.
CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schistsIntensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex.
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slatesSlightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages.
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marblesLines are generalized structure trends. Intensely Metamorphosed Rocks
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
}}
}
}}
DominantlySedimentaryOrigin
DominantlyMetamorphosedRocks
LONG
ISLAND SOUND
Surface Ocean Currents
Earth
Scien
ce Referen
ce Tables —
2001 Ed
ition
5
Tectonic Plates
PhilippinePlate
FijiPlate
Mid
-Atla
ntic
Rid
ge
SandwichPlate
KEY:
Divergent Plate Boundary (usually broken by transform
faults along mid-ocean ridges)
Convergent Plate Boundary(Subduction Zone)
Transform Plate Boundary(Transform Fault)
Complex or Uncertain Plate Boundary
Relative Motion at Plate Boundary
NOTE: Not all plates and boundaries are shown.
MantleHot Spot
Mid-Ocean Ridge
overridingplate
subductingplate
Cementatio
n
BurialDeposition
Compaction
Wea
ther
ing
&E
rosi
onM
etamorphism
SEDIMENTARYROCK
Weathering & Erosion
Weathering & Erosion
Melting
METAMORPHICROCK
IGNEOUSROCK
Melting
(Upl
ift)
Solidific
atio
n
Heat and/or Pressure
(Uplift)
Melting
(Uplift)
Heatand/or
Pressure
Metamorphism
Erosion
MAGMA
SEDIMENTS
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
100.0
10.0
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/sec)
PA
RT
ICLE
DIA
ME
TE
R (
cm)
*This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed tomaintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due todifferences in particle density and shape.
BOULDERSCOBBLES
PEBBLES
SAND
SILT
CLAY
25.6 cm6.4 cm
0.2 cm
0.006 cm
0.0004 cm
Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity
Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification
Pyroxene(green)
Amphibole(black)
Biotite(black)
Potassiumfeldspar
(pink to white)
(Rel
ativ
e by
Vol
ume)
MIN
ER
AL
CO
MP
OS
ITIO
N
Quartz(clear towhite)
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
MAFIC (Fe, Mg)
HIGH
DARK
FELSIC (Al)
LOW
LIGHT
GRAIN SIZE TEXTURE
Pumice
INT
RU
SIV
E(P
luto
nic)
EX
TR
US
IVE
(Vol
cani
c)
EN
VIR
ON
ME
NT
OF
FO
RM
ATIO
N
Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)
Olivine(green)
COMPOSITION
DENSITY
COLOR
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
IGN
EO
US
RO
CK
S
Non
-cr
ysta
lline
GlassyBasaltic GlassObsidian
(usually appears black)
less
than
1 m
m FineBasaltAndesiteRhyolite
1 m
mto
10
mm
CoarsePeri-dotite
GabbroDioriteGranite
Pegmatite
10 m
mor
larg
er VeryCoarse
Scoria
Vesicular(gas
pockets)
Dun
ite
Non-vesicular
Non-vesicular
Vesicular Basaltic GlassVesicular BasaltVesicular Rhyolite Vesicular
Andesite
Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition 7
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Rounded fragments
Angular fragmentsMostlyquartz,feldspar, andclay minerals;may containfragments ofother rocksand minerals
Pebbles, cobbles,and/or bouldersembedded in sand,silt, and/or clay
Clastic(fragmental)
Very fine grain
Compact; may spliteasily
Conglomerate
Breccia
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
Halite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Calcite
Carbon
Crystals fromchemicalprecipitatesand evaporites
Rock Salt
Rock Gypsum
Dolostone
Limestone
Coal
. . . . .. . . .
Sand(0.2 to 0.006 cm)
Silt(0.006 to 0.0004 cm)
Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaFine to coarse
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Varied
Varied
Varied
Microscopic to coarse
Varied
Cemented shellfragments or precipitates
of biologic origin
From plant remains
. . . . .. . . .
Bioclastic
FO
LIA
TE
D
NO
NF
OLI
AT
ED
Fine
Fineto
medium
Mediumto
coarse
Regional Low-grademetamorphism of shale
Platy mica crystals visible frommetamorphism of clay orfeldspars
High-grade metamorphism;some mica changed to feldspar;segregated by mineral typeinto bands
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
Metamorphism of quartzsandstone
Metamorphism oflimestone or dolostone
Pebbles may be distortedor stretched
MIC
AQ
UA
RT
ZF
EL
DS
PAR
AM
PH
IBO
LE
GA
RN
ET
PY
RO
XE
NE
COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME
TYPE OFMETAMORPHISM
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite
Marble
Coarse
Fineto
coarse
Quartz
Calcite and/ordolomite
Various mineralsin particlesand matrix
(Heat andpressureincreasewith depth)M
INE
RA
L A
LIG
NM
EN
TB
AN
D-
ING
Contact(Heat)
Various rocks changed byheat from nearbymagma/lava
HornfelsVariableFine
Regional
or
Contact
MAP SYMBOL
Foliation surfaces shiny frommicroscopic mica crystals
Phyllite
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition 7
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Rounded fragments
Angular fragmentsMostlyquartz,feldspar, andclay minerals;may containfragments ofother rocksand minerals
Pebbles, cobbles,and/or bouldersembedded in sand,silt, and/or clay
Clastic(fragmental)
Very fine grain
Compact; may spliteasily
Conglomerate
Breccia
CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Crystalline
Halite
Gypsum
Dolomite
Calcite
Carbon
Crystals fromchemicalprecipitatesand evaporites
Rock Salt
Rock Gypsum
Dolostone
Limestone
Coal
. . . . .. . . .
Sand(0.2 to 0.006 cm)
Silt(0.006 to 0.0004 cm)
Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaFine to coarse
COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL
Varied
Varied
Varied
Microscopic to coarse
Varied
Cemented shellfragments or precipitates
of biologic origin
From plant remains
. . . . .. . . .
Bioclastic
FO
LIA
TE
D
NO
NF
OLI
AT
ED
Fine
Fineto
medium
Mediumto
coarse
Regional Low-grademetamorphism of shale
Platy mica crystals visible frommetamorphism of clay orfeldspars
High-grade metamorphism;some mica changed to feldspar;segregated by mineral typeinto bands
Slate
Schist
Gneiss
Metamorphism of quartzsandstone
Metamorphism oflimestone or dolostone
Pebbles may be distortedor stretched
MIC
AQ
UA
RT
ZF
EL
DS
PAR
AM
PH
IBO
LE
GA
RN
ET
PY
RO
XE
NE
COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME
TYPE OFMETAMORPHISM
Metaconglomerate
Quartzite
Marble
Coarse
Fineto
coarse
Quartz
Calcite and/ordolomite
Various mineralsin particlesand matrix
(Heat andpressureincreasewith depth)M
INE
RA
L A
LIG
NM
EN
TB
AN
D-
ING
Contact(Heat)
Various rocks changed byheat from nearbymagma/lava
HornfelsVariableFine
Regional
or
Contact
MAP SYMBOL
Foliation surfaces shiny frommicroscopic mica crystals
Phyllite
Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF NEW YORK STATE
Advance and retreat of last continental iceUplift of Adirondack region
Sands and shales underlying Long Island and StatenIsland deposited on margin of Atlantic Ocean
Development of passive continental margin
Initial opening of Atlantic OceanNorth America and Africa separate
Intrusion of Palisades sillPangea begins to break up
Extensive erosion
Appalachian (Alleghanian) Orogenycaused by collision of North Americaand Africa along transform margin,forming Pangea
Catskill Delta formsErosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian Orogeny caused by collision ofNorth America and Avalon and closingof remaining part of Iapetus Ocean
Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins
Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston Delta forms
Taconian Orogeny caused by closing ofwestern part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America andvolcanic island arc
Iapetus passive margin forms
Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus OceanErosion of Grenville Mountains
Grenville Orogeny: Ancestral AdirondackMtns. and Hudson Highlands formed
EraEon
PH
AN
ER
O-
ZO
ICP
RE
CA
MB
RI
AN
AR
CH
EA
NP
RO
TE
RO
ZO
IC
LATE
LATE
MIDDLE
MIDDLE
EARLY
EARLY
0
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
4600
Millions of years ago
CENOZOIC
MESOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
Oldest multi-cellularlife
QUATERNARY
NEOGENE
PALEOGENET
ER
TIA
RY
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CA
RB
ON
IF-
ER
OU
S
DEVONIAN
Period Epoch Life on Earth
SILURIAN
ORDOVICIAN
CAMBRIAN
PLEISTOCENEPLIOCENEMIOCENE
OLIGOCENEEOCENE
PALEOCENE
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATEMIDDLEEARLY
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
LATE
MIDDLE
EARLY
24
33.754.8
544
580
490
443
418
362
323
290
206
142
1300
Millions of years ago
RockRecord
inNYS
Time Distribution of Fossils(Including Important Fossils of New York)
TectonicEvents
AffectingNortheast
NorthAmerica
Rif
tin
gR
ifti
ng
Pas
sive
Mar
gin S
ubdu
ctio
n
Con
tin
enta
l Col
lisi
on
Tran
sfor
m C
olli
sion
Pas
sive
Mar
gin
Important GeologicEvents in New York
Inferred Position ofEarth’s Landmasses
TERTIARY 59 millionyears
ago
CRETACEOUS 119 millionyears
ago
TRIASSIC 232 millionyears
ago
ORDOVICIAN 458 millionyears
ago
99-098 CDK(rev) 8/2000
PENNSYLVANIAN
MISSISSIPPIAN
First appearanceof sexually
Earth Science Reference Tables— 2001 Edition 9
LATE
EARLY
LATE
EARLY
BR
AC
HIO
PO
DS
GA
ST
RO
PO
DS
CO
RA
LS
CR
INO
IDS
Earth’s first forest
AM
MO
NO
IDS
VA
SC
UL
AR
PL
AN
TS
EU
RY
PT
ER
IDS
GR
AP
TO
LIT
ES
TR
ILO
BIT
ES
PL
AC
OD
ER
MF
ISH
BIR
DS
MA
MM
AL
S
DIN
OS
AU
RS
NA
UT
ILO
IDS
A
I
H
B
C F G
L
A B C D E F G
O S
E
D
J
K
N
P
T
U
VX Z
W
Y
Q R
M
Elliptocephala
(Fossils not drawn to scale)
CryptolithusPhacops
ValcourocerasHexameroceras Manticoceras
Centroceras
H I J
EucalyptocrinusCtenocrinus
Tetragraptus
K
Dicellograptus EurypterusStylonurus
Mastodont
O
BelugaWhale
P
Cooksonia
R
Bothriolepis
S
Maclurites EospiriferMucrospiriferPlatyceras
Q
Aneurophyton
T
CondorNaples Tree
Cystiphyllum
U
Lichenaria
V W Y ZX
Pleurodictyum
L
Coelophysis
NM
HOLOCENE
65
251
1.6
5.3
0.010
Earth’s firstcoral reef
Lettered circles indicate the approximate time of existence of a specificindex fossil (e.g. Fossil lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).
DEVONIAN/MISSISSIPPIAN 362 millionyears
ago
A
Oldest known rocks
Geochemical evidencefor oldest biologicalfixing of carbon
Oldest microfossils
Transition toatmospherecontainingoxygen
reproducingorganisms
Estimated time of originof Earth and solar system
Humans, mastodonts, mammothsLarge carnivoresAbundant grazing mammalsEarliest grassesLarge running mammalsMany modern groups of mammals
Extinction of dinosaurs and ammonoidsEarliest placental mammals
Climax of dinosaurs and ammonoids
Earliest flowering plantsDecline of brachiopodsDiverse bony fishes
Earliest birds Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
Modern coral groups appearEarliest dinosaurs and mammals with
abundant cycads and conifersExtinction of many kinds of marine
animals, including trilobitesFirst mammal-like reptiles
Earliest reptilesExtensive coal-forming forests
Abundant sharks and amphibiansLarge and numerous scale trees
and seed ferns
Earliest amphibians, ammonoids, sharksExtinction of armored fish, other
fish abundant
Earliest insectsEarliest land plants and animalsPeak development of eurypterids
Invertebrates dominant– mollusks become abundant
Diverse coral and echinoderms
Graptolites abundantEarliest fishAlgal reefsBurgess shale fauna
Earliest chordates, diverse trilobitesEarliest trilobitesEarliest marine animals with shells
Ediacaran fauna
Soft-bodied organisms
Stromatolites
10 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa43
2
1
0
PR
ES
SU
RE
(mill
ions
of a
tmos
pher
es)
MID-ATLANTIC
RIDGE
LITHOSPHERE
CR
US
TRIG
IDM
ANTL
E
C A S C A D E S
T R E N C H
12.7–13.0
9.9–12.1
3.3–5.5
3.0 oceanic crust2.7 continental crust
DENSITY (g/cm3)
0 2000 4000 6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
DEPTH (km)
TE
MP
ER
AT
UR
E (
°C)
1000 3000 5000
6000MANTLE
ATLANTIC OCEANN
OR
THAM
ERIC
A
MOHO
INN
ER
CORE
IRO
N&
NICKEL
OU
TER
CO
RE(IR
ON?)
AS
THEN
OSP
HERE(P
LASTICMANTLE)
EARTH’S CENTER
STI
FFER
MANTLE
MELTIN
G POIN
T
??
?
?????
?
PARTIAL MELTING OFULTRAMAFIC MANTLE
ME
LTIN
G P
OIN
T
ACTUAL TEMPERATURE
OC
EA
NP
AC
IFIC
Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior
Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition 11
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
ELEMENT(symbol)
CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE
Oxygen (O)Silicon (Si)Aluminum (Al)Iron (Fe)Calcium (Ca)Sodium (Na)Magnesium (Mg)Potassium (K)Nitrogen (N)Hydrogen (H)Other
46.4028.15
8.235.634.152.362.332.09
0.66
Percent byMass
Percent byVolume
Percent byVolume
Percent byVolume
94.040.880.480.491.181.110.331.42
0.07
33.0
66.01.0
21.0
78.0
1.0
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8EPICENTER DISTANCE (×103 km)
TR
AV
EL
TIM
E (
min
utes
)
P
9 10
S
Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition 11
Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
Earthquake P-wave and S-wave Travel Time
1– 33– 28– 24– 21–18–14–12–10– 7– 5– 3–11468
10121416192123252729
2
– 36– 28– 22–18–14–12– 8– 6– 3–11368
111315171921232527
0– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2
02468
1012141618202224262830
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2024681012141618202224262830
3
– 29– 22–17–13– 9– 6– 4–11469
1113151720222426
4
– 29– 20–15–11– 7– 4– 2
1469
11141618202224
5
– 24–17–11– 7– 5– 2
1479
121416182123
6
–19–13– 9– 5– 2
147
101214171921
7
– 21–14– 9– 5– 2
147
1012151719
8
–14– 9– 5–1248
10131618
9
– 28–16–10– 6– 2
258
111416
10
–17–10– 5–2369
1114
11
–17–10– 5–1269
12
12
–19–10– 5–137
10
13
–19–10– 5
048
14
–19–10– 4
15
15
–18– 9– 3
1
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)Dry-BulbTempera-ture (°C)
12840485561667173777981838586878888899091919292929393
15
49
1216
12 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition
Dewpoint Temperatures (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Dry-BulbTempera-ture (°C)
12840485561667173777981838586878888899091919292929393
2
1123334148545863677072747678798081828384858686
0100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100
– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2024681012141618202224262830
3
1320323745515659626567697172747576777879
4
112028364246515457606264666869707172
5
111202735394348505456586062646566
6
61422283338414548515355575961
7
10172428333740444649515355
8
61319252933364042454749
9
410162126303336394244
10
28
1419232730343639
11
17
12172125283134
12
16
111520232629
13
51014182125
14
49
131720
15
49
1216
Dry-BulbTempera-ture (°C)
12 Earth Science Reference Tables — 2001 Edition
Dewpoint Temperatures (°C)
Relative Humidity (%)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
–10
–20
–30
–40
–50
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
–20
–40
–60
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
Water boils
Human bodytemperature
Roomtemperature
Ice melts
Temperature
30.70
30.60
30.50
30.40
30.30
30.20
30.10
30.00
29.90
29.80
29.70
29.60
29.50
29.40
29.30
29.20
29.10
29.00
28.90
28.80
28.70
28.60
28.50
1040.0
1036.0
1032.0
1028.0
1024.0
1020.0
1016.0
1012.0
1008.0
1004.0
1000.0
996.0
992.0
988.0
984.0
980.0
976.0
972.0
968.0
oneatmosphere1013.2 mb
Pressuremillibars inches
196
+19/
.25
28
27
✱
Amount of cloud cover(approximately 75% covered)
Barometric pressure(1019.6 mb)
Barometric trend(a steady 1.9-mb rise the past 3 hours)
Precipitation(inches past 6 hours)
Wind direction(from the southwest)
Temperature (°F)
Present weather
Visibility (mi)
Dewpoint (°F)
Wind speed
(1 knot = 1.15 mi/hr)
12
whole feather = 10 knotshalf feather = 5 knots
total = 15 knots
Station Model
FreezingRain
Haze
Rain
FogSnow✱
Hail RainShowers
Thunder-storms
Drizzle
Sleet∞
Smog
SnowShowers
✱
Present Weather
Air MassescA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Air Masses
cA
cP
cT
mT
mP
continental arctic
continental polar
continental tropical
maritime tropical
maritime polar
Cold
Warm
Stationary
Occluded
Front Symbols
Hurricane
km 150
100
50
0
75
50
25
0
mi
Sea Level
Altitude
Temperature Zones
Thermosphere
Mesopause
Mesosphere
Stratopause
Stratosphere
TropopauseTroposphere
Temperature (°C)
–100° 0° 100°
–90° –55° 15° 10–4
10–3
10–2
10–1
10 0
Pressure (atm)
Atmospheric Pressure
0 20 40
Concentration(g/m3)
WaterVapor
eltsshift northward in summer andsouthward in winter.
Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere
Decreasing Wavelength
10010–10
4.0
× 10
–5
10–9 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 101 102 103
0.00
0,00
0,00
0,1
0.00
0,00
0,00
1
0.00
0,00
0,01
0.00
0,00
0,1
0.00
0,00
1
0.00
0,01
0.00
0,1
0.00
1
0.01
0.1
1.0
10 100
1,00
0
cm
cm
Increasing Wavelength
Gamma rays x rays
Ultraviolet Infrared
Vis
ible
Radio waves
Microwaves
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Visible Light
4.3
× 10
–5
4.9
× 10
–5
5.3
× 10
–5
5.8
× 10
–5
6.3
× 10
–5
7.0
× 10
–5
Electromagnetic Spectrum
30° N
60° N
60° S
30° S
0°
S.W.WINDS
DRY
DRY
WET
N.E.
N.E. WINDS
S.E.WINDS
WET
DRY
WET
DRY
S.E.
N.W.WINDS
Polar Front
SubtropicalJet Streams
Tropopause
Polar Front Jet Stream
Polar Front Jet Stream
Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere
RedDwarfs
1,000,000
10,000
100
1
0.01
0.000120,000 10,000 5,000 2,500
Red StarsYellow StarsWhite StarsBlue Stars
Temperature (°C)
Lu
min
osi
ty (
Rel
ativ
e to
th
e S
un
)
SmallStars
MassiveStars
BlueSupergiants
Rigel
Supergiants
Betelgeuse
Aldebaran
Red GiantsMain Sequence
Alpha CentauriSun
White Dwarfs
Sirius
Color
+
+
Procyon B+
Barnard’sStar
++
Polaris ++
+
+
Luminosity and Temperature of Stars(Name in italics refers to star shown by a + )
Luminosity is thebrightness of starscompared to thebrightness of ourSun as seen fromthe same distancefrom the observer.
SUN — — 27 days — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4 –
MERCURY 57.9 88 days 59 days 0.206 4,880 0.553 5.4 0
VENUS 108.2 224.7 days 243 days 0.007 12,104 0.815 5.2 0
EARTH 149.6 365.26 days 23 hr 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5 156 min4 sec
MARS 227.9 687 days 24 hr 0.093 6,787 0.1074 3.9 237 min23 sec
JUPITER 778.3 11.86 years 9 hr 0.048 142,800 317.896 1.3 1650 min30 sec
SATURN 1,427 29.46 years 10 hr 0.056 120,000 95.185 0.7 1814 min
URANUS 2,869 84.0 years 17 hr 0.047 51,800 14.537 1.2 2114 min
NEPTUNE 4,496 164.8 years 16 hr 0.009 49,500 17.151 1.7 8
PLUTO 5,900 247.7 years 6 days 0.250 2,300 0.0025 2.0 19 hr
EARTH’S 149.6 27.3 days 27 days 0.055 3,476 0.0123 3.3 —MOON (0.386 from Earth) 8 hr
Object Mean Distance from Sun
(millions of km)
Periodof
Revolution
EquatorialDiameter
(km)
Mass(Earth = 1)
Eccentricityof
Orbit
Periodof
Rotation
Density
(g/cm3)
Numberof
Moons
Solar System Data
Properties of Common Minerals
HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHINGLUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) MINERAL NAME COMPOSITION*
black streak,greasy feel
very dense (7.6 g/cm3),gray-black streak
attracted by magnet,black streak
green-black streak,cubic crystals
red-brown streak
greasy feel
easily melted,may smell
easily scratchedby fingernail
flexible inthin sheets
cubic cleavage, salty taste
flexible in thin sheets
bubbleswith acid
bubbles with acidwhen powdered
cleaves in4 directions
cleaves in2 directions at 90°
cleaves at56° and 124°
cleaves in2 directions at 90°
cleaves in 2 directions,striations visible
commonly light greenand granular
glassy luster, may formhexagonal crystals
glassy luster, often seen as redgrains in NYS metamorphic rocks
Graphite
Galena
Magnetite
Pyrite
Hematite
Talc
Sulfur
Gypsum
Muscovite Mica
Halite
Biotite Mica
Calcite
Dolomite
Fluorite
Pyroxene(commonly Augite)
Amphiboles(commonly Hornblende)
Potassium Feldspar(Orthoclase)
Plagioclase Feldspar(Na-Ca Feldspar)
Olivine
Quartz
Garnet(commonly Almandine)
silver togray
metallicsilver
black tosilver
brassyyellow
metallic silver orearthy red
white togreen
yellow toamber
white to pink or gray
colorless toyellow
colorless towhite
black todark brown
colorlessor variable
colorlessor variable
colorless orvariable
black todark green
black to dark green
white topink
white to gray
green togray or brown
colorless orvariable
dark redto green
pencil lead,lubricants
ore oflead
ore ofiron
ore ofsulfur
oreof iron
talcum powder,soapstone
vulcanize rubber,sulfuric acid
plaster of parisand drywall
electricalinsulator
food additive,melts ice
electricalinsulator
cement,polarizing prisms
source ofmagnesium
hydrofluoricacid
mineralcollections
mineralcollections
ceramicsand glass
ceramicsand glass
furnace bricksand jewelry
glass, jewelry,and electronics
jewelry andabrasives
16DET 633 (0-00-00,000)
Nonm
etal
lic L
uste
r
*Chemical Symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = siliconCa = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium
✔ = dominant form of breakage
C
PbS
Fe3O4
FeS2
Fe2O3
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
S
CaSO4•2H2O
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
NaCl
K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
CaCO3
CaMg(CO3)2
CaF2
(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3Si6O22(O,OH)2
KAlSi3O8
(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4
SiO2
Fe3Al2Si3O12
1–2
2.5
5.5–6.5
6.5
1–6.5
1
2
2
2–2.5
2.5
2.5–3
3
3.5
4
5–6
5.5
6
6
6.5
7
7
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Met
allic
Lus
ter
Eith
er
CLEA
VAGE
FRAC
TURE
(Selenite)