Eco Intensive a New Form of Agriculture

Inventinga new formof agriculture

Cirad

Inventing ecologically intensive farming systems to feed the world

CIRAD’s expertise and know‐how

More effective control of locust invasions

Coffee berry borer control

Regulating pests and diseases in tropical agrosystems

Controlling insect pests in cotton growing systems

Direct seeding mulch‐based cropping

Ecological intensification of banana growing

Improving agroforestry systems in the humid tropics

Agri‐environmental impacts of the oil palm

Sustainable production for small scale farmers in developing countries

Preserving biodiversity in African savannas

Sustainable charcoal production in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Dissemination of direct seeding mulch‐based cropping systems in Madagascar

Optimizing biomass production whilst minimizing environmental impact

Integrating crop and animal productions

Pig production in tropical and subtropical regions

Reconciling fodder production and environmental protection in the humid tropics

Bibliographie/Literature

In many tropical regions of the globe andespecially in Africa, locust invasions are acurse and a very serious threat to agriculture,animal production and the food security of rural

populations. Not a single crop is spared. The desertlocust, in particular, is a major pest, whose spectacularinvasions can cover areas of more than 29 million km2. Thematerial, human and environmental damage caused isconsiderable. Controlling these insects is thus a major issue for localpopulations and the environment. It is a national priority for manydeveloping countries.

Improving survey and controlstrategies

Locust swarms have many causes.Combinations of favourable ecologicalconditions or changes in farming practicesmay boost the insects’ capacity to causedestruction.

Over the past thirty years, CIRAD has been conducting field research in manycountries worldwide to better understand the origin of locust invasions throughimproved knowledge of the zones at risk and early detection of the conditions likelyto trigger those invasions. It has also been studying the vulnerability of the humanpopulations affected by crises, working to ensure that control methods are moreenvironmentally friendly, and promoting credible alternatives to chemicalinsecticides. The sustainability of the solutions proposed is a constant concern.

More effective control of locust invasions

Locust studies at CIRAD

The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria Forskål

(gregarious phase, mature). © A. Monard, CIRAD

Contact

Michel LecoqCIRADLocust Ecology and Control Research UnitCampus international de Baillarguet34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

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This work is backed up by in-depth knowledge of the realities of developingcountries, the operational constraints, and the bioecology of locusts. CIRAD’sresearch is supplemented by training and extension operations and appraisalmissions in the event of locust swarms.

A geographical informationsystem for migratory locusts

CIRAD has developed a geographicalinformation system for managingmigratory locusts in Madagascar, one

of the major risks for agriculture in thecountry, which saw a catastrophic

invasion from 1997 to 1999. The softwarecan be used as a decision support tool in orderto pinpoint the zones at high risk of locustswarms and organize surveillance and early

intervention operations more rationally. This is an essential stage in establishing a more effective, preventive and sustainable strategy formanaging the locust risk in Madagascar.

Understanding the origin of desert locustinvasions

In collaboration with the FAO and national anti-locustcentres, CIRAD is using molecular biology techniques inAfrica to gain a clearer understanding of locust populationdynamics prior to invasions. Using remote sensing andgeographical information systems, the conditions that favourlocust reproduction and exponential growth in numbers can be identified at anearlier stage. Management of survey and control services in the countries involved(Mauritania, Mali, Senegal, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisiaand Libya) has been improved thanks to a specific database accessible in real timevia the Internet.

Training and documentationoffers

CIRAD offers training courses inlocust control, organized on request,in France and abroad:• locust expertise: controlling locustpests;• application techniques for locustcontrol and crop protection.

Technical advice notes on the mainlocust pest species are available, andan on-line locust encyclopaedia canbe consulted at http://locust.cirad.fr.

CIRAD also has a documentation centre specializing in locust pests, with more than10 000 publications and several thousand images.

• FAO, Food and AgricultureOrganization of the UnitedNations, Italy

• FAO Commission forControlling the Desert Locustin the Western Region, Algiers

• Locust control centres inWest Africa and the Maghreb

• AGRHYMET RegionalCentre, Niger

• National Anti-Locust Centre,Madagascar

Partners

Very lowLowWorryingThreateningSerious Critical

Monthly locust risk map in Madagascar.

Locusts on sale at the market in Niamey, Niger. © M. Lecoq, CIRAD

The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria Forskål (solitary phase).© A. Foucart, CIRAD

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria Linnaeus(solitary phase). © M. Lecoq, CIRAD

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Risk level

An excellent response to CBBsurvival behaviour

CIRAD and its coffee researchpartners have developedsimple, effective andinexpensive IPM against

CBB comprising three components: - strict branch stripping,- trapping of colonizing females, - meticulous plantation upkeep.

These three activities are complementary and help to effectively control the pest.During migration, CBB tend to shelter in residual berries waiting to colonize theberries of the next crop. So, completely removing the residual berries remainingon branches after the harvest (also called branch stripping), prevents part of thepest's population from surviving. Female CBB emerging from residual berries arealso caught in traps (BROCAP® trap) which are kept in plantations until all CBBhave emerged. Lastly, plot upkeep, especially formation pruning, shaderegulation and plot cleaning improve the results of the previous techniques.

The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampeiFerrari, is the main insect pest on coffee,attacking the fruits. It is a beetle of Africanorigin that affects plantations in virtually

all coffee producing countries worldwide. Despite theintroduction and repeated releases of naturalenemies, this pest adapts and develops wherever itsettles. With global warming, the coffee berry borer(CBB) is now colonizing zones located at increasinglyhigh elevations, thereby threatening production of themajor high-grown coffees. Triple action IPM provides a solution to the CBB problem whilst protecting the environmentand biodiversity.

Coffee Berry Borer ControlTriple-action IPM

Bernard DufourCIRADControlling Pests andDiseases in Tree Cropsresearch unitAvenue Agropolis,34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

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Contact

Shaded coffee plantation, Costa Rica. © B. Dufour, Cirad

Triple-action IPM is a selective, environment-friendlytechnique. It is compatible with biological control and curbsCBB before they can infest the harvest and cause damage.

In shaded coffee plantations with tall varieties, CBB infestation can be reduced bymore than 90% compared to control plots. Branch stripping and trapping accountfor more than 70% of the reduction.

The BROCAP® trap

The BROCAP® trap works withan attractant. It captures CBBduring their migration flight.This is the only component ofIPM that calls for any realinvestment, amounting toaround 3 dollars per trap. It isessential to install at least 18traps per hectare, with twoattractant dispensers per trap,to ensure that the systemoperates efficiently for fourmonths per year. CIRAD and PROCAFE (SalvadoranFoundation for Coffee

Research) developed the BROCAP® trap to meet the needs of coffee growing inCentral America. Its use has now been extended to Asian countries. In addition tomass trapping, for which it was designed, the BROCAP® trap can be used as anagricultural early warning system. It is distributed in El Salvador by PROCAFE, andelsewhere in the world by ECOM Agroindustrial Corporation Ltd.

Method application zones

Triple-action IPM applies to geographical zones with just one annual harvest, i.e. in the tropical belt where the climate has two clearly marked dry and wetseasons. On the other hand, it is more difficult to apply in equatorial zones, whereflowering and fruiting periods overlap. The method is more effective in shadedcoffee plantations than unshaded plantations, as trapping is more effective undershade. This protection programme begins with the stripping of residual berries(beginning of February in Central America and the beginning of January on theBolovens plateau in Laos) and finishes once the major CBB migratory flows haveended (end of June in Central America and Laos). The dates indicated mostlyconcern programmes devoted to arabica coffee growing.

• PROCAFE, El Salvador(www.procafe.com.sv)

• PROMECAFE, RegionalCooperative Programme forTechnological Development ofCoffee Cultivation in CentralAmerica, Panama, theDominican Republic andJamaica (www.iica.org.gt)

• ECOM AgroindustrialCorporation Ltd, Mexico andIndonesia(www.ecomtrading.com)

Partners

Installation of BROCAP® CBB traps. © B. Dufour, Cirad

Shade tree pruning. © B. Dufour, Cirad

Coffee tree pruning. © B. Dufour, Cirad

Rehabilitation of the coffee plantation.© B. Dufour, Cirad

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By cultivating varieties that make different demandson the soil and climate, diversifying species orvarieties in agrosystems reduces the risks of harvestlosses, especially in the context of climate change.

Likewise, cereal and legume combinations or use of cover cropsthat reduce erosion bolster food security. However, little isknown about the effects of such plant diversification onpopulations of pests and diseases, and the damage they cause. Witha view to economic and environmental sustainability, it is thereforeimportant to gain a clearer understanding of interactions and use them tominimize any negative impacts and limit synthetic pesticide use.

Specific plant diversification

Awide diversity of plant species, orspecific plant diversity (SPD),characterizes natural ecosystems,which suffer much less from pests and

diseases than cultivated ecosystems. Usingcultivated plant varieties that are resistant to

pests and diseases, and defining optimum spatio-temporal deployment methods forsuch resistance, play a key role in crop protection. Over and above mere geneticdiversification, SPD maximizes ecological pest and pathogen regulation processes,such as the preservation of natural enemies.

In this context, CIRAD and its partners are implementing a project in the tropics tooptimize the ecological mechanisms of pest and disease management, forsustainable improvement of agrosystem productivity (OMEGA3 project). It isanalysing how pest and disease populations are affected by the introduction ofspatial and temporal diversity of plant species in cropping systems. Several systemsrepresenting a range of pests and diseases and host-plants in tropical zones arebeing studied: coffee-based agroforestry systems in Costa Rica, cocoa-basedagroforestry systems in Cameroon, upland rice-based direct seeding mulch-basedcropping systems in Madagascar, gombo and tomato-based food/market gardencrop systems in Niger, tomato-based market garden systems in Martinique andcucurbit based systems in Réunion, etc.

Regulating pests and diseases in tropical agrosystems

Diversifying plant speciesin cropping systems

Fodder radish in a mulch-based cropping system.

© A. Ratnadass, CIRAD

Alain RatnadassCIRAD, HortSys research unitICRISATBP 12404 NiameyNiger

[email protected]

Jacques AvelinoCIRADControlling Pests and Diseases in Tree Crops research unitIICA/PROMECAFE Apartado postal 55 2200Coronado San JoséCosta Rica

[email protected]

For further information:www.open-si.com/omega-3

Contacts

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Pest and disease regulation processes

Introducing specific plant diversity induces different pest anddisease regulation processes (insects, pathogens or parasitic plants),which are analysed:• sanitizing effects of service plants as the previous crop cover inrelation to tomato bacterial wilt in Martinique,• allelopathic effects of cover crops in relation towhite grubs and Striga on upland rice inMadagascar,• the luring effects of decoy plants, combined withbarrier effects and conservation biological controlon the tomato fruitworm and on whiteflies of marketgarden crops in Martinique and Niger,• the same effects "assisted" by food attractantscombined with biological insecticides on cucurbit-attacking fruit flies in Réunion,• the effects of combining trees and bushes on miridbug dynamics and the epidemiology of black pod roton cocoa in Cameroon,• the effects of landscape fragmentation on theepidemiology of coffee leaf rust and on coffee berryborer dynamics in Costa Rica.

Novel cropping systems

An inventory is proposed of service plants that can be used for agro-ecologicalmanagement of pests and diseases in horticultural systems (in Martinique) or indirect seeding mulch-based systems (in Madagascar). For instance, the benefitsoffered by the fodder radish, Raphanus sativus, have been discovered, be it for itsantibacterial effects against Ralstonia solanacearum in tomato crops, or for itssuppressive effect on white grubs in mulch-base rice crops. Some contradictoryeffects of shade have also been discovered on the incidence of leaf rust in coffeeagroforestry systems: shade reduces disease incidence compared to full exposureto sunlight by reducing the fruit load, but increases it by creating humidconditions more conducive to infection and disease development.

After formalizing the ecological processes studied, anddepending on the major types of pests and

diseases, plants and plant diversificationmethods, CIRAD defines indicators to

construct predictive models ofinfestation. The models are

used to elaborate novelcropping systems that are

resilient to pests anddiseases, based on theintroduction of SPD in

agrosystems.

• ICRISAT, International CropsResearch Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India/Niger

• CATIE, Centro AgronómicoTropical de Investigación yEnseñanza, Costa Rica

• INRAN, Institut national derecherche agronomique duNiger

• FOFIFA, Centre de rechercheagronomique de Madagascar

• IRAD, Institut de rechercheagricole pour le développement,Cameroon

• Universities in Cameroon,Costa Rica, Madagascar andNiger

• INRA, Institut national de larecherche agronomique, France

Partners

Shaded coffee plantation in Costa Rica:shading reduces rust-related risks. © J. Avelino, CIRAD

Hypotheses regarding SPD effects on pests and diseases

generated by observationAdding to the

knowledge base

Parameterization of existing models

Validation of modelsthrough observation

and experiments

Ideotypes of SPD-based cropping systems resilient

to pests and diseases

Construction of mechanistic models

Scenarios and decision-making rules

Indicators

Experimental checking of suspected SPD effects

Unshaded coffee plantation in Papua NewGuinea, devastated by leaf rust. © J. Avelino, CIRAD

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Because of their impact on fibre production andquality, insect pests significantly affect incomesamong cotton growers. This constraint has previouslybeen largely overcome using phytosanitary products,

but the practice is now threatening the viability of productionsystems, due to the reduced efficacy of a number of insecticidesfollowing the advent of resistant insect populations and the disruptionof various biological balances. Research has to take account of insectpopulation dynamics and their interactions with the environment, above andbeyond the level of the cultivated plot alone, so as to develop new, sustainableprotection strategies that reconcile agricultural production and environmentalprotection.

Understanding the life system of insects

In the African savannahs, two insects causesignificant damage to cotton crops: the bollwormHelicoverpa armigera, which attacks the fruitingorgans, and the aphid Aphis gossypii, which sucksthe sap and thus weakens young cotton plants andaffects fibre quality by depositing honeydew when

the bolls open. CIRAD is working to characterize the mechanisms involved in thepopulation dynamics of these insects so as to identify ways of keeping levelsbelow damage thresholds.

A study has been conducted in several African regions, on aphid populations. Intheory, the populations are capable of colonizing more than 250 plant species,but in reality, they are genetically differentiated and specialize in groups of hostplants. For instance, some populations are only found on cotton during the rainyseason, and then on other Malvaceae such as okra or red sorrel in market gardenplots during the dry season. Other populations prefer plants of the familiesCucurbitaceae (melon, water melon, etc) or Solanaceae (pepper, aubergine, etc).Conversely, an analysis of bollworms taken from various plants revealed a lack of specialization. Opportunistic movements over short or long distances enable the populations to exploit temporary cultivated plant resources (maize,cotton, cowpea and tomato, for instance) or some weeds (Cleome spp. or Hyptissp.).

Controlling insect pests incotton growing systemsA form of agriculture less dependent on pesticides

Helicoverpa armigera bollworm eating a cotton boll.

© T. Brévault, CIRAD

Thierry BrévaultCIRADAnnual Cropping SystemsResearch UnitAvenue Agropolis34398 Montpellier Cedex 5 France

[email protected]

Contact

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Aphis gossypii aphids on a cotton leaf. © T. Brévault, CIRAD

Monitoring population movements

New markers, such as the composition of the insects’bacterial flora, are currently being developed with aview to monitoring population movements. Knowing themigration profiles of populations and the sequence ofplants that serve as refuges or reproduction reservoirsdepending on the season makes it possible to predict infestations. It also makes itpossible to act on the insects’ survival phases using appropriate cropping practices:destruction of relay plants, early sowing, topping cotton plants to reduce theirattractiveness, etc. It is also possible to alter the habitat so as to slow the spread ofinsects: spatial arrangement of the plot, crop associations or successions, plantbarriers, etc. Such knowledge also serves to fuel models of the development ofresistance to insecticides.

Restructuring agricultural landscapes

By simplifying landscapes and using increasing amounts of pesticides, intensiveagriculture results in a loss of plant and animal biodiversity in agrosystems, andconsequently of the services rendered by that biodiversity, such as natural regulationof insect pests. It is vital to restructure the agricultural landscape using hedges, treesor buffer strips if we are to restore biodiversity.

So-called “service” plants can act as traps for pests and refuges or banks for predatorsand parasitoids. They can also have a repellent effect on pests. It is vital to know aboutthese service plants, and also the beneficial fauna and its impact on insect pestpopulations if we are to make optimum use of biodiversity.

In the savannahs of Africa, theseplants may be intercropped withcotton plants or planted aroundthe edges of plots, to stimulatethe production of “killer”beneficial that act againstbollworms or aphids. Forinstance, some plants providean opportunity for aphidpopulations and their associatedparasitoids to develop, with the prospect of seeing theparasitoids transfer to cottonplots. Other plants are beingtested that could act as traps, byattracting female Helicoverpamoths looking for a place to laytheir eggs.

Another study in Cameroon has shown that direct seeding of cotton on a legume- orgrass-based plant cover favours the establishment of a more abundant, diverse soilmacrofauna, particularly in terms of species that prey on insect pests.


• PRASAC, Pôle régional derecherche appliquée audéveloppement des savanesd'Afrique centrale, Chad

• IRAD, Institut de rechercheagricole pour ledéveloppement, Cameroon

• Société de développement du coton, Cameroon

Partners

Cotton plots in a savannah landscape.© P. Schwarz

Helicoverpa armigera bollworm on tomato.© T. Brévault, CIRAD

Aphis gossypii aphids on a pepper plant.© T. Brévault, CIRAD

Helicoverpa armigera bollworm on a weed. © T. Brévault, CIRAD

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Conventional cropping systems based on soil tillage,massive use of industrial inputs (fertilizers,pesticides and energy), and a small number ofcultivated species can no longer satisfy food, health and

environmental requirements. How can we continue to producemore so as to feed people, while protecting the environment? Toensure ecological intensification, CIRAD makes use of the way in whichnatural ecosystems, such as forests, in which biological and biochemicalcycles are regulated naturally, work. It conducts research aimed at changing farmingsystems into veritable cultivated ecosystems. In particular, it works to develop ways of protecting and restoring the soil by combining direct seeding with permanent plantcovers.

Direct seeding mulch-based croppingsystems

Direct seeding mulch-based cropping(DMC) systems are based on threeprinciples: zero soil tillage, permanentsoil cover that combines plant species

intended to produce biomass and harvest residues,and the constitution of a large biodiversity of cultivated species grown

in rotation, association and crop successions. These three principles combine to createa micro-environment for the crop, hence better expression of its potential to resist pestsand diseases, and increased productivity (grain, pods, fibre, etc).

Respecting these principles and studying how to apply and master them are the basesof an engineering method that can be applied to ecological intensification. The aim isto design model cropping systems suited to different socioeconomic and biophysicalenvironments, based on more efficient use of natural resources such as solar energy,water, carbon and soil.

CIRAD designs DMC systems as part of its work on agricultural development. Itconducts research aimed at understanding the processes at play and building indicatorsfor managing those processes.

Direct seeding mulch-based croppingAn engineering tool for ecological intensification

Growing soybean on rice straw. © P. Lienhard, CIRAD

André ChabanneFrancis ForestCIRADDirect Seeding and CoverCrops Research UnitAvenue Agropolis34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]@cirad.fr

To find out more:http://agroecologie.cirad.fr

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DMC: a tool for a new type ofagriculture

CIRAD’s fieldwork sites combine a widerange of biophysical and socioeconomicsituations representative of tropicalenvironments. The DMC systemsdeveloped in Brazil by CIRAD teams arenow being used in Central Africa(Cameroon), North Africa (Tunisia), theIndian Ocean (Madagascar), Asia(Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and China) and the West Indies(Guadeloupe) to:• regenerate tropical soils degraded by inappropriate farmingmethods;• use natural areas for agriculture without compromising theirproduction potential;• propose cropping systems that use as few chemical inputs aspossible, to ensure safe products and avoid polluting water, soils andthe air;• develop a range of alternative rice cropping systems by usingDMC and rice varieties developed for DMC, with a high yieldpotential and that make optimum use of limited water resources;• detoxifying soils through bioremediation, etc.DMC systems thus enable the establishment of sustainable farming systems, thanksto more efficient use of natural resources and better integration of agriculture,animal production and perennial crops. If applied on a scale of several villages,they make a relevant contribution in terms of rational development of rural areas.Moreover, if adopted on a larger scale, they can go some way towards providing a response to global issues such as food security and the environment (managementof shared natural resources, global warming, biodiversity, etc).

DMC systems andenvironmental services

Along with its partners, CIRAD works toanalyse the ecosystemic functions ofDMC systems, notably in relation to soil organic matter dynamics, soilbiological activity and pest and diseasemanagement.

For instance, the results obtained overthe past ten years in Brazil, Madagascarand Laos show an overall trend towards

increased carbon stocks in soils cultivated in this way. This sequestration ofatmospheric CO2 can reach as much as 1.5 tonne per hectare per year for rationallyfertilized crop rotation systems, producing some 16 tonnes of recyclable primarybiomass (cereal and legume mulch and roots) per hectare per year. In France, inTouraine, such systems have resulted in sequestration levels measured in situ of 20 tonnes of carbon per hectare, obtained after 10 years of DMC.In the long term, extending DMC systems can thus provide considerableenvironmental services: erosion control, improved water quality, and a reducedgreenhouse effect.

• FOFIFA, National Centre ofApplied Research and RuralDevelopment, Madagascar

• Direct Seeding Group,Madagascar

• TAFA NGO, Madagascar

• SODECOTON, Cameroon

• EMBRAPA, Brazilian AgriculturalResearch Corporation

• Ponta Grossa State University,Brazil

• Ministry of Agriculture, Forestryand Fisheries, Cambodia

• Yunnan Academy ofAgricultural Sciences, China

• National Agriculture andForestry Research Institute, Laos

• Kasetsart University, Thailand

• Northern MountainousAgriculture and Forestry ScienceInstitute, Vietnam

Partners

Brachiaria ruzisiensiscover between rows ofcassava. © F. Tivet, CIRAD

Harvesting Brachiaria ruzisiensis seeds byhand. © P. Grard, CIRAD

Numerous earthworm casts in a direct-seeded upland rice plot on aStylosanthes plant cover. © F. Tivet, CIRAD

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With 16 million tonnes per year, dessert bananaexports account for a major share ofagricultural production in many tropicalcountries. Production is still largely reliant on

intensive monocultures. Such production methods result inreduced soil fertility and increased soil parasite populationlevels, and have an adverse effect on the environment andsometimes on human health. Producers are faced with problemsrelating to the poor sustainability of their cropping systems. Inseveral producing countries, there is growing awareness ofenvironmental issues, with consumers becoming increasingly concernedabout the quality of the products they buy and how they are produced; new, verystrict regulations on phytosanitary product use are also now being applied,particularly on the European market. As a result, the development of innovative,sustainable cropping systems is now a major issue for every country in which bananasare grown.

Designing new cropping systems

To reduce adverse environmentalimpacts and respond to societal and regulatory changes, CIRAD has developed new banana-based

cropping systems. More sustainable systemsare now on offer. Such systems use croppingpractices not or less involving chemical inputs:

using healthy planting material on healthy soils, integrated pest managementmethods, spatiotemporal organization of cropping systems, etc.

The available knowledge on banana plant growth was inputted into a simulationmodel. This led to the development of the SIMBA model, which designs prototypecropping systems by simulating the agronomic and environmental performance of a range of cropping techniques. The tool can be used to study the effect of ecologicalintensification practices on agrosystem functioning and to build new croppingsystems.

Ecological intensification ofbanana growingNew, more sustainable croppingsystems

Test of a new variety resistant to black Sigatoka disease,

Guadeloupe © R. Domergue, CIRAD

ContactsMarc DorelCIRADBanana Plantain andPineapple Cropping SystemsResearch UnitStation de Neufchâteau 97130 Capesterre-Belle-EauGuadeloupe

[email protected]

François CoteCIRAD Banana Plantain andPineapple Cropping SystemsResearch UnitBoulevard de la Lironde34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

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CIRAD tests these new systems in consultation with bananaproduction chains, and particularly with producers inGuadeloupe and Martinique. For instance, tests are underway of using Neonotonia wightii as a cover crop in bananaplantings in the West Indies. The cropping systems areassessed for their agronomic, economic and environmentalperformance.

Reducing pesticide use

Traditionally, banana growing has often relied on using phytosanitary products,particularly against nematodes. To develop more sustainable cropping systems,CIRAD and its subsidiary Vitropic have worked with producers and nurserymen todevelop new crop management sequences that use banana in vitro plantlets asplanting material, on soils cleaned by means of fallow or appropriate croprotations. The in vitro plantlets are healthy, and free of nematodes, insects andpathogenic fungi. Such crop management sequences avoid the need tomake systematic use of nematicides. In the French West Indies, theyhave largely contributed to reducing phytosanitary product use onbanana: - 60% in ten years.

For the future, CIRAD is looking into the influence of howcropping systems are organized, in both spatial and temporal

terms (varietal mix, introduction of breaks such as hedges, etc) on banana pest and diseaseregulation.

Trapping root borers

Rational methods can also be used toreduce the numbers of Cosmopolites sordidus,the banana root borer, in plantations. Trapping is onemethod. The traps can be made considerably moreattractive by impregnating them with a syntheticpheromone, sordidin. The efficacy of the method can beimproved still further by placing entomopathogenicnematodes of the genus Steneirnema in the traps.

Integrated control of nematodes

Nematodes are one of the main components of the soil parasite complex. Croppingsystems based on practising fallow (or crop rotations) and planting healthy material(obtained by in vitro culture) provide effective solutions to the problems caused bysoil parasites; fallow serves to clean the soil, but to be most effective, it also has toprotect the soil against erosion or weed development. A soil cover during fallowperiods of plants that do not host nematodes can also serve as a mulch for bananaplants and significantly improve the efficacy of the crop management sequence.Such measures free growers from the need to apply nematicides, and allow themto pursue a more environmentally friendly approach, notably by cutting theirherbicide use.

• UGPBan, Union desGroupements de Producteursde Bananes de Guadeloupe et de Martinique

• Vitropic, France

Partners

Intercropping banana and Neonotoniawightii, a perennial legume. © J.M. Risède, CIRAD

Root borer trap in a banana planting,Martinique. © R. Domergue, CIRAD

Planting of banana in vitro plantlets,Martinique. © R. Domergue, CIRAD

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Agroforestry systems (AFS) in the humid tropicscombine forest trees with tree crops (coffee,cocoa, kola, rubber, etc.), or with food crops orlivestock. Some such AFS are derived from natural

forests in which part of the original vegetation has been replacedby productive trees or crops, and others from the replanting of treesafter slashing and burning the forest for food crops. After a few years,these farming methods culminate in a complex multiple cropping system.They are primarily managed according to the cash crops present in the system,which usually account for a large share of farmers' incomes.

In the current context of declining land availability, rural population pressure, the foodcrisis, the limits reached by conventional agricultural intensification and climate change,agroforestry offers some worthwhile prospects. Improving the management of thesesystems, and ensuring their environmental, technical and social sustainability are a majorchallenge for research and development.

The functioning of cocoa and coffee-based AFS

Coffee and cocoa-based AFS are a traditional type ofproduction, whose management and functioningresemble those of a forest. Such systems produce lesscoffee or cocoa than a monoculture, but in return:

• their management requires less labour and fewer pesticidesand chemical fertilizers,• farmers derive other products from them, for consumption

by their own household or for marketing: various fruits, kola, palm oil and wine,medicinal products, essential oils, fodder, timber, handicraft products, packaging, etc.,• they offer a range of environmental services: biodiversity conservation, soilfertility, carbon storage, etc.,• they provide social and cultural goods: family, national and international heritage,landscape aesthetics, shrines, etc.

Improving agroforestrysystems in the humidtropicsThe example of cocoaand coffee trees

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ContactsDidier SnoeckCIRADPerformance of tree crop-basedsystems research unitAvenue Agropolis34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

Michel DulcireCIRAD Innovation joint research unit73 rue J.-F. Breton34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

A "Nacional" cocoa tree in Ecuador.

© M. Dulcire, CIRAD

Cocoa and coffee trees are two species originating fromthe undergrowth, and the shade of other associatedspecies is therefore naturally beneficial to them, as is theorganic matter they also provide. But shade can also havedetrimental effects, such as creating an environmentconducive to diseases. For example, shade reduces theincidence of insects in cocoa agroforests, but it ispropitious to pod rot. In coffee agroforests, shadeprolongs the fruit ripening period for better coffee quality,but it reduces yields.

Improving AFS sustainability

CIRAD is undertaking research to improve the efficiency of these complexcropping systems. Understanding and assisting AFS development first meansanalysing local know-how and the strategies and practices of stakeholders:producers and their organizations, processors, technical advisors, middlemenand manufacturers, public decision-makers.

Research is also interested in the ability of smallholders to innovate and developtheir professions. CIRAD is therefore working with them to sustainably improve thestandard of living of these populations.

Thus, various AFS studies are under way:• local know-how, strategies and practices of stakeholders,• innovation processes on cultural practices and methods of intercropping differentplants to reduce parasite pressure, and on supply chain trends,• their impact on the landscape.Given the complexity of interactions between different intercropped species,CIRAD is developing environment-friendly agroforestry intercropping models tostabilize or even increase farmers' incomes.

Research in the face of change

CIRAD is analysing the contribution made by agroforestry to the viability ofhousehold activity systems, faced with thefactors of change (economic, climatic,environmental), in sub-Saharan Africa andMadagascar.A comparative analysis of the different localbackgrounds enables researchers to:

• measure AFS impact on family economics, land heritage and the environment,• assess the flexibility of family activity systems in the face of change: cropdiversification, biodiversity management methods, implementation ofenvironmental services,• draw up technical and economic responses with producers in the face of regionaland international developments, • challenge the development models promoted by public policies.

• Grand-Sud CamerounResearch Platform inPartnership

• CATIE, Centro AgronómicoTropical de Investigación yEnseñanza, Costa Rica

• IRAG, Institut de rechercheagronomique de Guinée,Guinea

• ICRAF, International Centrefor Research in Agroforestry,Kenya

• KEFRI, Kenya ForestryResearch Institute, Kenya

• University of Antananarivo,Madagascar

• University of Makerere,Uganda

• University of Legon, Ghana

Main partners

Coffee-Erythrina intercropping, Costa Rica. © P. Vaast, CIRAD

Coffee trees, Côte-sous-le-Vent, Guadeloupe.© M. Dulcire, CIRAD

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An increasing number of non-governmentalorganizations are blaming current oil palmdevelopment systems, accusing them of beingresponsible for the degradation of natural

resources and causing environmental problems. In 2003, thisled to the founding of a roundtable for sustainable palm oilproduction, bringing together the different stakeholders in thesupply chain, and CIRAD. The initiative is based on defining principlesand criteria for sustainable production and on using a good practices guide.If the initiative is to be effective, it needs to be accompanied by precise qualitativeand quantitative indicators.

Assessing plantation sustainability

Implementing these criteria means establishinga normative and transparent evaluation systembased on a sound scientific footing, with aview to measuring, assessing and analysing

how agricultural practices affect the environment,providing information on the status of eachsituation and monitoring the progress achieved.

To that end, CIRAD is developing with its partners a setof agri-environmental indicators, known as IPALM. The approach adopted is basedon the INDIGO® method developed by INRA in Colmar for temperate crops. Itinvolves a system that cross references agricultural practices with components inthe agro-ecosystem that might be affected, such as surface water or groundwaterquality, air quality, soil fertility, or even biodiversity

Agri-environmentalimpacts of the oilpalmIndicators for sustainableproduction

Mature oil palm plantation. © A. Labeyrie

Jean-Pierre CalimanCIRADPerformance of tree crop-based systems research unitc/o P.T. SMARTP.O. Box 134828000 Pekanbaru, RiauIndonesia

[email protected]

Aude VerwilghenCIRADPerformance of tree crop-based systems research unitAvenue Agropolis34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

Contacts©

CIR

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Assessment, decision-support and communication tools

These agri-environmental indicators are a tool for assessing pollution risks, but alsofor estimating the effectiveness of the fertilizers applied. Farmers who adopt thesetools are thereby demonstrating their involvement in environmental conservation.A scoring system has been developed based on scientific knowledge and a fieldassessment. It is on a scale of 0 to 10. The optimum "risk-free" situation for theenvironment is awarded a score of 10. A score of 7 to 10 lies in the "acceptable"zone, but stillremains improvable.Any score under 7indicates an excessive ecologicalrisk requiring aspecific action plan.

IN: an indicator for nitrogen

IN, the first indicator developed, assesses the efficiency of nitrogen management inoil palm plantations, especially applications of nitrogen fertilizers, which areusually both a key production factor, a major cost, and a major environmental risk.It can be used to estimate nitrogen losses in the form of ammonia by volatilization,nitrates by leaching and nitrogen protoxide by gas emission. It is thereforeorganized in three modules INH , INO , IN O, relative to those compartments.Depending on whether the aim is to analyse environmental impact, or establish a diagnosis with a view to making practices more efficient, just one of these sub-indicators might be considered, or all three. IN is based on a complete nitrogenflow balance in relation to oil palm requirements and has to be updated each yearfor each plot. It can be applied to a plantation by using a mean of the plot valuesweighted by the areas.

IPhy: an indicator for pesticides

Pesticide use is of major concern to consumers. IPhy is a qualitative risk indicatorbased on decision trees. Fuzzy logic is used to aggregate the different factorsidentified as determinants in the process being considered, such as leaching, run-off and volatilization of pesticides. It also takes into account some properties of themolecules, their risks for human and animal health, and what happens to them inthe environment (half-life, soil infiltration, etc.). The indicator comprises fourmodules, three on the risks associated with phytosanitary practices for theenvironmental compartments—surface water, groundwater, air—and the fourth onthe risk associated with the rate applied.

For a broader partnership

In addition to these two indicators, Iom, an indicator for organic matter and Icov,an indicator for soil cover, have also been developed. These four indicators are tobe validated via a network of partners familiarized with this type of approach.Development of a software package to calculate the indicators on oil palm, IPALM,will facilitate its adoption by users. Future developments will focus on assessinghow practices impact on biodiversity and water quality.

Nitrogen f low study: soil solution samplingsystem for NO3 leaching analysis. © J.P. Caliman

Study of nitrogen f low balances (here theroot system). © J.P. Caliman

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Results of nitrogen indicator (IN) calculation, and recommendations.

• University of Nancy, France

• INRA, Institut national de larecherche agronomique,Environment and AgronomyCentre, Nancy-Colmar, France

• PT Smart Tbk, Indonesia

Partners ©

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Tropical environments generally have fragile soilsand aggressive climates. Predictive climate changemodels agree that the instability of climaticconditions is likely to increase, with more frequent

droughts or catastrophic flooding. The poorest producers find itdifficult to access credit and markets, which, moreover, do notprovide them with a sufficient return. In view of this, CIRAD isworking to develop innovative systems that protect and makeoptimum use of the natural resources available in the short and long term,which stabilize and maintain if not improve productivity and limit theenvironmental impacts of agricultural activity.

The agronomic processes and ecological services used

The proposed cropping systems centre ondirect seeding mulch-based cropping(DMC). They aim to minimize the naturalphysical, chemical and biological

degradation of soils as a result of their cultivation,and are based on diversifying the species cultivated in rotation, succession or evenassociation (intercropping).

Introducing cover crops into these systems provides a range of services: • nutritive substrate for the soil fauna and the crops grown;• increased primary biomass production due to the solar energy interceptedbetween two crop cycles and at the start of the main crop cycle (cereals, soybean,cotton, etc);• recycling of nutrients, which permeate the deeper soil horizons thanks to theplants’ dense, deep root systems;• water regulation, linked to the total, permanent protection of the soil, whichreduces runoff;• control of diseases, insect pests and weeds, whose habitat is modified; • supplies of food and animal fodder.

Sustainable production for smallscale farmers in developing countriesDesigning innovative croppingsystems

Participatory establishment of specifications for

innovative new DMC systems, Brazil.

© J. H. Valadares Xavier, CIRAD

Eric ScopelCIRADAnnual Cropping SystemsResearch UnitFOFIFA, BP 1444 AntananarivoMadagascar

[email protected]

François AffholderCIRADAnnual Cropping SystemsResearch UnitSupAgro2 place Viala Montpellier Cedex 1France

[email protected]

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Contacts

On a farm scale

However, implementing DMC with a view to a given servicemeans for farmers striking a delicate balance between variousecological processes. This requires from them greaterknowledge of the impact of cropping techniques on thatbalance between processes, so as to manage them better andthus achieve the relevant agricultural and ecologicalobjectives. Developing the use of live covers requires specificknowledge tailored to the local situation in terms of theenvironmental conditions and the stakeholders involved inagricultural production.

Moreover, this type of complex innovation means making substantial changes tohow resources are used on farms, to how operations are organized, and can resultin the diversification of the products generated and the sources of income. Suchchanges are not always acceptable to some producers. In the case of Vietnam, forinstance, farmers’ motivation to practice DMC rather than traditional upland rice ormaize production systems is determined by their ability to cope with the additionalcost of the technique, particularly in terms of labour.

New systems for and with producers

The evaluation and conception process around DMC systems thus largely depends onthe points of view of the players locally involved in rural development, andparticularly those of the different types of farmers who are prompted, by choice ornecessity, to show an interest in this type of cropping system. Because of theseconsiderations, CIRAD has chosen participatory methods to develop innovativecropping systems in conjunction with its partners. This type of approach helpsconsiderably to familiarize producers with new technical proposals and facilitates thecross-learning required for efficient management of such systems.

CIRAD is working with producers in several tropical regions to build new croppingsystems:• in central Brazil, for the small farms resulting from the agrarian reform in theCerrados;• in the hills of northern Vietnam, for small mountain farms, following the ban onslash-and-burn;• in Zimbabwe and Mozambique, with cereal and cotton smallholders in the local

savannahs;• in Madagascar, withrainfed rice smallholders in mid- and high-altitudezones;• in Mali, Niger andGuinea, with smallholdersin semi-arid zones.


• EMBRAPA Cerrados, BrazilianAgricultural ResearchCorporation for the Cerradosregion

• VASI, Vietnam AgriculturalScience Institute

• IIAM, Mozambique NationalInstitute of Agronomic Research

• Montpellier SupAgro, France


• IRD, Institut de recherchepour le développement, France

Partners

DMC systems involve cover crops grownin succession, relay or association withthe main crops so as to make optimumuse of the resources available in time andspace. © E. Scopel, CIRAD

Monitoring plant growth in a maize-based DMC system, Vietnam. © F. Affholder, CIRAD

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The Mid-Zambezi Valley is a remarkablypreserved ecosystem hosting majorpopulations of large mammals, such aselephants, buffaloes, lions, leopards, etc.

Many initiatives aim at preserving this wildlife andincreasing the benefits that local populations derive fromit (safari hunting, ecotourism). Yet, its habitat has beenconsiderably reduced over the last two decades, with theexpansion of agriculture and cotton production in particular.Agricultural expansion not only leads to a drastic decline ofbiodiversity in farmland, but also to habitat fragmentation and increased isolationof habitat patches. How can agriculture and wildlife conservation be reconciled?

Reconciling production and conservation

It is a matter of choosing between low-input environment-friendly, but extensiveagriculture, and intensive farmingconcentrated on small surfaces and

sparing land for conservation. For most species of interest to conservation, thesecond solution is increasingly recognized as a more desirable solution. However,intensive farming should not pollute downstream habitat and reduce their ability tosupport biodiversity. Therefore, CIRAD in Zimbabwe promotes conservationagriculture as a strategy to reconcile production and conservation.

The purpose of these techniques is to reduce the “leakiness” of cropping systems,minimizing negative environmental impacts (water runoff, erosion-related sedimentand pollutants) and retaining the production capacity (water, topsoil, nutrients,organic matter) in situ.

Preserving biodiversity inAfrican savannasTowards widespread adoption of conservation agriculturearound protected areas

Cotton plot bordering on the natural environment, Zimbabwe.

© F. Baudron, CIRAD

Frédéric BaudronCIRAD Annual Cropping Systemsresearch unitFrench EmbassyPO Box 1378Harare Zimbabwe

[email protected]

Marc CorbeelsCIRADAnnual Cropping Systemsresearch unitTSBF-CIATPO Box MP228, Mazowe RoadHarare Zimbabwe

[email protected]

Contacts

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"Self-cleaning" cropping systems

Several research studies demonstrate that the maintenance of a surface mulch ofcrop residues effectively controls horizontal nutrient losses and runoff. Cropresidues also act as an amendment. In fine-textured soils, such residues mayincrease the stock of organic matter. Intercropping or rotation with deep-rootedsecondary crops reduces vertical losses of mobile nutrients such as nitrogen byrecycling them from the deep horizons to the surface. These secondary crops alsosignificantly increase biomass production and may even fix atmospheric nitrogen inthe case of legumes such as pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), jackbean(Canavalia ensiformis (L.)) or velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC).

Systems using mulches and “multipurpose” legumes tend to increase soilbiodiversity and soil biological activity. For instance, pesticides are not onlyretained within these systems, trapped in soil organic matter, but also degradedthrough the activity of large-spectrum extracellular enzymes secreted by plant roots and by soil micro-organisms, a process know as “bioremediation”. The "self cleaning" capacity of such systems is being investigated.

Promoting conservation agriculture

The most promising system isbased on a rotation betweencotton and sorghum, the mainfood crop in the Mid-ZambeziValley, intercropped withpigeonpea. The residues ofsorghum and pigeonpea areretained as mulch through whichcotton is directly sown, withoutany tillage. Pigeonpea is themultipurpose grain legume themost appreciated by the farmersof the Mid Zambezi Valley: itproduces nutritionally rich grainsof good commercial value, usefulfodder, nitrogen-rich litter and itswoody stem can be used as fuel.

Evaluating the performances of such systems requires large-scale trials. Under thePARSEL project (Public-Private-Community Partnerships to improve food securityand livelihoods in South East Lowveld and Mid Zambezi Valley) funded by theEurpean Union, 300 hectares have been cultivated under cotton, sorghum andpigeonpea using techniques of conservation agriculture. These achieved yieldsexceeding those achieved under conventional cropping. The challenge now is tostimulate the joint interest of farmers and private operators around conservationagriculture. For this, CIRAD and its partners are working on the establishment of an“eco- label” that would provide access to a high value textile market.

• Alliance Ginneries, Zimbabwe

• Mbire Rural District Council,Zimbabwe

• University of Zimbabwe

• European Union Commission

Partners

Sorghum with Cajanus cajan at differentperiods of the cropping cycle (January,May). © F. Baudron, CIRAD

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Cotton plants sown directly through residues from the previous crop,Zimbabwe. © F. Baudron, CIRAD

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Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republicof Congo, has a population of 8 millioninhabitants and consumes up to 6 million tonnesof bio-energy equivalent per year. The city is

surrounded by grasslands and patches of forest. The bio-energyused by the urban households consists mainly of fuelwood (charcoaland firewood). Charcoal needs, but also most of the staple starchyfoods in the diet (cassava and maize) are provided by slash-and-burnshifting cultivation and by carbonization of the patches of forest and treesavannahs, which continue to deteriorate. Production obtained from these tree stands isbecoming scarce and expensive. Soil fertility is declining, crop yields after fallow aredecreasing, springs are drying up and fires are increasingly frequent. How can thesepopulations continue to be supplied whilst limiting the environmental impact on forests?

Improving tree fallow

Slash-and-burn cultivation gives rise to tree fallowafter one to three years of cropping, due to theexhaustion of soil reserves. Improving tree fallowconsists in planting tree legumes, whose rootscombined with microorganisms fix atmosphericnitrogen. Organic matter and nitrogen storage inthe soil is thereby accelerated. This is especially

true for acacias, trees that are also known for their large biomass/wood production.The trees can already be planted during the cropping period and continue to growrapidly after harvesting during the fallow phase.

Since the 1990s, CIRAD has bred more specific tree species associated withsymbiotic bacteria (rhizobium) that display strong growth and nitrogen fixation,particularly in Ivory Coast and the Republic of Congo. Since 2009, CIRAD has beenimplementing the EU-funded "Makala" (research development project about thefuelwood sector), and intends to disseminate these improved tree fallow techniquesand provide sustainable management techniques for the last remaining patches offorest around Kinshasa.

Sustainable charcoalproduction in theDemocratic Republicof CongoImproved tree fallow

Forest on the slopes of the Bateke plateau being cleared for

charcoal production and farming. © R. Peltier, CIRAD Contacts

Jean-Noël MarienRégis PeltierCIRADForest Resources researchunit Campus international de Baillarguet34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

[email protected]

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The Mampu tree fallow

The Mampu plantation, about 140 km east ofKinshasa, was originally designed as the pilotphase in a vast reforestation project covering100,000 hectares of sandy soils on the Bateke

plateau. Between 1987 and 1993,8,000 hectares of Acacia

auriculiformis were planted. From 1994onwards, the Mampu plantation wasdivided into plots of 25 hectaresallocated to 320 farming families.Farmers were required to manage their

new tree plantation following a novel agroforestry technique thatcombines food crops with acacia. Two or three years after planting thetrees, once agricultural products have been harvested, the acaciasreach a height of three metres. After around ten years, a veritable acaciaforest, mixed with a few local species, becomes established. Farmerscan then exploit it, process the wood into charcoal and sell it in town.In the unharmed humus, they can replant a new crop cycle. Every

4 metres, a one metre wide strip of soil is left unfarmed, so thatacacia seeds can germinate andreconstitute the future forest stand.

Total charcoal production from the plantationcurrently varies from 8,000 to 12,000 tonnesper year (t/year). In addition, the farmersproduce 10,000 t/year of cassava, 1,200 t/yearof maize and 6 t/year of honey. Reforestation ofthe Mampu stand is considered a success.

Extension to the Batekeplateau grasslands

The Mampu agroforestry model isto be extended to the villageslocated in the Bateke plateaugrasslands. Special attention ispaid to the role of traditional land

rights and the possible diversification of other products and local processingtechniques. Overall, this should increasingly contribute to meeting urbanrenewable energy needs, whilst creating rural jobs.

Moreover, other agroforestry systems, under other ecological and socio-economicconditions, are worth testing; such as managing the natural regrowth of local multi-purpose species (for fruits, wood, shelter for game, nitrogen fixation, etc.). Indeed,on more clayey land once occupied by forest, there is a great variety of tree speciesin the natural regrowth. Those trees cannot develop due to continual felling anduncontrolled fires. If the plot is covered by a thicket, a farmer can first protect it witha fire-break, then select 100 to 400 sprigs per hectare of useful species out of thethousands of shoots. After 8-10 years of protection, the plot can then be used toharvest fuelwood and to plant crops, whilst maintaining a few large trees for seedproduction (10 to 100 per hectare) for the next production cycle.

• CIFOR, Center forInternational Forestry Research,Cameroon

• Hanns Seidel Foundation,Germany and DemocraticRepublic of Congo (DRC)

• Gembloux Agro-Bio TechUniversity, Belgium

• Kisantu botanical garden, DRC

• Research Unit on CommercialForest Productivity, Republic ofCongo

• University of Kisangani, Ecolerégionale post universitaired’aménagement et de gestionIntégrée des forêts et territoires(ERAIFT), DRC

• National ReafforestationServices, DRC and Republic ofCongo

Partners

Reforestation of degraded grassland, mainlywith Acacia auriculiformis. © R. Peltier, CIRAD

Increasingly efficientcharcoal makers.

© R. Peltier, CIRAD

Cassava harvest after slash-and-burncultivation in an acacia plantation, andprocessing into chips. © R. Peltier, CIRAD

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In the mid-altitude zones of Madagascar, croppingsystems based on direct seeding, with a cover cropand crop rotation, have been disseminated onsmallholdings since the turn of the century with a degree

of success. In order to disseminate these new cropping patterns,CIRAD and its development partners in Madagascar have developedmodelling tools to monitor and assess activities through a DSS (DecisionSupport System). For developers, these tools provide decision-support in thetechnological choices to be implemented depending on their physical environmentand their type of farm.

Optimizing extension efforts

In agricultural development projects, decision-support and negotiation between operatorsand with farmers is a priority, so that actionslive on after the end of the project. CIRAD is

endeavouring to optimize extension efforts by proposing techniques and servicesthat are truly adapted to each type of farmer.

This type of initiative is being implemented as part of development projects in theregions of Lake Alaotra (BV-lac project, Lake Alaotra watersheds), Vakinankaratraand southeastern coast (BVPI-SE/HP project). The aim is to adapt technical andorganizational messages to farmer realities and promote innovation processesincluding direct seeding mulch based cropping systems (DMC) for sustainableproduction as well as the integration of agriculture and animal production. A self-appraisal method for farmers’groups and a network of reference farms have beendeveloped. These tools can also be used to assess technical actions and providesupport in defining aspects of public agricultural development policy.

Dissemination of directseeding mulch-basedcropping systems in MadagascarDeveloping a learningapproach

Field visit and assessment of practices. © E. Penot, CIRAD

Eric PenotCIRADInnovation joint research unitAmpandrianomby, BP 853,99 AntananarivoMadagascar

[email protected]

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Identifying innovation processes

CIRAD proposes self-appraisal sessions where farmers inproducer organizations themselves identify innovationprocesses adapted to them, using the "Accelerated Propagationof Innovation" (API) method (Belloncles). The method requiresprior coaching of the participants so that they can give thoughtto a situation then act appropriately. This prior coaching isprovided by socio-organization specialists. At Lake Alaotra, CIRAD used the API method with associationsof irrigation water users, the federation of user associations inthe network of the two irrigated areas: "PC15" and "MarianinaValley", as wall as with agricultural intensification groups andfarmer groups integrating DMC practices. The transmission oftechnical information within the farmer groups applying DMC was a frank success. The analysis identified how DMC techniques are effectivelyadopted and revealed a potential will to increase intensification from the 4th or 5thyear of DMC.

The development project partners thereby acquired experience in organizing andrunning these sessions. The method has been formalized in the form of a BV-lacworking document available from CIRAD.

Developing a networkof reference farms

New cropping systems areassessed in networks of reference farms. A network of reference farms is a set of farms representative of different agricultural and socio-economic situations. Thefarms are monitored annually, to measure the impact oftechnical actions and develop-ment policies and carry outprospective analyses.

Olympe software is a tooldeveloped by CIRAD, INRA

and IAMM (Mediterranean Agricultural Institute in Montpellier) to simulate farmactivities. It can be used to test the robustness of a technical choice, and farm’sresilience when faced with a series of hazards. Simulations of the adoption of newtechniques are carried out with standard crop management patterns that providereliable data over a large number of plots through prospective analysis. Applyingthis approach to the adoption of direct-seeding mulch-based cropping systems atLake Alaotra helped development operators to make progress in their work.Consequently, the technical possibilities offered to famers have become moreadapted to the constraints faced by different types of farms. In particular, the levelsof cropping system intensification proposed are more adapted to risk levelsacceptable to producers.

• FOFIFA, Centre de rechercheagronomique de Madagascar

• University of Antananarivo,Madagascar

• Development partnersassociated with the BV-Lac andBVPI-SE/HP projects,Madagascar

• Groupement semis direct deMadagascar

Partners

On-farm reporting-back session, Madagascar. © E. Penot, CIRAD

Cowpea mulch in a DMC system with amaize-cowpea-rice rotation, Madagascar. © E. Penot, CIRAD

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CIRAD's AMAP joint research unit has developedsoftware packages to simulate the architecturaldevelopment of plants and their yields. Byarranging plants in stands, from a plot to

a landscape scale, it becomes possible to conduct virtualexperiments to assess and optimize the effect of culturalpractices or environmental conditions on growth. This eco-informatics approach can also help to answer questions about theenvironmental impact of agricultural production.

Simulating plant growth

By modelling the architecture and developmentof individual plants, it is possible to see howelementary growth processes evolve over timewithin the plant and how they are affected byenvironmental conditions. Growth models have

been incorporated into simulation softwares (AMAPsim, Digiplante) which can be usedto simulate plant structures under agronomically and environmentally variable naturalconditions. This approach has been applied on various plant models (sunflower, maize,oil palm, coffee, eucalyptus, pine, etc.).

By reconstructing plant stands, such as a crop field, it is possible to simulate, analyseand optimize plant production under variable agronomic and environmentalconditions for different applications that take plant architecture into account. Forexample, the quantity and quality of light captured by plants can be simulated usingtheir three-dimensional description (Archimed software).

When these models are adapted to a landscape scale, they can be used to simulategrowth variability in relation to local sunlight and rainfall conditions, and waterdistribution in the soil, etc (GreenLab paysage software).

Optimizing biomass productionwhilst minimizing environmental impactThe contributions of virtual agronomy

Simulation of a vineyard landscape in Hérault with SLE software.

© S. Griffon, CIRAD

Thierry FourcaudCIRADAMAP joint research unitBoulevard de la Lironde34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

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The development of algorithms to display plants in landscapes (SLE software) is finding new applications in the graphic animationfields (virtual reality, films, video games, etc.).

Improving light capture in agroforestry

By combining the AMAPsim and Archimed softwares, mapping ofthe light available for intercrops (maize, cocoa, soybean, etc.) hasbeen simulated for teak or Acacia mangium-based agroforestrysystems in Indonesia, or coconut-based systems in Vanuatu. The studies showedhow the amount of available light, and its spatial distribution, changed dependingon tree development. It thus became possible to plan possible crops according totheir shade tolerance.

Simulation experiments are also carried out to assess the possibilities of optimizingthese systems by modifying tree density and planting layout, or by pruning lowerbranches when trees develop too much. For example, it has been possible to showhow planting trees in North-South rows improves light distribution in the plot, orhow pruning the lower section of a three-year-old Acacia mangium crownquadruples the amount of light available for intercrops.

Defining ideotypes of sunflowervarieties

The interaction between development rateand organ growth in sunflowers isconsidered as a function of the temperatureand light conditions encountered by thecrop during its growth, and of the plantingdesign adopted. Virtual experiments lead tooptimized planting designs (density,spacing) for given ecotypes andgeographical situations. It is also possibleto define periods in the crop managementpattern when the crop is more or lesssusceptible to water deficits, and therebyoptimize irrigation.These studies have helped to defineideotypes of sunflower varieties, taking intoaccount both architectural characteristics(e.g. for better light capture) and growthcharacteristics of the plant (for better use ofwater and temperature conditions) so as tobe more efficient under fluctuatingenvironmental conditions. This agro-

physiology approach can be used to test the performance of sunflower varietiesunder new environmental conditions and adapt cultural techniques. Other similarstudies have been conducted on cotton, maize, or tomato, using the GreenLabmodel.

• Chinese Academy of Sciences– Institute of Automation(CASIA)

• Laboratory in ComputerScience, Automation andApplied Mathematics (LIAMA),China

• China Agricultural University(CAU), Key laboratory of plant-soil interactions, China

• Institut national de larecherche en informatique et automatique (INRIA),DIGIPLANTE project team,France

• Laboratoire d’écophysiologiedes plantes sous stressenvironnementaux (LEPSE,UMR SupAgro-INRA), France

Partners

Simulated mapping of light transmissionbeneath six-year-old coconut palms under theArchimed platform. © J. Dauzat, CIRAD

Sunflower plants simulated with AMAPsim software. © H. Rey, CIRAD

Sunflower plants (Heliasol variety) in the field.© H. Rey, CIRAD

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Combining crop and animal productions wasfirst promoted in sub-Saharan Africa andMadagascar in the 1960s. It led to massiveadoption of animal traction in regions where the

rice, cotton and groundnut sectors were sufficientlyorganized to provide farmers with credit and training. Today, thegrowing rural population and pressure on arable land call for a re-thinkin the types of combinations between crop and animal productions, in order to cope with new population needs.

Making optimum use of synergiesbetween agriculture and animalproduction

Although animal traction was well receivedin sub-Saharan Africa, as it was possible toincrease the area cultivated per farm workerand work became less laborious, quality

manure production and fodder crop development forintensive animal production units have rarely been undertaken. Today, the demand fromtowns for food products is rising (cereals, legumes, milk, ruminant meat, but also meatof short cycle animals, poultry and pigs); mineral fertilizer prices continue to increasein line with petroleum prices; the motorization of farming operations and transport alsocomes up against rising fuel prices.

In this context, by integrating agriculture and animal production, maximum advantagecan be taken of the complementarities existing between cropping systems (fodderproduction, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and mineral nutrient recycling) and animalproduction systems (production of organic manure and energy) to reduce consumptionof fuel, chemical fertilizers and concentrated feeds. Animal production should also beconsidered as a good "utilizer" of agricultural by-products, such as cereal bran, cropresidues, etc., and of marginal zones unsuitable for farming. Lastly, integrating intensiveanimal production units with a few fattening cattle on family farms creates jobs andlimits the creation of large livestock breeding units on the edge of towns, which areusually sources of pollution.

Integrating crop andanimal productionsA type of ecologicalintensification in developingcountries

Couple of zebus tilling a rice field, Madagascar.

© P. Dugué, CIRADPatrick DuguéCIRAD Innovation Joint Research Unit1573 rue Jean-François Breton 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5France

[email protected]

Eric Vall CIRAD, Livestock Systems and Animal ProductManagement Research Unit,c/o CIRDES 01 BP 454 Bobo-Dioulasso Cedex 01Burkina Faso

[email protected]

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Contacts

Synergies on a production unit scale

CIRAD is exploring various avenues for integratingagriculture and livestock in the production units. It is a matter of helping producers to design novel agriculturalsystems that are economically viable, socially acceptableand make optimum use of input investments (fertilizers,concentrated cattle feeds). This research is based ontechnical results already acquired and on farmers' know-how. Participation of ruralstakeholders is incorporated into the different research phases. For instance, weassess with producers the possibilities of adopting these achievements or the needto adapt certain technical proposals. Over and above the experimental workundertaken with producers, CIRAD develops computerized tools to model mixedcropping/livestock farms, which are used to consider the future of the farms. Thesetools enable producers, but also agricultural advisors, to assess different evolutionscenarios for their production unit in terms of monetary income and food security,soil fertility balances or the ability to feed animal production units. It is thuspossible to assess the feasibility of adding a fodder crop to the rotation, or ofincreasing the number of animals to be fattened.

This approach enables researchers to more effectively work with producers, but itcan also be used by technicians in development bodies to enhance their ways ofadvising mixed cropping/livestock farms.

Synergies on an agropastoral territory scale

This involves adapting the rules of use for collectively used land and naturalresources (rangelands, water points) to guarantee sustainable exploitation of agro-sylvo-pastoral resources. The agropastoral activities that depend on those resourcesare thus supported and disputes between the different resource users (farmers,animal breeders, foresters, etc.) are limited. This can lead on to new agreementsbetween the different socio-professional categories. For instance, they may extendto the use of crop residues, the guarding and mobility of herds, bushfire

management, the conservation ofbanks along water courses, andrational exploitation of fodder trees.This new coordination, which couldinduce more sustainable synergiesbetween production units, is inkeeping with the establishment oflocal charters for the management ofagropastoral territories acknowledgedby the different socio-professionalcategories and local authorities, suchas rural municipalities and theadministration.

• CIRDES, Centre internationalde recherche-développementsur l'élevage en zonesubhumide, Burkina Faso

• INERA, Institut de l’environnement et de recherches agricoles,Burkina Faso

• University of Bobo-Dioulasso,Burkina Faso

• Union des Producteurs de coton du Tuy, Burkina Faso


• BV-Lac project, Madagascar

• EMBRAPA, BrazilianAgricultural Research Centre

• IRAD, Institut de la recherche agricole pour ledéveloppement, Cameroon

• SODECOTON, Société de développement du coton,Cameroon

Partners

Stack of rice straw feeding a herd of zebus,Madagascar. © P. Dugué, CIRAD

Cattle, crop residues pasture. © P. Dugué, CIRAD

Dairy cow fed with freshly cut vetch,Madagascar. © P. Dugué, CIRAD

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Pig production provides almost 40% of the meatconsumed worldwide. Pig production is expanding inAsia, Latin America and the non-Muslim zones of Africa.It is practised by small-scale pig farmers and provides

essential income in rural zones. Faced with the technical, economic,environmental and health risks associated with developing this activity,ecological intensification is an interesting prospect for sustainable smallholder pigfarms. CIRAD experts are adopting an interdisciplinary approach to assist thisinnovation process.

Gaining a clearer understanding of changes on pig farms

Most pig farms in developingcountries are small family units,based on very diversifiedproduction methods ranging

from low-input extensive rearing to industrialoff-land production. CIRAD is implementing

projects in a close partnership with research and development organizations fromthe South, to: • assess locally-available food and animal resources,• analyse the technical and economic efficiency of pig production systems intropical countries,• characterize the diversity of rearing units by gaining a clearer understanding oftheir technical, economic and social rationale,• understand the role of pig production in the pluri-active socio-economicstrategies of smallholders in developing countries and in the marketing sectors,• model development patterns for farms and for the production and processingsectors to assist in their change.

Pig production in tropicaland subtropicalregionsPromoting sustainabilityto feed populations in the South

Pig farm in the highlands of Reunion

© V. Porphyre, CIRAD

Vincent PorphyreCIRADLivestock Systems and Animal ProductManagement Research UnitStation Ligne Paradis7 chemin de l’IRAT97410 Saint Pierre La Réunion - France

[email protected]

Jean-Michel MedocCIRADEnvironmental Risks ofRecycling Research UnitCité diplomatique de Van Phuc298 Kim Ma99 HanoïVietnam

[email protected]

For further information:http://pigtrop.cirad.fr

Contacts

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Promoting the recycling and useof pig waste

Pig rearing units discharge effluents that leadto environmental pollution problems. CIRADproposes ways of managing pig productionunit effluents to protect the environment andfertilize crops. It determines the compositionof effluents to rationalize their recycling oncrops and to design novel treatment processes;it analyses waste management practices and adapts them to cropmanagement sequences; it helps to improve slurry recycling inagricultural systems for minimum environmental risks; it modelsenvironmental impacts in the production sector, using the Life CycleAnalysis method for better decision-support.

Accompanying the pigproduction systems of tomorrow

CIRAD helps the pig production sectors indeveloping countries to adopt alternativemanagement methods, based on criteriafor the ecological intensification of pigfarms that are acknowledged by all thelocal stakeholders. It develops novelmethods for sustainable development ofpig farms by exploring ecologicalintensification methods, controllinganimal diseases and adding value toproducts. Its research is designed tooptimize use of local resources, improvethe energy balance of pig farms for lessenergy-demanding development andassist stakeholders towards multi-criteriaquality labelling of their products.

Sharing research results

CIRAD proposes its PIGTrop portal on the internet: http://pigtrop.cirad.fr,providing access to the latest news and research results on original topics dealingwith pig production in developing countries. This internet site is intended forresearchers, students, professionals, pig rearers and development agenciesinterested in the sustainable development of the pig supply chains in developingcountries. It presents the results of international research on animal health andemerging diseases, the socio-economic organization of the pig sector, integratedwaste management, genetic management of populations, food strategies, optimumuse of biodiversity and product quality. Today, PIGTrop is the unrivalled scientificreference portal on pig research for development in tropical supply chains.

• National Institute of AnimalScience, Vietnam

• Hanoi University ofAgriculture, Vietnam

• National Institute ofVeterinary Research, Vietnam

• Soils and Fertilizers Institute,Vietnam

• Institute of Policy and Strategyfor Agricultural and RuralDevelopment, Vietnam


• Coopérative des producteursde porcs de la Réunion

• Fédération régionale descoopératives agricoles, Réunion

• Qualitropic, Pôle decompétitivité Agro-Nutrition enmilieu tropical, Réunion

• Lycée agricole de Saint-Joseph, Réunion

• Institut national de larecherche agronomique, France

• Royal Veterinary College,University of London, UnitedKingdom


Partners

Pig farm, NorthVietnam © V. Porphyre, CIRAD

Sow of the Mong Cai race, with her litter,Vietnam © V. Porphyre, CIRAD

Combination of small-scale pig farming and carp fishfarming, North Vietnam © V. Porphyre, CIRAD

Combination of pig farming, market gardening and fishfarming, Red River Delta, Vietnam © V. Porphyre, CIRAD

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The humid tropics have seen a considerableexpansion in ruminant farming since the1970s and are currently home to almost a quarter of the world's ruminant stock. This

situation is often criticized for its negativeenvironmental effects: deforestation, loss of biodiversity,scrub invasion of the environment, greenhouse gasproduction, etc. CIRAD is involved in research to reconcilethe development of ruminant farming in these regions tomeet the food and economic needs of the populations, and theneed to protect the environment.

Controlling pasture degradation

Pastures established after deforestation arefragile environments which are rapidlyinvaded by scrub. As their restoration isdelicate, they are often abandoned andreplaced by other grasslands established onnewly deforested areas. In order to limitdeforestation, CIRAD has developed

management conditions for grasslands that prevent scrub invasion processes. Therecommendations are intended to ensure rapid and dense soil cover. Grasslandshave to be exploited regularly (high stocking rate, grazing rotation) in order tomaintain a dense and uniform cover capable of limiting the germination andsubsequent development of weeds. In this way, controlling grassland degradationindirectly helps to slow down further deforestation for new grasslands.

Agro-ecological management of forage environments

Forage ecosystems in the humid tropics can be sustainably managed. It calls forprecise and interactive organization of grassland and herd management toreconcile animal productivity, the lifespan of grasslands, and environmentalservices.

Reconciling fodder productionand environmental protection in the humid tropicsSustainable development of forage systems

Rangeland in the Central African Republic infested by Chromolaena

odorata. © J. Huguenin, CIRAD

Johann HugueninCIRADLivestock Systems and Animal Product Management Research UnitCampus International de Baillarguet34398 Montpellier cedex 5France

[email protected]

Blanfort VincentCIRADLivestock Systems and Animal Product Management Research UnitBP 70197387 Kourou cedexGuyane - France

[email protected]

For further information:http://greforec.cirad.fr

Contacts

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Plant growth is very rapid in the humid tropics but thenutritional optimum of the vegetation is short-lived. Inaddition, seasonal effects can also be a constraint forfodder production (cold season, dry season,excessively wet season).

For intensive and agro-ecological grasslandmanagement, several measures have to be taken intoaccount:• maintaining dense plant cover by adjusting thestructure of plant covers through animal stocking (2 to4 head per hectare) and rotation rates (3 to 6 weeks),• diversifying plant species to take into account seasonal effects and promotenutritional complementarity. For example, oats maintain a fodder supply during a cold season in certain humid tropical zones; grass-legume combinations, such asPanicum maximum and Stylosanthes hamata balance nutritional contributions, • choosing complementary fodder resources: forage gardens where the vegetationis cut and brought to the animals in addition to their pasture, fodder trees such asLeucaena, either browsed or exploited by pruning.

These agro-ecological fodder intensification measures lead to greater productivitywhile preserving the environment and limiting further expansion of areas.

Offer of ecological services

CIRAD is studying biologicaldynamics that are conducive torestoring ecological balances inenvironments disrupted by herbivoreproduction. The aim is to strengthenthe stability of rearing units whileattenuating their negativeenvironmental impacts by moreeffectively providing certainecosystemic services:• Limiting greenhouse effect gases:ruminant production contributes togreenhouse gas emissions, butgrassland agrosystems compensatefor those emissions by sequestratingcarbon in the soil (1 to 2 tonnes perhectare per year). In temperatezones, the carbon stock in soilsunder grassland can reach 65 tonnesper hectare. • Protecting soils: continuous covergrasslands offer major protectionagainst soil erosion; soil fertilityunder grasslands displays a drop inacidity, an increase in nutrient

storage and high active organic matter content; soil aluminium toxicity diminishes.• Maintaining biodiversity: rotations with high animal stocking help to controlscrub invasion by preventing the development of invasive plants, which cause asevere reduction in biodiversity, including in forest areas next to grazing lands.

• EMBRAPA, BrazilianAgricultural Research Centre

• Federal University of ParaState, Brazil



• Coopérative des éleveurs debovins, French Guiana

• Sica Lait and Sica Revia,La Réunion

• Institut agronomiquecalédonien, New Caledonia

• Agence nationale dedéveloppement de l’élevage,Central African Republic


• FIFAMANOR, Centre dedéveloppement rural et derecherche appliquée,Madagascar

• National Institute of AnimalScience, Vietnam

Partners

A Brahman zebu browsing Brachiariahumidicola grassland in French Guiana.© J. Huguenin, CIRAD

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Rangeland invasion by Jatropha gossipifolia in New Caledonia. © V. Blanfort, CIRAD

Flight over the Transamazonian zone, Para State, Brazil. © J. Huguenin, CIRAD

Comment mieux contrôler les invasions de criquets / More effective control of locust invasions• Chapuis M.-P., Loiseau A., Michalakis Y., Lecoq M., Franc A.,Estoup A., 2009. Outbreaks, gene flow and effective population sizein the Migratory locust, Locusta migratoria: a regional scale compa-rative survey. Molecular Ecology (Oxford), 18(9): 792-800.

• Franc A., Rabesisoa L., Luong-Skovmand M.H., Lecoq M., 2005.Phase polymorphism in the Red locust, Nomadacris septemfasciata(Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Madagascar. International Journal ofTropical Insect Science (Nairobi), 25(3): 182-189.

• Lecoq M., 2005. Desert locust management: from ecology toanthropology. Journal of Orthoptera Research (Ann Arbor, MI), 14(2):179-186.

• Maiga I.H., Lecoq M., Kooyman C., 2008. Ecology and manage-ment of the Senegalese grasshopper Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss1877) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in West Africa: review and prospects.Annales de la Société Entomologique de France (nouvelle série)(Paris), 44(3): 271-288.

• Magor J.I., Lecoq M., Hunter D.M., 2008. Preventive control anddesert locust plagues. Crop Protection (Oxford), 27(12): 1527-1533.

Maitriser le scolyte des baies du caféier / Coffee berry borer control• Dufour B.P., Franco F., Hernández A., 2007. Evaluación del tram-peo en el marco del manejo integrado de la broca del café. In: Labroca del café en América tropical: hallazgos y enfoques, workshopinternacional, junio 2007, Acapulco, Guerrero, México. Ed. porBarrera J.F., García A., Domínguez V., Luna C., ECOSUR y Soc.Mex. Ent., México, Mexique, 89-99.

• Dufour B.P., González M.O., Mauricio J.J., Chávez B.A., RamírezAmador R., 2005. Validation of coffee berry borer (CBB) trappingwith the BROCAP® trap. In: XX International Conference on CoffeeScience, 11-15 October 2004, Bangalore, India. ASIC, Paris, France,1243-1247.

• Dufour B.P., 2007. Condiciones de uso de las trampas en elcontrol de la broca del café. In: Manejo da broca-do-café, workshopinternacional, 28 nov. 2004, Londrina, Paraná, Brasil. IAPAR,Londrina, Brésil, 85-93.

Régulation des bio-agresseurs dans les agrosystèmes tropicaux / Regulating pests anddiseases in tropical agrosystems• Avelino J., Willocquet L., Savary S., 2004. Effects of crop mana-gement patterns on coffee rust epidemics. Plant pathology, 53 (5),541-547.

• Avelino J., Zelaya H., Merlo A., Pineda A., Ordoñez M., Savary S.,2006. The intensity of a coffee rust epidemic is dependent on pro-duction situations. Ecological modelling, 197 (3-4): 431-447.

• Ratnadass A., Togola M., Cissé B., Vassal J-M., 2009. Potential ofsorghum and physic nut (Jatropha curcas) for management of plantbugs (Hemiptera: Miridae) and cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) on cotton in an assisted trap-cropping strategy. Journal ofSAT Agricultural Research, 7.

Gestion agro-écologique des cultures fruitières etmaraîchères / Agro-ecological management offruit and market garden crops• Malézieux E., Crozat Y., Dupraz C., Laurans M., Makowski D.,Ozier-Lafontaine H., Rapidel B., de Tourdonnet S., Valantin-Morison M., 2008. Mixing plant species in cropping systems:concepts, tools and models. A review. Agronomy for SustainableDevelopment, 29: 43-62.

• Ratnadass A., Michellon R., Randriamanantsoa R., Séguy L., 2006.Effects of soil and plant management on crop pests and diseases. In:Uphoff N., Ball A., Fernandes E., Herren H., Husson O., Laing M.,Palm C., Pretty J., Sanchez P., Sanginga N., Thies J., BiologicalApproaches for Sustainable Soil Systems. Boca Raton, Etats-Unis,CRC Press, p. 589-602.

Les mouches des fruits et des légumes en milieutropical / Fruit and vegetable flies in the Tropics• Rousse P., Gourdon F., Quilici S., 2006. Host specificity of the eggpupal parasitoid Fopius arisanus (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in LaRéunion. Biological Control, 37 (3): 284-290.

• Duyck P.F., Junod P., Brunel C., Dupont R., Quilici S., 2006.Importance of competition mechanisms in successive invasions bypolyphagous tephritids in La Réunion. Ecology, 87 (7): 1770-1780.

• Rousse P., Chiroleu F., Veslot J., Quilici S., 2007. The host- andmicrohabitat olfactory location by Fopius arisanus suggests a broadpotential host range. Physiological Entomology, 32: 313-321.

• Vayssières J.F., Cayol J.P., Perrier X., Midgarden D., 2007. Impactof methyl eugenol and malathion bait stations on non-target insectpopulations in French Guiana during an eradication program forBactrocera carambolae. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata,125 (1): 55-62.

• Van Mele P., Vayssières J.F., Van Tellingen E., Vrolijks J., 2007.Effects of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda in control-ling mango fruit flies (Diptera Tephritidae). Journal of EconomicEntomology, 100 (3): 695-701.

• Vayssières J.F., Goergen G., Lokossou O., Dossa P., Akponon C.,2005. A new Bactrocera species detected in Benin among mango fruitflies (Diptera Tephritidae) species. Fruits, 60 (6): 1-9.

Inventer une agriculture écologiquement intensive

pour nourrir la planète

Bibliographie / Literature

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Lutte contre les insectes ravageurs en culturecotonnière / Controlling insect pests in cottongrowing systems• Brévault T., Couston L., Bertrand A., Thézé M., Nibouche S.,Vaissayre M., 2009. Sequential pegboard to support small farmers incotton pest control decision-making in Cameroon. Crop Protection,28: 968-973.

• Brévault T., Carletto J., Linderme D., Vanlerberghe-Masutti F., 2008.Genetic diversity of the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, in the unstableenvironment of a cotton growing area. Agricultural and ForestEntomology, 10: 215 – 223.

• Brévault T., Bikay S., Maldès J.M., Naudin K., 2007. Impact of no tillwith mulch on soil macrofauna communities in a cotton cropping sys-tem. Soil & Tillage Research, 97: 140-149.

Gestion du risque pesticide en horticulture /Managing pesticide risks in horticulture• Cabidoche Y.-M., Jannoyer M., Vanniere H., 2006. Conclusions duGroupe d’étude et prospective, aspects agronomiques, ContributionsCirad – Inra. Montpellier, Cirad, 64 p.

• Cabidoche Y.-M., Achard R., Cattan P., Clermont Dauphin C.,Chabrier C., Lafont A., Sansoulet J., 2006. Stockage dans les sols à char-ges variables et dissipation dans les eaux de zoocides organochlorésautrefois appliqués en bananeraies aux Antilles : relation avec les sys-tèmes de culture, Rapport final d’exécution Programme 2003-2005 « Evaluation et réduction des risques liés à l’utilisation des pesticides »du MEDD, Inra Cirad, 99 p.

• Lesueur Jannoyer M., Cabidoche Y.-M., Vannière H., 2007. La chlor-décone aux Antilles françaises, Synthèse sous l’angle agronomique éta-blie par le Groupe d’étude et prospective, sur les pollutions par lesorganochlorés. Phytoma - La défense des végétaux, 606: 29-31.

• De Roffignac L., Cattan P., Mailloux J., Herzog D., Le Bellec F., 2008.Efficiency of a bagasse substrate in a biological bed system for the degra-dation of glyphosate, malathion and lambda-cyhalothrin under tropicalclimate conditions. Pest Management Science, 64 (12): 1303-1313.

Culture des vergers en milieu insulaire / Orchardcultivation on islands• Bockstaller C., Girardin P., 2003. How to validate environmentalindicators. Agricultural Systems, 76: 639-653.

• Boullenger G., Le Bellec F., Girardin P., Bockstaller C., 2008. Évaluerl’impact des traitements des agrumes sur l’environnement. Phytoma -La défense des végétaux, 617: 22-25.

• Lançon J., Wery J., Rapidel B., Angokaye M., Gerardeaux E., GaborelC., Ballo D., Fadegnon B., 2007. An improved methodology for integra-ted crop management systems. Agronomy for SustainableDevelopment, 27: 101-110.

• Le Bellec F., Le Bellec V., 2008. Le jardin créole : produire en respec-tant l'environnement. Chevagny-sur-Guye, Ed. Orphie, 44 p.

• Le Bellec F., Herzog D., Fournier P., Mauléon H., Renard-Le Bellec V., Ramassamy M., 2005. The integrated fruits pro-duction in Guadeloupe, In: CFCS, Guadeloupe. 41st Annual Meetingof the Carribean Food Crop Society, Annual Meeting of the CarribbeanFood Crops Society (CFCS), 41, 2005-07-10/2005-07-16, Gosier,Guadeloupe.

• Loyce C., Wery J., 2006. Les outils des agronomes pour l’évaluationet la conception des systèmes de culture. In: Doré T. et al. (Eds).L’agronomie aujourd’hui. Versailles, Editions Quae, p. 77-95.

Le semis direct avec couverture végétale /Direct seeding mulch-based cropping• De Moraes Sá, Séguy L., Gozé E. et al, 2009. Carbon balance andsequestration rates in a long-term tillage experiment in a BrazilianOxisol. Soil tillage research, in press.

• De Moraes Sá, Séguy l., Gozé E. et al, 2009. C sequestration rates inno-tillage soils under intensive cropping systems in tropical agroeco-zone. Soil Science Society of America Journal, in press.

• Séguy L., Bouzinac S., Husson O., 2006. Direct-seeded tropicalsoil systems with permanent soil cover: Learning from Brazilianexperience. In: Uphoff Norman T. (ed.), Ball Andrew S. (ed.),Fernandes Erik C.M. (ed.), Herren Hans R. (ed.), Husson. Olivier(ed.), Laing Mark V. (ed.), Palm Cheryl (ed.), Pretty Jules (ed.),Sanchez Pedro (ed.), Sanginga Nteranya (ed.), Thies Janice (ed.).Biological approaches to sustainable soil systems. Boca Raton, CRCPress, p. 323-342.

• Séguy L., Bouzinac S., 2008. La symphonie inachevée du semisdirect dans le Brésil central : le système dominant dit de « semi-direct » : limites et dégâts, éco-solutions et perspectives : la natureau service de l'agriculture durable. [Cd-Rom]. Montpellier, Cirad, 1 disque optique numérique (CD-ROM).

Intensification écologique chez le bananier /Ecological intensification of banana growing• Côte F.-X., Abadie C., Achard R., Cattan P., Chabrier C., Dorel M.,de Lapeyre de Bellaire L., Risède J.M., Salmon F., Tixier P., 2009.Integrated pest management developed in the French West Indies toreduce pesticide use in banana production systems. ActaHorticulturae, 828: 375-382.

• Chabrier C., Carles C., Desrosiers C., Quénéhervé P., Cabidoche Y.M., 2009. Nematode dispersion by runoff water: Casestudy of Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne on nitisol under humidtropical conditions. Applied soil ecology, 41: 148-156.

• Tixier P., Malezieux E., Dorel M., Wery J., 2008. SIMBA, a modelfor designing sustainable banana-based cropping systems.Agricultural systems, 97 (3): 139-150.

Améliorer les systèmes agroforestiers en zone tropicale humide / Improving agroforestry systems in the humid tropics

• Camara A., Dugué P., Kalms J.-M., Cheylan J.-P., 2009. De la forêtnaturelle aux agroforêts cultivées en Guinée forestière. CahiersAgriculture, 18 (5): 425-431.

• Deheuvels O., Penot E., 2008. Olympe, a multiscale tool toexplore management options in Agroforestry Systems. In:B. Rapidel, O. Roupsard and M. Navarro (Eds), Modelling agrofo-restry systems with perennial crops: connecting agroforestryresearchers with modellers. CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica, 25-28Feb 2008.

• Jagoret P., Malézieux E., 2007. Complex cocoa agroforests can besuccessfully established on savannahs: a local innovation in the cen-tral region of Cameroon. 2nd International Symposium on Multi-strata Agroforestry Systems with Perennial Crops, CATIE, Turrialba,Costa Rica.

• Lamanda N., Michel-Dounias I., Canet M., Kalms J.-M., 2008. Lespratiques de gestion des agroforêts à base de café de Guinée fores-tière sur le temps long. Atelier international de réflexion à partir devisites de terrain « Les agroforêts d’Afrique de l’Ouest et du Centre :dynamiques, performances et avenir ? 2008, Sérédou, Guinée, CD-Rom.

• Madelaine C., Malézieux E., Sibelet N., Manlay R. 2008. Semi-wild palm groves reveal agricultural change in the forest region ofGuinea. Agroforestry systems, 73 (3): 189-204.

• Marie C., Sibelet N., Dulcire M., Rafalimaro M., Danthu P.,Carriere S., 2009, Taking into account local practices and indige-nous knowledge in an emergency conservation context inMadagascar. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18 (10): 2759-2777.

• Ruf F., 2009. Libéralisation, cycles politiques et cycles du cacao :le décalage historique Côte d’Ivoire-Ghana. Cahiers agricultures,18 (4): 343-349.

Impacts agri-environnementaux du palmier à huile / Agri-environmental impacts of the oilpalm• Caliman J.P., Carcasses R., Girardin P., Pujianto A., Dubos B.,Liwang T., 2005. Development of agri-environmental indicators forsustainable management of oil palm growing. General conceptand the example of nitrogen. MPOB International Palm OilCongress (PIPOC), 25-29 September 2005, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia.

• Wohlfahrt J., Caliman J.P., Girardin P., Wahyu A., 2006.Development of an agro-ecological indicator (I-PHY Palm) toassess the sustainability of pesticides utilization in oil palm planta-tions. IOPRI International Palm Oil Conference, 20-24 June 2006,Bali, Indonesia.

• Girardin P., Caliman J.P., Wohlfahrt J., 2007. INDIGO® Palm: amethod based on Agro-Ecological indicators to assess the environ-mental stability of oil palm plantations. International Conferenceon Oil Palm and the Environment ICOPE 2007. 15-16 November2007, Bali, Indonesia.

• Caliman J.P., Carcasses R., Perel R., Wohlfahrt J., Girardin P.,Wahyu Pujianto A., Dubos B., Verwilghen A., 2007. Indicadoresagro-ambientales para la producción sostenible de aceite depalma. Palmas, 28(1): 434-445.

Production durable en agriculture familiale auSud / Sustainable production on family farms in developing countries• Affholder F., Jourdain D., Dang Dinh Quang, To Phuc Tuong,Morize M., Ricome A., 2010. Direct-seeding mulch-based croppingsystems on mountainous slopes in Vietnam: a whole farm model forassessing constraints to adoption by farmers. Agricultural Systems,103 (1): 51-62.

• Triomphe B., Sabourin E., Hocdé H., Scopel E., Nascimento deOliveira M., Valadares Xavier J.H., Da Silva F.A.M., Ramos deAlmeida S.C., 2008. Participatory cropping and farming system des-ign among multiple stakeholders to contribute to sustainable agri-cultural production. Experiences and lessons with the agrarianreform sector in the Brazilian Cerrados. In: Dedieu Benoît (ed.),Empowerment of the rural actors. A renewal of farming systems pers-pectives: 8th European IFSA Symposium, 6-10 July 2008, Clermond-Ferrand. Paris, INRA, IFSA European Symposium, 8, 2008-07-06/2008-07-10, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 10 p.

• Corbeels M., Scopel E., Cardoso A., Bernoux M., Douzet J.M.,Siqueira Neto M., 2006. Soil carbon storage potential of direct see-ding mulch-based cropping systems in the Cerrados of Brazil.Global Change Biology, 12: 1-15.

• Scopel E., Macena da Silva F.A., Corbeels M., Affholder F.,Maraux F., 2004. Modelling crop residue mulching effects on wateruse and production of maize under semi-arid and humid tropicalconditions. Agronomie, 24: 1-13.

Préserver la biodiversité des savanes africaines /Preserving biodiversity in African grasslands

• Baudron F., Corbeels M., Monicat F., Giller K.E., 2009. Cottonexpansion and biodiversity loss in African savannahs, opportunitiesand challenges for conservation agriculture: a review paper basedon two case studies. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18: 2625-2644.

• Baudron F., Corbeels M., Monicat F., Giller K.E. (submitted).Cotton, more than tsetse eradication, drove habitat loss for the wild-life of the Mid Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Biological Conservation.

• Corbeels M., Scopel E., Cardoso A., Bernoux M., Douzet J.M.,Siqueira Neto M., 2006. Soil carbon storage potential of direct see-ding mulch-based cropping systems in the Cerrados of Brazil.Global Change Biology, 12: 1-15.

• Scopel E., Macena F., Corbeels M., Affholder F., Maraux F., 2004.Modelling crop residue mulching effects on water use and produc-tion of maize under semi-arid and humid conditions. Agronomie,24: 1-13.

Production durable de charbon de bois enRépublique démocratique du Congo /Sustainable charcoal production in theDemocratic Repubic of Congo• Bernhard-Reversat F., Diangana D., Tsatsa M., 1993. Biomasse,minéralomasse et productivité en plantation d'Acacia mangium etAcacia auriculiformis au Congo. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques,238 (4), 35-44.

• Bisiaux F., Peltier R., Muliele J-P., 2009. Plantations industrielleset agroforesterie au service des populations des plateaux Batéké,Mampu, en République démocratique du Congo. Bois et Forêts desTropiques, 301 (3): 21-31.

• Harmand J.-M., Njiti C.F., Peltier R., 1997. Restauration de la fertilité des sols par la jachère arborée. L'agroforesterie pour undéveloppement rural durable. Atelier international, Montpellier,France 23-29 juin 1997, p. 135-142.

• Harmand J.-M., Njiti, C.F., Bernhard-Reversat, F., Puig H., 2004.Aboveground and belowground biomass, productivity and nutrientaccumulation in tree improved fallows in the dry tropics ofCameroon. Forest Ecology and Management, 188: 249-265.

• Marien J.-N., Mallet B., 2004. Nouvelles perspectives pour lesplantations forestières en Afrique centrale. Bois et Forêts desTropiques, 282 (4): 67-79.

• Peltier R., Balle Pity, 1993. De la culture itinérante sur brûlis aujardin agroforestier en passant par les jachères enrichies (From Slashand burn to sustainable agroforestry system). Bois et Forêts desTropiques, 235 (1): 49-57.

• Peltier R., Balle Pity, Galiana A., Gnahoua G.M., Leduc B., Mallet B., Oliver R., Oualou K., Schroth G., 1995. Produire du boisénergie dans les jachères de zone guinéenne. Intérêts et limites àtravers l'expérience d'Oumé en Basse Côte d'Ivoire. In: Actes duséminaire « Fertilité du milieu et stratégies paysannes sous les tropiques humides », nov. 1995, Montpellier, France, p. 219-227.

Diffusion des systèmes de semis direct avec couverture végétale à Madagascar /Dissemination of direct seeding mulch-basedcropping systems in Madagascar• Penot E., 2008. Document de travail n° 4 : Mise en place duréseau de fermes de références avec les opérateurs du projet. ProjetBV-lac/AFD, lac Alaotra, Madagascar, 2008.

• Penot E., Garin P., 2009. Des savoirs aux savoirs faire : l’innova-tion alimente un front pionner : le lac Alaotra de 1897 à nos jours.Colloque « Localisation et circulation des savoir-faire en Afrique ».Maison méditerranéenne des sciences de l’Homme, Aix-en-Provence, France, 19 et 20 mars 2009.

• Penot E., 2008. Mise au point d’outils et d’approche pour l’aide àla décision technico-économique et organisationnelle dans les pro-jets de développement agricole à Madagascar. Séminaire internatio-nal sur la capitalisation des expériences pour l’apprentissage socialet le développement. ICRA, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 10-12novembre 2008.

• Terrier M., Penot E, 2008. Document de travail/AFD/BV-lac n° 18 :conventions de modélisation pour le RFR. Projet BV-lac/AFD, lacAlaotra, Madagascar, 2008.

• Cauvy S., Penot E., 2009. Document n° 43 : mise au point desscénarios en analyse prospective et des simulations sur les exploi-tations agricoles du réseau de fermes de référence. Projet BV-lac/AFD, lac Alaotra, Madagascar, 2009.

Optimiser la production de biomasse en minimisant l’impact sur l’environnement /Optimizing biomass production whilst minimizing environmental impact• Barczi J-F., Rey H., Caraglio Y., de Reffye P., Barthelemy D., DongQX., Fourcaud T., 2008. AmapSim: a structural whole-plant simula-tor based on botanical knowledge and designed to host externalfunctional models. Annals of Botany, 101: 1125-1138.

• Barthelemy D., Caraglio Y., 2007. Plant architecture: A dynamic,multilevel and comprehensive approach to plant form, structure andontogeny. Annals of Botany, 99: 375-407.

• De Reffye P., Barthélémy D., Cournède P. H., Jaeger M., 2008.Modélisation et simulation de l'architecture et de la productionvégétales. In: Hallé, F. (Ed) Aux origines des plantes : des plantesanciennes à la botanique du XXIe siècle. Paris, Fayard, p. 187-229.

• Leroy C., Sabatier S., Wahyuni S., Barczi JF., Dauzat J., Laurans M.,Auclair D., 2009. Virtual trees and light capture: a method for opti-mizing agroforestry stand design. Agroforestry Systems, 77: 37-47.

• Mathieu A., Cournede P.H., Letort V., Barthelemy D., de Reffye P.,2009. A dynamic model of plant growth with interactions betweendevelopment and functional mechanisms to study plant structuralplasticity related to trophic competition. Annals of Botany, 103:1173-1186.

• Rey H., Dauzat J., Chenu K., Barczi J-F., Dosio GAA., Lecoeur J.,2008. Using a 3-D virtual sunflower to simulate light capture atorgan, plant and plot levels: contribution of organ interception,impact of heliotropism and analysis of genotypic differences. Annals of Botany, 101: 1139-1151.

L’intégration de l’agriculture et de l’élevage /Integrating agriculture and animal production• Andrieu N., Dugué P., Le Gal P.Y., Schaller N., 2009. Modéliser lefonctionnement d'exploitations agricoles de polyculture élevagepour une démarche de conseil. Cas de la zone cotonnière de l'ouestdu Burkina Faso In: Actes du colloque Savanes africaines en déve-loppement : Innover pour durer, 21-24 avril 2009, Garoua,Cameroun, 11 p.

• Vall E., Diallo M.A., 2009. Savoirs techniques locaux et pratiques :la conduite des troupeaux aux pâturages (ouest du Burkina Faso).Natures sciences sociétés, 17 (2): 122-135.

• Projet FERTIPARTENAIRES http://food-fertipartenaires.cirad.fr

Production porcine dans les régions chaudes / Pig production in tropical and subtropicalregions• Porphyre V., 2009. Enjeux et contraintes des filières porcines enAfrique de l'Ouest. Revue Grain de Sel, 46-47 : Répondre aux évo-lutions alimentaires, un défi majeur pour l’élevage africain, Mars-Août 2009, p. 26-27.

• Porphyre V., Nguyen Q.C., 2006. Pig production development,animal-waste management and environment protection: a casestudy in Thai Binh province, Northern Vietnam. PRISE publications,Hanoi, Vietnam, 224 p.

• Mikolasek O., Trinh D.K., Médoc J.M., Porphyre V., 2009.L’intensification écologique d’un modèle de pisciculture intégrée :recycler les effluents d’élevages porcins de la province de ThaiBinh (Nord Vietnam). Cahiers Agriculture, 18 (2): 235-241.

• Madec, F., Hurnik, D., Porphyre, V., Cardinale, E., 2009. Goodpractices for biosecurity in pig sector: issues and options.FAO/OIE/World Bank - Animal Production and Health Paper. Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Roma. Inpress 2009.

• Médoc J.-M., Guerrin F., Courdier R., Paillat J.-M., 2004. A Multi-modelling approach to help agricultural stakeholders design animalwastes management strategies in the Reunion Island. In: Pahl-WostlC., (ed.), Schmidt S., (ed.), Rizzoli A.E., (ed.), Jakeman A.J., (ed.).Complexity and integrated resources management. Transactions ofthe 2nd Biennial Meeting of the International EnvironmentalModelling and Software Society. Volume 1. Manno, Switzerland:iEMSs, 462-467. Complexity and Integrated ResourcesManagement, 2004/06/14-17, Osnabrück, Germany.

• Farinet J.L., Nuttens F., Vanai P., 2005. 2Co-composting of pigmanure with green wastes to prevent environmental impact of pigproduction in the Wallis archipelago, Pacific ocean. In: Proceedingsof the International Workshop on green pork production, Paris,France, May 25-27, 2005, p. 111-112.

Concilier production fourragère et renouvellement des ressources en zone tropicale humide / Reconciling fodder production and environmental protection in thehumid tropics

• Blanfort V., Orapa W., 2008. Ecology, impacts and managementof invasive plant species in pastoral areas. Proceedings of theRegional Workshop on invasive Plant Species in Pastoral Areas,24-28 november 2003, Koné, New Caledonia. IAC/SPC, Suava,201 p.

• Hostiou N., Tourrand J.-F., Huguenin J., Lecomte P., 2006. Ladiversité de gestion des systèmes herbagers en Amazonie : cas desélevages bovins brésiliens. Fourrages, 187: 377-392.

• Huguenin J., Duru M., Blanfort V., Tourrand J.F., Bergère H.,2009. Conduite et organisation agropastorale des prairies pâturéesdans les élevages guyanais. Communication In: Actes desRencontres des Recherches Ruminants, Paris, 2-3 déc. 2003, p. 353-356.

• Rippstein G., Escober G., Motta F., 2001. Agroecologia y biodi-versidad de las Sabanas en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia.CIAT et CIRAD, Colombie, 302 p.

• Salgado P., Lubbers M., Schipper R.A., Van Keulen H., Alary V.,Lecomte P., 2009. Adoption of new forage technology: impact onthe socio-economic sustainability of milk production in MocChau, Vietnam (DAIVIE model). In: Proceedings-AgSAP 2009,Netherlands 10-12 march, p. 272-273.

• Vayssières J., Guerrin F., Paillat J.M, Lecomte P., 2009.GAMEDE: A global activity model for evaluating the sustainabilityof dairy enterprises, Part I – Whole farm dynamic model.Agricultural Systems, 101: 128–138.

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