Educationand

Training

Air Force Doctrine Document 2�4.39 September 1998

Supersedes: AFDD 60, 1 October 1995OPR: HQ AFDC/DRP (Capt William C. Thomas, USAF)Certified by: HQ AFDC/DR (Lt Col Thomas A. Bowermeister, USAF)Pages: 44Distribution: FApproved by: Maj Gen Ronald E. Keys, USAF

Commander, Air Force Doctrine Center

AIR FORCE DOCTRINE DOCUMENT 2–4.39 SEPTEMBER 1998

BY ORDER OF THESECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE

FOREWORD

Throughout history, experience demonstrates that the best preparedarmed forces invariably prevail in combat. Superior education and train-ing form the core of this preparedness and provide the structure for deter-ring potential enemies or, if necessary, defeating adversaries in battle. Itis equally important to note that education and training also play an inte-gral role in preparing air and space forces for new and challenging typesof military operations other than war (MOOTW).

While education and training are linked in application, they are dis-tinct in purpose, with each producing markedly different results. In es-sence, education teaches broad concepts and communicates informationupon which to base decisions, whereas training teaches skills necessaryto accomplish a task. An Air Force member’s education emphasizes criti-cal thought, enabling sound decision making regardless of the situation,while the airman’s training provides the skills necessary to master AirForce core competencies.

The diversity of today’s military missions, the sharp increase in thenumber of operations, and the drawdown of military resources have com-bined to place incredible demands on every member of the Air Force.Officers, enlisted personnel, and civilians face new challenges at everyturn. A dynamic education and training process spanning an airman’scareer is essential to the Air Force’s readiness to attain military objectivesand contribute to national security.

RONALD E. KEYSMajor General, USAFCommander, Air Force Doctrine Center

9 September 1998

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... v

CHAPTER ONE—Overview ................................................................... 1Education and Training Process ............................................................... 1Integration of Reserve Component Forces ............................................... 2Integration of Civilian Forces ................................................................... 3

CHAPTER TWO—Education ................................................................. 5Objectives ................................................................................................. 6Responsibility ........................................................................................... 7Maximizing Effectiveness ........................................................................ 7Continuum of Education ........................................................................ 10Professional Military Education ............................................................. 12Professional Continuing Education ........................................................ 13Graduate Education ................................................................................ 13Voluntary Education ............................................................................... 14Summary ................................................................................................ 15

CHAPTER THREE—Training .............................................................. 17Objectives ............................................................................................... 17Responsibility ......................................................................................... 18Assumptions ........................................................................................... 19Training Guidelines ................................................................................ 20Levels of Training ................................................................................... 23Summary ................................................................................................ 24

CHAPTER FOUR—Systematic Approach to InstructionalDevelopment ..................................................................................... 25

Training Programs .................................................................................. 25Educational Programs ............................................................................ 27Operational Evaluation .......................................................................... 28Methods of Instruction ........................................................................... 29Exercises and Wargaming ...................................................................... 29Summary ................................................................................................ 31

Chief of Staff of the Air Force Professional Reading List Officers .................................................................................................. 33 Enlisted Members .................................................................................. 35 Civilians ................................................................................................. 36

Glossary ................................................................................................. 38

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INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE

This doctrine provides guidance for the education and trainingof Air Force members. This guidance is based on a body of knowledgegained from experience in preparing airmen for their role in supportingnational security objectives. The focus of Air Force education and train-ing programs is to develop officers, enlisted personnel, and civilians whopossess the critical thinking skills and technical expertise demanded bytoday’s military challenges. Complementary education and training pro-grams which span an airman’s career enable the successful employmentof aerospace power across the range of military operations.

APPLICATION

This document applies to all active duty, Air Force Reserve, AirNational Guard, and civilian Air Force personnel. It is authoritativebut not directive. Therefore, commanders need to consider not only thecontents of this Air Force Doctrine Document, but also their particularneeds when accomplishing education and training.

SCOPE

This document reflects principles contained in AFDD 1, Air ForceBasic Doctrine, and describes how air and space forces may best beprepared to accomplish military operations. It discusses the air andspace education and training processes that effectively prepare Air Forceforces for war and MOOTW.

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CHAPTER ONE

OVERVIEW

The complexity and dynamic nature of modern military opera-tions make them among the most demanding of all human activi-ties. Only through comprehensive education and rigorous training can indi-vidual capabilities be expanded to match these demands. All Air Force per-sonnel must be fully integrated into a continuous education and trainingprogram with the goals of gaining and maintaining occupational skills,increasing professional qualifications and judgment, and preparing air-men for leadership and supervisory challenges.

Education prepares members for planning and leadership rolesand makes them more responsive to the dynamic environment inwhich they will operate, while realistic training provides improvedprofessional skills for all ranks at all levels of command. Properlydesigned and implemented training programs hone members’ skills andmotivate them to achieve their full potential. Education and training com-bine to shape a highly efficient force that assures friends and foes alikethat the Air Force is prepared for success. To achieve these ends, educa-tion and training programs are established that enable individuals to ful-fill the Air Force mission.

EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROCESS

The education and training process begins upon entry intoprecommissioning and enlistment programs. This process, startingwith accession and initial skills training and eventually extending to large-scale, joint, and multinational force training, is a continuum along whichan airman moves throughout a career. Air Force members learn the skillsand knowledge necessary not only to recognize the interdependence ofair and space roles and missions, but also to understand how to apply AirForce forces as a component Service within the framework of a joint/multinational team. The men and women of the Air Force carry out its

If we have to fight, we should be prepared to do so from the neckup instead of from the neck down.

Jimmy Doolittle

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core competencies of air and spacesuperiority, global attack, agile com-bat support, rapid global mobility, pre-cision engagement, and informationsuperiority. The ultimate goal of edu-cation and training programs is todevelop airmen ready to employ thesecore competencies and apply soundprinciples and analysis in unfamiliarsituations.

Here, the key relationship betweeneducation and training becomes clear. While education teaches the in-dividual “how to think,” training teaches the individual “how to do.”The intricate and delicate weave of education and training further pro-vides Air Force personnel with the ability to compensate for the naturallimitations of combat training in a peacetime environment. The combina-tion also provides the cognitive ability to adapt war-fighting skills andmethods to MOOTW.

INTEGRATION OF RESERVE COMPONENT FORCES

Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve forces are fully inte-grated into the Air Force with the same high level of standards forperformance. As such, the education and training requirements and opportu-nities for Reserve component forces should be comparable to those of the activeduty force. It is essential for Reserve component forces to train alongsidethe active force for effective utilization of Air Force core competencies.Vital to the successful integration of Guard and Reserve members in AirForce education and training programs is the recognition that Reservecomponent members experience a different day-to-day environment thandoes the active force. As a result, although standards remain equal, theformat and structure of Air Force education and training programs as ap-plied in the Reserve component will likely require modification. Notwith-standing the challenges such modification presents to commanders at alllevels, a significant amount of deterrent value and war-fighting capabilityresides in the Reserve component. It thus becomes absolutely essential toeducate and train Reserve component members on a par with the activecomponent.

Missileers continue to developtheir skills long after completingtheir initial training.

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INTEGRATION OFCIVILIAN FORCES

The term “airmen”refers not only to offic-ers and enlisted person-nel, but to Department ofthe Air Force civilians aswell. Civilians are fully in-tegrated into the Air Force,and as such should have edu-cation and training require-

ments and opportunities consistent with those of the active duty force. It isessential to the effective accomplishment of Air Force operations to haveintegrated, systematic programs for civilian training, education, and de-velopment that facilitate and support warfighter requirements. While ci-vilians normally must meet basic requirements to qualify for a position,continuing education, training, and development programs designed tomeet current and projected organizational, occupational, and individualperformance requirements are essential to military readiness.

Civilian employees provide skills that arecritical for Air Force operations.

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CHAPTER TWO

EDUCATION

Education is the process of imparting a body of knowledge tointellectually prepare individuals to deal with dynamic environ-ments and solve ill-defined problems by using critical thought andreasoned judgment. Education programs prepare Air Force members to suc-cessfully anticipate and meet challenges across the range of military opera-tions. The Air Force values education as a significant source of combatcapability. Military education is essential to the professional developmentof Air Force members, strengthening their abilities to lead and manageair and space forces. Voluntary education opportunities enable self-devel-opment, improve critical thinking skills, and serve as a recruiting andretention incentive for military members. Education programs expandknowledge and increase understanding of the role of aerospace power infulfilling our national security strategy.

Education is a critical prerequisite to anticipating and meeting thechallenges of the broad range of military operations in which air andspace forces are employed. Advances in technology have increased thepace and lethality of military operations while the global security environ-ment has increased their complexity. As aerospace power becomes the forceof choice in responding to global challenges, flexible and agile intellect iscritical to making decisions regarding strategy, doctrine, and tactics.

Continuing education prepares members for supervisory and lead-ership positions by further developing their professional expertiseand analytical ability. Through professional and voluntary education, indi-viduals develop the abilities necessary to operate effectively in dynamic envi-ronments and reach appropriate conclusions. Education helps develop soundproblem-solving abilities that enable airmen to better define problems ina complex operational environment. It provides Air Force members a

Perhaps the most valuable result of all education is the ability tomake yourself do the thing you have to do, when it ought to bedone, whether you like it or not.

T.H. Huxley

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breadth of knowledge and problem-solving tools that aid in critical think-ing, allowing individuals to address a wide range of problems and weighalternative solutions.

The skillful deployment and employment of air and space forces canresolve threatening situations, deter aggression, and rapidly halt and de-feat opponents. The proper employment of aerospace power, either in-dependently or as part of joint or multinational operations, can be thedecisive element in military operations. At the very foundation of thetremendous capabilities of aerospace power is education. Only qual-ity education achieved through professional development can ensure thecritical thought processes necessary for sound decision making.

OBJECTIVES

Education programs prepare Air Force members to find solutionsto ill-defined problems. Education programs built around realistic scenariosand which demand decision making within realistic time frames serve to in-crease the educational effect. This is achieved through dynamic curriculathat anticipate the evolving security environment. Education programsinvolving the full range of aerospace power capabilities within a widerange of military operations provide a comprehensive educational experi-ence.

The most effective education programs form a continuous pro-cess in which each educational exposure builds upon previous ex-perience. Each level of education should be designed to prepare the individualfor increasing levels of responsibility by further developing critical thought pro-cesses. This is accomplished through challenging curricula that match thelevel of education with the position, responsibility, and career progres-sion of the individual.

What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to a humansoul.

Joseph Addison

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RESPONSIBILITY

Individuals are responsible for their continued education. Formaleducation programs provide opportunities for individuals to improve theirintellectual talents. Outside of formal programs, individuals may con-tinue their development through professional reading, individual or groupstudy, and peer discussion. Only personal dedication to professional de-velopment can secure the maximum benefits of education and prepareindividuals for the intellectual challenges and responsibilities of employ-ing air and space forces.

While realizing that unit workloads may preclude some educa-tional opportunities, commanders should ensure individuals are af-forded the opportunity to achieve education appropriate to theirrank or grade, responsibility, and career point. Commanders providethe direction, purpose, and motivation essential for individuals to achievetheir educational goals. Attainment of these goals prepares Air Forcemembers to lead organizations and manage resources across the range ofmilitary operations. Additionally, commanders can further their subordi-nates’ development by ensuring a continuing education process throughmentoring programs that complement formal educational programs andby fostering a climate that promotes professional development.

MAXIMIZING EFFECTIVENESS

Education programs should never be designed haphazardly. Care-ful consideration must be given to the desired outcome of the program.While no two programs will be alike, there are some common aspects thatshould always be considered. The benefit of education programs can bemaximized through:

J Flexibility to adapt educational objectives to emerging concepts and ideas.

J Versatility to encompass the full range of military operations in educa-tion programs.

J Priority on relevant concepts through objective evaluation, feedbackand input.

J Balance between academic concept, operational reality, and historicalperspective

J Centralized development of education programs through a systematicapproach involving mentally challenging, realistic educational goals.

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J Decentralized learning through the commitment of the individual.

J Synergy through complementary instructional methods, mentoring ef-forts, and practical exercises.

J Concentration on aerospace power employment.

J Persistent education that spans the individual’s career.

Education programs must retain the flexibility to quickly adaptto emerging concepts and ideas. Within the dynamic global securityenvironment education programs must remain relevant. Education pro-grams that remain entrenched in out-of-date concepts do not adequatelyprepare individuals to cope with changing environments and lose cred-ibility within the institution and with individuals. Professional journals,current book releases, and discussions of current aerospace power chal-lenges are excellent tools for a relevant education process.

Education programs must improve the airman’s contributionacross the full range of military operations. Air and space forces areemployed as an integrated whole across a wide range of military opera-tions. Stovepiped education programs that emphasize limited aspects ofaerospace power reduce its effectiveness by limiting the decision-makingcapabilities of the individual. Airmen should understand how their areaof expertise applies throughout the spectrum of conflict.

Priority must be given to educational objectives that are relevantto actual air and space core competencies. While any good educationprogram will confer some benefit upon the student, limits on time andresources demand that emphasis be placed on developing the knowledgeand skills essential to mission success. Relevance to operational require-ments is best measured through objective evaluation from outside theeducational program, feedback from students, and inputs from operationalcustomers.

The liberally educated person is one who is able to resist theeasy and preferred answers, not because he is obstinate but becausehe knows others worthy of consideration.

Allan Bloom

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A balance must be achieved between academic concepts, opera-tional realities, and historical perspective. Overreliance on academicconcepts can detract from educational objectives that focus on operations,while overemphasis on operations can reduce the depth of understandingof academic concepts. Learning is increased whenever past lessons orhistorical examples can be used to illuminate objectives. The proper bal-ance of academic concepts and operational reality weighed against the lessonsof the past make for an effective education program.

Education programs must begin with a systematic approach. Sys-tematic programs provide a means to establish objectives, measure achieve-ment, evaluate effectiveness, and provide for feedback. Whether formal pro-grams are centrally developed or individual programs are developed tomeet individual interests, a systematic approach provides the best educa-tion program. Mentally challenging, realistic educational goals are cen-tral to a systematic process.

Education, whether formal or informal, requires the commitmentof the individual. Education programs must address the commitment andmotivation of the individual. Only with individual commitment to learningcan education be effective. Individuals committed to learning will pursueeducation across the span of their careers through various means andmethods. Education programs that do not evaluate and address individualcommitment are less effective.

Education programs can maximize effectiveness when they pro-vide for learning through complementary efforts such as lectures,student-led discussions, mentoring, and practical exercises. The syn-ergy achieved by combining various educational methods and means far ex-ceeds the results of each individually. Complementary education programsreinforce key concepts, offer new ways of viewing problems, and expandlogic skills. Within individual professional development programs, this

Education pursued at eithercivilian or militaryinstitutions should help anairman fulfill the Air Force�score competencies.

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can be accomplished byseeking out mentoring ses-sions and striving for in-creased responsibilities andeducational opportunities.

Professional militarydevelopment is essentialto the proper employmentof aerospace power, andthus education programsmust concentrate on aero-space power. Education isessential to proper understand-ing of core competencies, andsound decision making is es-sential to proper employmentin achieving these competen-cies; therefore, education mustfocus efforts in this direction.Education programs that donot enable the accomplish-ment of Air Force core com-petencies should be ques-tioned. Concentration of purpose is vital in all education programs, for-mal and informal alike, across the continuum of education.

Education should span the individual’s career. Episodic exposure toeducation reduces learning effectiveness, narrows perspective, and hamperscritical thought. Professional military development begins at accession andcontinues across a continuum of education. Individual commitment toeducation is essential to ensuring the persistence of education.

CONTINUUM OF EDUCATION

The continuum of education spans an airman’s career. It can beviewed broadly as consisting of these levels:

The goal of the education continuum is to provide for the ongoingprofessional development of Air Force members. Professional develop-

In Quest of a Theory

In 1934, Vandenberg began a string ofeducational and staff assignments that

were to fill out the other half of his pro-fessional character. The Tactical Schoolwas the intellectual center of the AirCorps. Aviators were never accused ofbeing thinkers, but what theorizing wasdone concerning the proper roles andmissions of air power took place at Max-well. Attendance at the Tactical Schoolwas virtually mandatory for all officersaspiring to a command in the Air Corps,and the vast majority of high-rankingAmerican air officers in World War II hadeither attended or instructed there. Thecurriculum was designed to train studentsin the strategy, tactics, and logistics re-quired for air power employment andwas also instrumental in the formulationand codification of doctrine.

Phillip S. MeilingerHoyt S. Vandenberg:The Life of a General

Indiana University Press, 1989

Accession Primary Intermediate Senior

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ment across the continuum cultivates the airman’s view, increases un-derstanding, and improves judgment in the employment of aerospacepower. Accession programs begin the process by building a generalknowledge of Air Force organizations, customs, courtesies, doctrine, andheritage while instilling a sense of service identity as an “airman.” Pri-mary programs further develop the sense of service identity while devel-oping teamwork, leadership, and fundamental knowledge of Air Forceorganizational command, forces, and functions as well as individual skillsin an air and space discipline. Intermediate programs continue to buildupon previous levels by imparting knowledge of aerospace power acrossthe range of Air Force and military operations, and within joint and mul-tinational operations while preparing individuals for staff and commandpositions. Senior programs further develop the war-fighting and war-winning intellect while also preparing individuals for senior leadershipresponsibilities in the command and employment of aerospace power.

A mix of education pro-grams helps airmen attain theproper degrees of knowledgeand understanding. Differenttypes of programs offer studentsa variety of perspectives andlearning styles. There is no one“right” means of education. Pro-grams available throughout thecontinuum include professionalmilitary education (PME) andprofessional continuing educa-tion (PCE) programs provided by the Air Force and other Services, gradu-ate education through military and civilian institutions, voluntary educa-tion programs at civilian schools, and informal systems such as mentoringby senior officers and NCOs, conferences and symposia, and individualprograms.

All of these programs contribute to a properly educated, profes-sional military force. PME generally occurs across the continuum fromaccession through the senior level. PCE and graduate education occurduring the primary, intermediate, and senior levels of the continuum.Voluntary education occurs at various points throughout the continuum.Mentoring and informal and individual education programs should beginduring accession and are most effective when consistently pursued acrossthe entire continuum. When education programs are related and complemen-

Air War College offers PME to officersand civilians preparing for senior levelleadership responsibilities.

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tary across the continuum, thegoal of professional develop-ment can be achieved with themaximum benefit.

PROFESSIONALMILITARYEDUCATION

PME offers a curricu-lum of instruction andstudy that provides indi-viduals with the skills,knowledge, and under-standing to function inleadership roles and makesound decisions in pro-gressively more demand-ing command and staffpositions. PME has as itsprimary themes the devel-opment of leadership, man-agement, and communica-tion skills; the employmentof combat forces; the mili-tary, political, economic,social, and psychological di-mensions of national secu-rity; Service organizations;joint and multinational op-erations; and strategy.These concepts are progressively emphasized over the course of anairman’s education continuum.

PME is an essential part of an Air Force member’s overall profes-sional development. AU provides PME for the Air Force through col-leges, schools, and academies. PME opportunities for airmen are alsoavailable through the schools of other Services and numerous other coun-tries, the colleges within the National Defense University, and variousfellowship programs. The PME process is available to all military andcivilian members of the Air Force and spans an airman’s career. It is most

Establishment ofAir University

September 3, 1946

The War Department established AirUniversity (AU) to correct many of

the problems and deficiencies of the pre-war military education system. Theschools that comprised the old systemhad operated independently and werepoorly coordinated in terms of scope,doctrine, and curriculum. Unlike the ar-chitects of previous and existing militaryeducational institutions, the founders ofAir University sought to break away fromthe…rigidity of thought and thedoctrine…that had often characterizedmilitary education in the past.

The founding fathers, many of whomwere graduates of the Tactical School,wanted to establish a progressive, for-ward-looking institution that could keepthe Air Force’s thinking fresh and couldproject at least five years into the future.“We must guard rigorously against … ac-cepting answers from the past instead ofdigging them out of the future,” MajorGeneral Muir S. Fairchild, the first AUcommander, explained. “This is not apost-war school system—it is a pre-warschool.”

A Short History of Air UniversityHeadquarters Air University,

Office of History, 1995

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effective when individual programs are linked to form a process of educa-tion that builds upon previous levels and provides the foundation for suc-cessive levels.

PROFESSIONAL CONTINUING EDUCATION

PCE contributes to an unbroken continuum of education by pro-viding educational opportunities that complement the periodic edu-cation provided in PME and enhance the understanding of Air Forcemembers through courses within a particular functional area. It fos-ters a greater understanding of certain aspects of military missions andoperations. This is achieved through a program of diverse courses de-signed to increase both the depth and breadth of knowledge within a par-ticular field of interest. PCE complements the objectives of PME by sharp-ening problem-solving skills, refining the thinking process, and increas-ing sound professional judgment. PCE spans the range of military opera-tions and is offered to all members at all levels of responsibility.

GRADUATE EDUCATION

Air Force graduate education programs support scientific, tech-nological, logistical, and other requirements necessary to performthe Air Force mission. In some cases, advanced academic degrees maybe required to perform primary duties. The effectiveness of graduate edu-

Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps, or ROTC, providesprofessional military education to future officers.

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cation programs depends upon Air Force organizations identifying theadvanced degree requirements necessary to meet operational missionobjectives. To meet advanced degree requirements, the Air Force selectsa limited number of members to receive graduate education through ci-vilian institutions or through military schools such as the Air Force Insti-tute of Technology. These programs are most effective when employed atthe primary and intermediate levels of the education continuum.

VOLUNTARY EDUCATION

Voluntary education programs enhance the intellectual growthand knowledge of Air Force personnel. When these factors coincide withthe individual’s technical skills and abilities, the synergy improves missionaccomplishment. To have the greatest impact on job performance and mis-sion effectiveness, the Air Force encourages members to engage in vol-untary education programs with an emphasis on continuing their profes-sional development and increasing their contribution to the Air Force.

The University of Virginia is one of many civilian institutions offeringgraduate programs that are important for the Air Force.

In sum the leader has to achieve a balance between the essentialneed for professional competence in his own technical field andthat broader understanding of human problems which can onlybe achieved from a wide and largely self-acquired education.

S. W. Roskill

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The Air Force providesquality voluntary educa-tional opportunities de-signed to complement theprofessional development ofmilitary and civilian person-nel. Commanders ensure thereare opportunities for subordinatesto participate in voluntary edu-cation programs to better them-selves and improve their capac-ity to complete the mission. Theseopportunities might include for-mal programs of study at localcolleges or universities, or lessformal methods such as amentoring program, attendanceat conferences, or a com-mander’s suggested readinglist. Such programs contributeto an individual’s personal andprofessional development andare best pursued during the in-termediate portion of the con-tinuum.

SUMMARY

The Air Force education process focuses on producing personnelwho can think and act effectively across the range of military opera-tions in complex environments. Education programs are based on therequirements and guidance levied by the Office of the Secretary of De-fense, Joint Staff, Air Force, and other agencies involved in defense andnational security policy. The Air Force is committed to providing a com-prehensive education process that provides a foundation for remainingthe world’s premier air and space force. By ensuring a quality educationin aerospace power for all Air Force members, the Air Force ensures airand space forces are employed as part of the joint team in the most effi-cient and effective manner. Across the continuum of education the AirForce offers educational opportunities through formal, informal, and vol-untary education programs that require the commitment of both com-

The Community Collegeof the Air Force

In the early 1970s with the draw-down of the Vietnam War, the Air

Force found its noncommissioned of-ficer force taking on more and moremid-level managerial responsibilitiespreviously accomplished by officers.At the same time, more Air Force jobswere moving into the high technol-ogy arena. In 1972 alone the Air Forceclassified more than 70 percent of itsjobs as high technology. Faced withthese emerging trends, Air Force lead-ers recognized that noncommissionedofficers would require additional edu-cational opportunities to meet thechallenges of tomorrow.

On 9 November 1971 the Air ForceChief of Staff, General John D. Ryan,agreed to the establishment of theCommunity College of the Air Force.On 25 January 1972, the Secretary ofthe Air Force approved the plan toactivate the college, and Air TrainingCommand established the college on1 April 1972 at Randolph AFB, Texas.

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manders and individuals. Professional development through education isthe bedrock of aerospace power.

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Training is light and lack of training is darkness. The problemfears the expert. A trained man is worth three untrained: that’s toolittle…say six; six is too little…say ten to one….

Alexander Suvorov

The only fence against the world is a thorough knowledge of it.

John Locke

CHAPTER THREE

TRAINING

Training provides the skills necessary for air and space forces toperform their functions and contribute to the accomplishment ofUnited States (US) national security objectives. All Air Force person-nel receive training as required throughout their careers. The increasingsophistication of weapon systems places an even greater demand on thosewho have the ultimate responsibility for employing these weapon sys-tems.

A trained force is vital for deterrence and for employing Air Forcecore competencies. To deter conflict, potential enemies must perceivethat the United States has the capability and resolve to rapidly respond tocrises with overwhelming force and engage in military operations eitherunilaterally or with multinational forces. In addition to preparing forces,training exercises provide a clear demonstration of capabilities and com-mitment to friend and foe alike. In the event deterrence fails, trainingsignificantly contributes to the vital edge over potential opponents.

OBJECTIVES

Training is the process of imparting knowledge and teaching spe-cific skills required to accomplish tasks under defined conditions.The objectives of Air Force training are to increase readiness and militaryeffectiveness. Training prepares individuals and units to employ aerospace

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power across the range of military operations. This is accomplishedthrough demanding curricula and frequent training under realistic condi-tions. In addition to individual skill development, training fosters team-work and an understanding of unit and individual contributions to theoverall mission and helps reinforce Air Force culture.

RESPONSIBILITY

Commanders are responsible for the training of their units andfor unit performance. Commanders should use the Air Force Task List inAFDD 1–1, appropriate Air Force policies and instructions, and their ownexperience to provide the direction, purpose, and motivation essential toprepare Air Force members for the range of military operations. To fulfilltheir training responsibilities, commanders should:

J base training on wartime requirements, peacetime tasking, core com-petencies, and applicable Air Force directives;

J assess current levels of unit capability;

J provide required resources for training;

J develop and implement effective training systems;

J demand rigorous evaluation programs;

J maintain personal proficiency and mission certification.

Commanders provide the continuing emphasis for remaining fo-cused on the operational mission. They centralize training planningand decentralize its execution while establishing effective communica-

Accessiontrainingintroduces newairmen to AirForce culture.

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tion between levels of command. Finally, as the principal mission leader,the commander’s operational proficiency and participation in training pro-grams demonstrate the mission’s overall importance to subordinates.

ASSUMPTIONS

Certain central assumptions form the basis for Air Force training. Theseassumptions are that training is:

J readily available;

J continuously updated;

J regularly evaluated;

J flexible enough to accommodate the needs of commanders.

These assumptions lay the foundation for any successful training pro-gram that has increased readiness and military effectiveness as its over-all objectives.

Combat Training

Realistic combat training is not a luxury, but a necessity. We haveinsisted on strong funding profiles for all combat training programs.

What began 20 years ago as a modest exercise concept known as Red Flaghas since become the backbone of USAF readiness. As one commanderput it, “What we did in DESERT STORM would have been impossible if theentire Air Force didn’t have flag exercise experience.” Now all Air Forceflag exercises are joint or combined. Similarly, the Air Force is a fullpartner in all major Army exercises at the National Training and JointReadiness Training centers. Finally, we bring high training standards toover 50 major joint and combined exercises around the globe each year.

Underpinning this, of course, is the realistic day-to-day training thatprepares our people for these exercises. Thus, we maintain high day-to-day training tempos across the force, and daily operations increasinglyemphasize composite and joint force operations to build on basic forma-tion skills. Finally, we continue to enhance combat training through simu-lation, but primarily as a supplement to flight operations. Teamwork anduncompromising standards measured in a realistic flight environment arethe touchstones of war-fighting excellence. We will continue to arm ourpeople with experiences that mimic the crucible of war in its most de-manding phases.

1995 Report of the Secretary of Defense to the President and the Congress

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TRAININGGUIDELINES

Beyond the central as-sumptions that form the ba-sis for training programs,the following guidelinesmaximize training valuewhen developing and con-ducting the training of airand space forces.

J Make training realistic.

J Conduct training for allforms and levels of mili-tary operations.

J Tailor training to the tar-get audience.

J Emphasize joint and mul-tinational training.

J Balance capability andcost.

J Evaluate training rigor-ously.

J Anticipate that combatperformance rarelyequals training perfor-mance.

The first guideline isrealism. Air and space forces should train in the manner they intend to fight,using training and exercise scenarios that simulate real world situations. Thisinvolves practicing operations and exercising contingency plans to in-clude combat stress and unpredictability. Training scenarios challengeindividuals to adapt to fluid environments. In this manner, commanderswill receive a more accurate picture of their units’ combat capabilitiesunder real world conditions. By emphasizing the goal to “train the way weoperate,” individuals are better prepared to meet the challenges of opera-tions.

AirIntelligence

Training

In July 1941, Major General George H.Brett, Chief of Air Corps—now that

Arnold had become Chief [Army AirForces] AAF—pointed out that the AirForce Combat Command did not havemore than twenty five officers assignedto intelligence duties who could be con-sidered even partially qualified for theirjobs. Brett urged that the AAF proceedwith plans to establish a basic intelligenceschool…Obviously, trained intelligenceofficers were better than ones untrained,and had an air intelligence trainingschool been organized before 1941, itwould have functioned more effectivelyonce war broke out. The Harrisburg AirIntelligence School—begun with little ad-vance planning, staffed with instructorswith no combat experience, enrolled withstudents unaccustomed to military affairs,and subject to the whims of a personnelsystem straining to respond to a host ofdemands—did surprisingly well. In De-cember 1943, the Commanding Generalof Eighth Air Force, Ira Eaker, stated inhis report at the conclusion of his as-signment, “Graduates of the IntelligenceSchool at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, hadreceived excellent basic training.”

John F. KreisPiercing The Fog: Intelligence and Army

Air Forces Operations in World War IIAir Force History and

Museums Program, 1996

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Training should be con-ducted for all forms ofmilitary operations. Com-prehensive training allowsAir Force forces the versa-tility to respond to asym-metric threats and the flex-ibility to meet challenges ina dynamic environment.Those charged with trainingair and space forces shouldavoid limiting training onlyto operations most likely tobe encountered. Likewise,those responsible for train-ing should avoid the ten-dency to only “train for thelast war.” Future militaryoperations may be signifi-cantly different from previ-ous conflicts. CertainMOOTW, such as peace-keeping and humanitarianassistance, may be based onthe inherent capabilities ofair and space forces but willrequire emphasis on differ-ent skills, tactics, and stafffunctions than do higher in-tensity operations.

Training programsmust be designed with theexperience and currentskill levels of the partici-pants in mind. Trainingobjectives should take into

consideration student abilities and requirements. There is no such thing as a“one-size-fits-all” training program. Individuals and units undergoing train-ing already possess certain skills which should be reinforced and haverequirements for improved performance or abilities which must be

Trainingfor War

After the Iraqi invasion in August andthe coalition deployment to the Gulf,

units conducted training under wartimeconditions both at home bases and intheater. Squadrons designated for Gulfduty underwent a training program fo-cusing on aspects of operations that wereconsidered politically unacceptable indensely populated Britain [where theywere based], for example, unsafe, toocostly, or environmentally hazardous forregular peacetime training. These in-cluded nighttime air-to-air, very-low-al-titude flight, and heavy load flying.

Once in theater, pilots continued totrain with even more realism, includinga heavier dose of night operations andflying strike and air-defense packages overmostly featureless desert terrain thatplaced heavier demands on navigationalaccuracy. Complex procedures of man-aging the airspace and safety practiceswere worked out and learned by alliedflight and ground crews.

As plans developed and the Iraqi air-defense threat was further assessed, aircrews began practicing for specific mis-sions and adapting training to the threatenvironment, including medium-altitudebombing. Fighter-bomber aircraft of allservices conducted “mirror-image” flightsthat duplicated the actual flight ranges,profiles, and weapons delivery that wouldbe required once combat operations com-menced.

James A. WinnefeldA League of Airman:

U.S. Air Power in the Gulf WarRAND Corporation, 1994

22

achieved. Training programs that are expected to meet the needs of every-one in the Air Force will instead be so generic as to have limited benefit.

Training of air and space forces will also emphasize joint andmultinational operations. Effective employment of aerospace power re-quires an understanding of the capabilities of other Services, components, al-lies, and potential enemy forces. The capabilities of other Services, compo-nents, and multinational forces may provide the decisive edge in combat.The training of air and space forces within joint and multinational opera-tions increases mutual awareness and refines operating standards andprocedures. Air Force personnel who provide training to the forces of othernations must understand the nature of these forces and recognize theeffects of different language, culture, geography, and political structures.

Training increases capability, but as the overall level of trainingincreases, the incremental cost of additional training competes forlimited resources with other demands. Commanders strive to achieve aproper balance between other demands and the capability gained by addi-tional training. Training programs should maximize use of expanding tech-nologies such as modeling and simulation, which may make it possible toachieve realistic training at reduced costs.

Rigorous evaluation provides feedback on the quality of air andspace forces and their training programs. While individual and unitcapabilities might be measured by a single “snapshot,” trends over time high-

Realistictraining across

the range ofmilitary

operationscreates a force

ready for avariety of

scenarios.

Training with foreign partnersprepares airmen for likelycontingencies.

23

light the positive and negative attributes of the training program itself. For thisreason, it may be better in some cases to have students evaluated by adifferent agency than the one which conducted the training. This allowsfor more objectivity in identifying student deficiencies and finding poten-tial problems in the training process.

Despite training in the most realistic of environments, actual per-formance during military operations may not attain levels of per-formance demonstrated during training. Military operations are de-manding and unpredictable. During training, constraints such as cost,safety, and practicality limit the ability to fully simulate actual militaryoperations. Personnel may have to do more, in less time, in war andMOOTW than in peacetime training. During military operations, frictionand uncertainty will be increased by factors such as tempo and fatigue. Asa consequence, airmen may face demands in actual military operations thatthey have not encountered during training.

LEVELS OF TRAINING

Continuous specialty training ensures Air Force members cansatisfy operational requirements throughout their careers. This pro-cess includes those training components designed to teach Air Force membersthe basic skills required to perform a specialty and those that refine those skillsover time. The concept of specialty training encompasses accession, op-erations, advanced, and continuation training.

Accession training prepares members for service by providing indoc-trination to the military culture, organization, and mission.

Operational training provides the necessary technical skills to en-sure individuals have a basic understanding of their job and how it con-tributes to the overall mission of the Air Force.

Advanced training increases competence by building upon the foun-dation established in operations training. This training better qualifiesindividuals to perform the unit’s mission. The establishment of mini-mum qualifications, combined with commander involvement, creates anorderly system of progression. This ensures individuals accumulate therequired experience and expertise for advancement.

Continuation training maintains and refines skills necessary to keepairmen ready to perform the mission. This training maintains the combat

24

edge, takes advantage of technological advances, increases unit experi-ence, and provides increased knowledge essential for individuals toprogress. Rigorous proficiency training provides the core of continuationtraining programs.

SUMMARY

Training forms the foundation for successful execution of theAir Force core competencies. Commanders are ultimately responsiblefor the capability and readiness of their units and are therefore respon-sible for the training of their units. Individual members also bear respon-sibility for achieving skills that result in the combat capability and readi-ness desired. Training programs should be based on a systematic build-ing-block approach that develops basic skills and builds upon them through-out the course of an airman’s career.

Officer Training School, left, is oneprogram providing accession training.Above, airmen continue to refine theirskills throughout their careers.

25

CHAPTER FOUR

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TOINSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

A major concern for every commander and supervisor is whether per-sonnel are adequately prepared to do their job. It is imperative that peoplereceive the right education and training at the right time. Decisions re-garding the proper timing and levels of preparation necessary for aparticular task, operation, or position should be made in a system-atic manner to ensure appropriateinstruction is developed, con-ducted, and evaluated. Such a pro-cess can produce alternatives fromwhich the most cost-effective solutionmay be chosen based on operationalrequirements, environmental con-straints, and the current abilities of thetarget audience.

TRAINING PROGRAMS

The basic goal of Air Force train-ing programs is to prepare individu-als to conduct missions across therange of military operations. Thiscan be accomplished through a demand-ing curriculum and frequent training un-der realistic conditions. In addition tofocusing on the individual, trainingsystems should be structured to foster

I have always thought that one man of tolerable abilities maywork great changes, and accomplish great affairs among mankind,if he first forms a good plan, and, cutting off all amusements orother employments that would divert his attention, makes theexecution of that same plan his sole study and business.

Benjamin Franklin

Air Force training programsshould fit into a comprehensivesystem.

26

teamwork and an understanding of unit and individual contributions tothe overall mission.

The challenge of any training system is to be flexible and adapt-able to the full spectrum of Air Force core competencies. As a part ofthe overall training process, it is essential the Air Force obtain expertisein the development and integration of training systems. Regardless of thetraining program or the level of military operations it supports, a system-atic process should be used to design and employ such systems.

EVALUATION

IMPLEMENT

DELIVERY SUPPORT

ADMINISTRATION

MANAGEMENT

DEVELOP

ANALYZE

D E S I G N

Figure 4.1. Instructional System Development Model

Training systems areonly effective when

they incorporatespecializedpersonnel,

equipment, andsupport.

27

When designing training systems, the Air Force uses the Instruc-tional System Development (ISD) model (see figure 4.1). Using thismodel, program designers determine specific objectives for student per-formance based on identified Air Force needs (e.g., through referencingthe Air Force Task List). They then determine how to measure studentperformance, and develop a curriculum and select instructional methodswhich will enable students to achieve the desired level of skill. Once thetraining is conducted and student performance has been evaluated, thedesigners determine the program’s effectiveness and adapt it if required.

A training system includes all items necessary to accomplish thedesired training goals. These items should include equipment, instruc-tors, curriculum, courseware, hardware, software, and logistics support.Training system designers should consider how to incorporate all the in-terdependent parts involved in accomplishing effective instruction.

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

Educational programs for airmen should also be developed usinga systematic approach. The ISD model may not always be appropriate foreducational systems, but those who are responsible for developing an educa-tional program should still use a systematic method to design it. An under-standing of desired outcomes is still essential, but the measurement ofstudent abilities is often more subjective in education than in training.

Education programs should be relevant to operational needs. Pro-gram designers need to ensure education complements training and en-ables airmen to better carry out the Air Force’s core competencies. PMEand PCE curriculum and instructional methods should relate directly tooperational requirements. Graduate education programs should be se-lected based on the needs of the particular position to be filled. Airmenseeking voluntary education should consider programs which improveknowledge or skills they need in the performance of their duties. Thechallenge is to translate educational requirements into educational expe-riences and integrate information, resources, and instructional techniquesinto overall course planning.

Education costs money, but then so does ignorance.

Sir Claus Moser

28

The methods for measuring instructional effectiveness shouldverify changes in student behavior as a result of instruction. Thegoals of educational curricula deal largely with knowledge learning andaffective learning (attitudes), rather than with psychomotor (physical ma-nipulation) skills. Evaluation systems must be able to demonstrate theeffects of instruction on knowledge and attitudes. This can be highly sub-jective in an educational program, but standards of performance need tobe established and measured to evaluate student learning.

OPERATIONAL EVALUATION

Education and training programs require continuous and rigor-ous evaluation. Operational evaluation provides feedback on the quality ofair and space forces and their instructional programs. Evaluation is an inte-gral element of the systematic approach. In addition to providing feed-back on the instructional program, the results of operational evaluations

PME programsshould helpairmen meetoperationalrequirements.

Program designersmust ensure systems

remain relevant tooperational needs.

29

may be used to critique the organization of forces, strategy, tactics, plan-ning, performance, and equipment design.

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

Selecting the most appropriate instructional method is crucial toensuring an educationally sound, cost-effective, and successfulcourse of instruction. Within the limitations of resource constraints,the method selected must enable the student to achieve stated courseobjectives. The degree of realism needed in the training or educationalsetting and the level of learning desired will generally govern the instruc-tional methods used.

Modern instructional technologies will become a future force mul-tiplier for instructional systems. These technologies can increase real-ism, improve student retention of material, and give the learner greater controlover the instructional environment. High levels of control and realism tendto enhance learning and should be exploited when and where appropri-ate. In many cases, adults learn better when they can control the learningsituation according to their individual needs. However, complete controlby the learner leads to inefficiencies in the learning process. Curriculumdevelopers and managers must seek a balance between traditional pas-sive instructional methods (such as lectures) and more active instruc-tional methods that provide varying degrees of learner control. The objec-tive of striking this balance is to maximize student learning within thefiscal and environmental constraints placed upon the instructional situa-tion.

EXERCISES AND WARGAMING

Exercises and wargaming are becoming increasingly importantmethods of providing instruction and evaluating both student per-formance and the effectiveness of training and education programs.Exercises contribute greatly to training while wargaming is typically more ap-propriate for education. The same guidelines governing education and train-ing should be followed when developing exercises and wargames to en-sure they help meet the desired instructional outcomes. The future ofeducation and training in the Air Force will increasingly rely on the use ofexercises, wargames, and other simulations that capitalize upon advancedinstructional technologies.

30

Exercises are designed toimprove individual andunit skills, allowing forcesto put into practice theconcepts and methods theyhave studied. Many ideas dis-cussed in hypothetical terms orcase studies may not be fullyunderstood until experiencedfirsthand. For example, recentmilitary operations have dem-onstrated the interdepen-dence of all elements of theAir Force. Acquisition, logis-tics, air base defense, com-munications, intelligence,and reconstitution all affectmission effectiveness and theability to sustain operations.Application of these elementsin an exercise allows learners to go beyond the limitations of a classroomand see how the relationship between different forces leads to the mosteffective use of aerospace power. The value of an exercise extends be-yond the exercise itself and requires a comprehensive report of experi-ence gained. A critical review of exercise experiences can help shapefuture doctrine, strategies, and operations.

Wargaming at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels of waremphasizes educational outcomes, improving judgment and deci-sion making for students with various degrees of experience andability. Through wargaming scenarios, existing strategies and future conceptsmay be tested that would otherwise be impractical or impossible to validate ordisprove. At the strategic level senior leaders develop judgment in apply-ing the core competencies across the range of military operations. At theoperational level wargaming emphasizes judgment in the employment ofair and space forces in an integrated, coherent manner. The goal ofwargaming at the operational level is to enhance the individual’s abilityto design, plan, integrate, react, and redirect operations to support strate-gic objectives. At the tactical level wargaming focuses on individual andunit specialized knowledge, technical skills, and the development of tacti-cal knowledge.

Exercise

Amilitary maneuver or simulatedwartime operation involving plan-

ning, preparation, and execution. It iscarried out for the purpose of trainingand evaluation. It may be combined,joint, or single-Service exercise, depend-ing on participating organizations.

Wargame

Asimulation, by whatever means,of a military operation involving

two or more opposing forces, usingrules, data, and procedures designed todepict an actual or assumed real lifesituation.

Joint Pub 1–02DOD Dictionary of Military and

Associated Terms

31

SUMMARY

Air Force education and training programs are both essential andexpensive. The need to educate and train Air Force personnel will alwayscompete for limited resources with other demands. Commanders shouldstrive to achieve a mission-appropriate balance between the other de-mands and the capabilities gained from educating and training their per-sonnel. To assist the commander in this task, developers and managers ofinstructional programs should make use of appropriate instructional prin-ciples, methods, and technologies, which make it possible to achieve thehighest quality instruction at minimal cost.

At the very Heart of Warfare lies Doctrine�

32

33

Chief of Staff of the Air Force Professional Reading List for Officers

Basic ListSun Tzu, The Art of War

Phillip Meilinger, 10 Propositions Regarding Air Power

James Stokesbury, A Short History of Air Power

Donald Phillips, Lincoln on Leadership

Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff

James Hudson, Hostile Skies

DeWitt Copp, A Few Great Captains

Geoffrey Perret, Winged Victory

John Sherwood, Officers in Flight Suits

T.R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War

Jack Broughton, Thud Ridge

Harold Moore, We Were Soldiers Once…and Young

Richard Reynolds, Heart of the Storm

Intermediate ListPeter Paret, Makers of Modern Strategy

Tony Mason, Air Power: A Centennial Appraisal

George C. Kenney, General Kenney Reports

Donald Slayton, Deke!

Lee Kennett, The First Air War

Thomas Hughes, Over Lord

Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea

Mark Clodfelter, The Limits of Airpower

Richard Hallion, Storm Over Iraq

Advanced ListCarl von Clausewitz, On War

I.B. Holley, Ideas and Weapons

James Belasco and Ralph Stayer, Flight of the Buffalo

Walter McDougall, …The Heavens and the Earth

Raymond H. Fredette, The Sky on Fire

34

R.A. Overy, Why the Allies Won

Phillip Meilinger, Hoyt S. Vandenberg: The Life of a General

Ulysses Sharp, Strategy for Defeat

James Winnefeld and Dana Johnson, Joint Air Operations

Roger A. Beaumont, Joint Military Operations

Michael Gordon & Bernard Trainor, The Generals’ War

John Warden, The Air Campaign

35

Chief of Staff of the Air ForceProfessional Reading List

for Enlisted Members

Basic ListRobinson Risner,The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of

the North Vietnamese

Phillip Meilinger, 10 Propositions Regarding Air Power

Intermediate ListPhillip Meilinger, 10 Propositions Regarding Air Power

Donald Phillips, Lincoln on Leadership

Lee Arbon, They Also Flew: The Enlisted Pilot Legacy 1912–1942

Advanced ListJohn F. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage

Michael Shaara, Killer Angels

John L. Frisbee, Makers of the United States Air Force

Geoffrey Perret, Winged Victory

36

Chief of Staff of the Air ForceProfessional Reading List for Civilians

Grades GS 1–8Robinson Risner, The Passing of the Night: My Seven Years as a Prisoner of

the North Vietnamese

Phillip Meilinger, 10 Propositions Regarding Air Power

Lee Arbon, They Also Flew: The Enlisted Pilot Legacy 1912–1942

Donald Phillips, Lincoln on Leadership

John F. Kennedy, Profiles in Courage

Michael Shaara, Killer Angels

John L. Frisbee, Makers of the United States Air Force

Geoffrey Perret, Winged Victory

Grades GS 9–12Sun Tzu, The Art of War

Phillip Meilinger, 10 Propositions Regarding Air Power

James Stokesbury, A Short History of Air Power

Donald Phillips, Lincoln on Leadership

Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff

James Hudson, Hostile Skies

DeWitt Copp, A Few Great Captains

Geoffrey Perret, Winged Victory

John Sherwood, Officers in Flight Suits

T.R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War

Jack Broughton, Thud Ridge

Harold Moore, We Were Soldiers Once…and Young

Richard Reynolds, Heart of the Storm

Grades GS 13–14Peter Paret, Makers of Modern Strategy

Tony Mason, Air Power: A Centennial Appraisal

George C. Kenney, General Kenney Reports

Donald Slayton, Deke!

Lee Kennett, The First Air War

37

Thomas Hughes, Over Lord

Robert F. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea

Mark Clodfelter, The Limits of Air Power

Richard Hallion, Storm Over Iraq

Grades GS–15 and AboveCarl von Clausewitz, On War

I.B. Holley, Ideas and Weapons

James Belasco and Ralph Stayer, Flight of the Buffalo

Raymond H. Fredette, The Sky on Fire

R.J. Overy, Why the Allies Won

Walter McDougal, The Heavens and the Earth

Phillip Meilinger, Hoyt S. Vandenberg: The Life of a General

Ulysses Sharp, Strategy for Defeat

James Winnefeld & Dana Johnson, Joint Air Operations

Roger A. Beaumont, Joint Military Operations

Michael Gordon & Bernard Trainor, The Generals’ War

John Warden, The Air Campaign

38

GLOSSARY

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAF Army Air ForceAFDD Air Force Doctrine DocumentAU Air University

ISD Instructional System Development

MOOTW military operations other than war

NCO noncommissioned officer

PCE professional continuing educationPME professional military education

ROTC Reserve Officer Training Corps

UNAAF Unified Action Armed ForcesUS United States

Definitions

certification. A formal indication of an individual’s ability to perform a taskto prescribed standards. (AFI 36–2201)

continuation training. Training to maintain basic skill proficiency or im-prove the capability of individuals to perform the unit mission. (AFI 36–2201)

military education. The systematic instruction of individuals in subjectswhich will enhance their knowledge of the science and art of war. (Joint Pub1–02)

military operations other than war. Operations that encompass the useof military capabilities across the range of military operations short of war.These military actions can be applied to complement any combination ofthe other instruments of national power and occur before, during, and afterwar. Also called MOOTW. (Joint Pub 1–02) [An umbrella term encompassing avariety of military operations conducted by the Department of Defense that nor-mally complement the other instruments of national power. These military opera-tions are as diverse as providing support and assistance (when consistent with USlaw) in a nonthreatening environment, and conducting combat not associatedwith war.] {Italicized definition in brackets applies only to the Air Force and isoffered for clarity.} (AFDD 1)

39

military training. The instruction of personnel to enhance their capacity toperform specific military functions and tasks; the exercise of one or moremilitary units conducted to enhance their combat readiness. (Joint Pub 1–02)

operational level of war. The level of war at which campaigns and majoroperations are planned, conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategicobjectives within theaters or areas of operations. Activities at this level linktactics and strategy by establishing operational objectives needed to accom-plish the strategic objectives, sequencing events to achieve the operationalobjectives, initiating actions, and applying resources to bring about and sus-tain these events. These activities imply a broader dimension of time orspace than do tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative support oftactical forces, and provide the means by which tactical successes are ex-ploited to achieve strategic objectives. (Joint Pub 1–02)

qualification training. Hands-on performance training that personnel de-sign to qualify an airman in a specific position. This training occurs bothduring and after upgrade training to maintain up-to-date qualifications. (AFI36–2201)

specialty training. The total training process (life cycle) used to qualifyairmen in their assigned specialty. (AFI 36–2201)

strategic level of war. The level of war at which a nation, often as a mem-ber of a group of nations, determines national or multinational (alliance orcoalition) security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses nationalresources to accomplish those objectives. Activities at this level establishnational and multinational military objectives; sequence initiatives; definelimits and assess risks for the use of military and other instruments of na-tional power; develop global plans or theater war plans to achieve theseobjectives; and provide military forces and other capabilities in accordancewith strategic plans. (Joint Pub 1–02)

tactical level of war. The level of war at which battles and engagementsare planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tac-tical units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrange-ment and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each other and to theenemy to achieve combat objectives. (Joint Pub 1–02)

technical training. Instruction and study designed to qualify individuals intheir assigned specialty. (AFI 36–2201)