E_English Grammar Course Chapter VI The Complex Sentence

E_English Grammar Course E_English Grammar Course

Chapter VI

The Complex Sentence

1. Subordination

2. Classifications of subordinate clauses

3. Subordinators

4. Nominal clauses

5. Adverbial clauses

6. Comparative and Comment clauses

IssuesIssues

SubordinationSubordination1

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SubordinationSubordination - Non-symmetrical relation held between two clauses: one clause is a constituent/ part of the other


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SubordinationSubordinationi.e. one clause is -Non-symmetrical relation, a constituent/ part of the other

1 2 21[I like John [because John likes me] ]1 1[superordinate/ independent/ main clause ] 2 2 [subordinate/ dependent clause]

- Non-symmetrical relation held between two clauses: one clause is a constituent/ part of the other


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SubordinationSubordination Hierarchy of clauses

X- Y- Z-( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] )

S V O A

Z = subordinate to YY = subordinate to XY & Z = dependent clausesX = independent clause

Classifications of subordinate clausesClassifications of subordinate clauses2

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Classifications of subordinate clauses

By structural type By functional type


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By structural type Finite clause

Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause


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Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause

- contains a subject and a predicate- verb phrase having tense, person & number concord, & mood


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Nonfinite clause

Infinitive with to

Infinitive without to -ed participle

-ing participle


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Nonfinite clause

Infinitive with to


-ing participle

Without S: The best thing would be to tell everybody.With S: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.


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Nonfinite clause

Infinitive with to


-ing participle

Without S: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. With S: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my

passionate love for Celia..


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Nonfinite clause

Infinitive with to


-ing participle

Without S: All I did was hit him on the head.With S: Rather than John do it, I’d prefer

to give the job to Mary.


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Nonfinite clause

Infinitive with to


-ing participle

Without S: Covered in snow, he looked like a snowman.With S: We left the room and went home, the job finished.


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Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause

1. Ellipsis of the verb ‘be’- Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children.- Whether right or wrong, he always dominates the arguments.


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Nonfinite clause

Verbless clause

2. Reduction of non-finite clauses- Too nervous to reply, he stared at the book in front of him

and dared not look up.


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By function Nominal clause

Adverbial clause

Comparative clause

Comment clause

SubordinatorsSubordinators3

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Subordinating conjunctions

Simple subordinators

Compound subordinators

Correlative subordinators


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after, though, although, as, because, before, if, oncesince, that, until, when

where, while, etc.


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Correlative subordinators- ending with ‘that’: in that, so that, such that …- ending with optional ‘that’: now (that), provided (that), supposing (that), seeing (that)…- ending with ‘as’: so far as, as long as, so as (to do sth)…- ending with ‘than’: sooner than, rather than…- others: as if, as though, in case


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if… then, although… yet, as… as, so… as, so… thatno sooner… than, more/ less… than, the… the, whether… or


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Other indicators ofsubordination

Wh-element initial markers

Subject-operator inversion

No marker


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No markerI don’t know who knocked at the door last night.


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No markerHad it not been for your help, I would have died.


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No marker

1. nominal clausee.g. I suppose (that) you’re right.

2. comment clausee.g. You’re right, I suppose.

Nominal clausesNominal clauses4

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Nominal Clauses

Finite Non-finite

that clause

wh-interrogative clause

Yes - No interrogative clause

Nominal relative clause

to-infinitive nominal clause

nominal –ing clause

bare infinitive


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Finite Nominal Clauses

that clause




- S: That you were wrong is undeniable.

- Od: I knew that I was wrong.

- Cs: The problem is that he refuses to

speak in court.

- Appositive: The fact that he hates English

makes it hard for him to study it.

- Cadj: I’m sure that things will improve.


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that clause




- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cadj,

& Cprep (They haven’t decided on who

wins the cup.)

- Leave a gap of unknown information


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that clause




- Is formed with if/ whether

e.g. Do you know if/ whether the teacher

has come yet?


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that clause




- S: What he is pursuing is fame.- Od: I want to see whoever in charge of this department.- Oi: She gave whoever came into the storea handful of sweets.- Cs: University is where you train for yourfuture career.- Co: You can call me whatever you like.- Ap: Tell me your nickname, that is, the way your friends often call you.- Cprep: Vote for whichever candidate youlike.


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Non-finite nominal clauses



bare infinitive

- S: To become an MC has always been my dream.- Od: John wanted her to open the door.- Cs: My wish is to stay here one more week.- Ap: His ambition to be a famous writer was fulfilled.- Cadj: I’m glad to help you.


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bare infinitive

- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cprep, & Cadj- Genitive case in formal stylee.g. I’m surprised at his making that mistake.- Objective or common case:e.g. I’m surprised at him making that mistake.


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bare infinitive

- ‘to’ is optional in case of ‘do’ proform.

E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas.

- bare infinitive is obligatory when the

infinitive clause is initial

E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did.

Adverbial clausesAdverbial clauses5

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Time

Place

Condition & concession

Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison

Proportion & Preference


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- after, before, until, since, when + finite clause

- after, before, since, until, when(ever), while + V-ing

- once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed

- as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- Introduced by ‘where’/ ‘wherever’

E.g. When I retire, I will travel around the world.

Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but rubble.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison

Proportion & Preference- Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance

on another.

- Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that…

E.g. If you’re kind to her, she will do anything for you.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison

Proportion & Preference- Concessive clauses imply a contrast between two circumstances.

- Introduced by though, although, while, whereas, even if

E.g. Although he isn’t good-looking, people are still attracted to him.


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Clauses of condition or concession

Alternative conditional-concessive clauses

Universal conditional-concessive clauses


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Alternative conditional-concessive clauses

E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them,we’ll celebrate tonight.

Combine conditional meaning withsubjunctive meaning


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Universal conditional-concessive clauses

E.g. No matter how hard he tried, he could never summon enough courage to tell her the truth.

Indicate a free choice from among any number of conditions


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- introduced by because, since, as- I didn’t lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment. (adjunct)- They’ve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising.

(disjunct of reason)


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise

(in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in the main clause)

- introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that

E.g. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy our game.

= The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- are adjuncts

- introduced by (in order) (for N) to, so as to, so that

E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up.

He tried to improve his English so that he could study abroad.

- has ‘putative’ meaning (modal auxiliaries are used)


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


- are more factual than putative may contain an ordinary verb form

without a modal auxiliary

- introduced by so that/so (informal)

E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison

Proportion & PreferenceClauses of manner – (exactly) as, (just) as

(Just) as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison

Proportion & PreferenceClauses of comparison – as if, as though

He looks as if he is going to faint.

He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


Clauses of proportion express a ‘proportionality’ or equivalence

of tendency between two circumstances

E.g.

As he grew older, (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased.

The more he went deeper into the forest, the more scared he felt.


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Time

Place


Reason or cause

Circumstance

Purpose

Result

Manner & Comparison


Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/ sooner than

E.g. Rather than go there by air, I’d take the train.

Rather than sitting here complaining, we should act.

Rather than a new shirt, he bought a dictionary.

Comparative & comment clausesComparative & comment clauses6

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Comp-element S: More people eat at KFC than any other fastfood restaurant.

Cs: I’m healthier than most people of my age.

Od: She eats much more than me.

Oi: Santa has brought more children joy than anybody else.

A: She works harder than my brother.


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Ellipsis in Comparative Clause

1. Optional ellipsis

James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake.

James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it.

James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did.

James enjoyed the cake more than Susan.

2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object)

- James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed.

+ James know more about the theatre than Susan knows.


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Ambiguity

He loves the dog more than his wife.

through ellipsis

with ‘too’ & ‘enough’

He’s too ill to move.


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Comment Clauses Features

Forms


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Forms- can be either disjuncts or conjuncts

- may occur initially, finally, or medially

- have a separate tone unit

E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know, have

been our neighbor for twenty years.


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Forms

(1) Like a main clause

At that time, I believe, he didn’t understand a thing.


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Forms

(2) Like an adverbial clause (with as)

I’m a perfectionist, as you may know.


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Forms

(3) Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct

What is more, we lost all our hope and courage.


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Forms

(4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct

To be honest with you, I didn’t understand a thing he said.


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Forms

(5) –ing clause as style disjunct

I’m concerned, speaking as a linguist, about the language

of the young people today.


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Forms

(6) –ed clause as style disjunct

Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

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E_English Grammar Course Chapter VI The Complex Sentence