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EFFECT OF FEEDING DECORTICATED COTTONSEED
CAKE ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE IN
CROSSBRED CALVES
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE
NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE, KARNAL
(DEEMED UNIVERSITY)
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF VETERINARY SCIENCE
IN
ANIMAL NUTRITION
BYREKHA MOURYA
(B.V.Sc. & A.H.)
DAIRY CATTLE NUTRITION DIVISION
NATIONAL DAIRY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(I.C.A.R.)
KARNAL-132001 (HARYANA), INDIA
2013Regn. No. 2091109
DEDICATED DEDICATED DEDICATED DEDICATED
TO MYTO MYTO MYTO MY
FAMILY ,FAMILY ,FAMILY ,FAMILY ,
PROFESSION PROFESSION PROFESSION PROFESSION
&&&&
GUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDEGUIDE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Words have always failed to express the magnitude of feelings, particularly
when it comes to acknowledging the help rendered.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my preceptor Dr. J.P. Sehgal,
Principal Scientist, Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division, NDRI, Karnal, for his benevolent
and sagacious guidance, constant encouragement, invaluable suggestions, keen
interest, sympathetic understanding and morale boost up during the entire course of
this research work. I feel lucky to get a mentor like Sehgal sir who helped me at every
time when I was in need of help and guidance of any and at any time. My
indebtedness is reserved for his goodwill and patience during entire period of my
research work. I am really thankful to him for everything.
I express my profound sense of gratitude to all the members of my advisory
committee namely, Dr. S.S. Kundu, Principal Scientist& Head DCN Division; Dr. A.
K. Tyagi, Principle Scientist, DCN Division; Dr. Mahendra Singh, Principle
Scientist, DCP Division; Dr. Shiv Prasad, Principle Scientist, LPM Section; for
extending their incisive guidance, valuable suggestions and constructive ideas at
every stage of this endeavour.
I am also thankful to Dr. Madhu Mohini, Principle Scientist, DCN Division;
and Dr. Anjali Aggarwal, Principle Scientist, DCP Division for their immense help
in Invitro and haematological study.
My sincere thanks are also to Dr. A.K. Srivastava, Director, NDRI, Karnal for
providing necessary facilities for carrying out this study and ICAR for financial
assistance in the form of Junior Research Fellowship during my Master’s
programme.
I am also very much thankful to all my respected seniors Drs. Ajaz sir,
Ishtiyak sir, Vijay sir, Nazam sir, Sanjay Sawant sir, Sukhjinder Jeet sir ,Madhu
Suman mam, Anjila mam, Sonali mam, Farukh sir, Sakendra sir, Umesh sir, who
helped me in every way when I was in need of their help. I wish to express my cordial
appreciation and special thanks for their kind support and affection, which has
enabled me to complete this work.
No words are enough to thank my batchmates Drs. Lalesh, Shailesh, Vimlesh,
Mithlesh, Puneet, Vikrantjeet, Suraj, Nana, Bhawana, Abhilasha, Bisitha and Tho for
their whole hearted bolster during the entire period in this institute.
The support and encouragement of my roommate Anjali, my seniors in
Alaknanda hostel Drs. Rupal mam, Bharti mam and Shilpi mam, whose cooperation
made my stay at the institute a pleasurable.
The help rendered by Mr. H. K. Meenaji and Mr. Rajpalji (Uncle ji) during my
research work is duly acknowledged. A formal line of appreciation is not sufficient to
express my gratitude and indebtedness to them.
I am also thankful to Virenderji, Surjeet, Lalit, Sandeep and other worker of
cattle yard for their cooperation and help during entire the experiment.
Words would never be able to fathom the depth of my feeling for my loving
husband and all family members, who displayed enormous strengths, courage and
preservance in helping me to complete my degree.
At last but not least, I record my sincere thanks to all beloved and respected
people, who helped me, could not find separate mention.
Date: July, 2013 (Rekha Mourya)
CONTENTS
Chapter Title Page no.
1 Introduction 1-4
2 Review of literature 5-17
2.1 Cotton crop production in world 5
2.2 Feeding value of cottonseed cake 6
2.3 Effect of cottonseed or cottonseed cake on feed intake
and digestibility of nutrients
8
2.4 Effect of decorticated cottonseed cake on animal growth
performance
9
2.5 Effect of cottonseed cake on lactation performance 10
2.6 Effect of cottonseed / cottonseed cake on blood
biochemical profile
11
2.7 Cottonseed cake as a substitute for soybean meal 12
2.8 Cottonseed cake vis-à-vis gossypol (anti nutritional
factor )
14
2.9 Plasma gossypol in lactating dairy cattle fed cottonseed
and cottonseed cake
16
3 Material and method 18-34
3.1 Proximate analysis of different feed ingredients 18
3.2 Estimation of cell wall constituents 22
3.3 In vitro (1st stage) technique (Tilly and Terry, 1963) 24
3.4 In vivo study 26
3.5 Metabolic trial 29
3.6 Haematological parameters 31
3.7 Stastical analysis 35
4 Results and discussion 35-56
4.1 Proximate composition and cell wall components of
different ingredients concentrate mixture
35
4.2 Invitro studies 49
4.3 Growth study 41
4.4 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal with
cottonseed cake or decorticated cottonseed cake on
43
Chapter Title Page no.
voluntary feed intake, productive performance and
percent feed efficiency
4.5 Nutrient intake and nutrient utilization 46
4.6 Nutritive evaluation in terms of percent digestible crude
protein (DCP) and total percent total digestible nutrients
(% TDN)
49
4.7 Nitrogen balance 50
4.8 Blood biochemical profile 52
4.9 Economics of feeding 54
5 Summary and conclusion 57-59
6 Bibliography i - xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
No. Title
Page
No.
3.1 Description of animals 28
4.1 Percent ingredient composition of experimental
concentrate mixtures fed to female crossbred calves 36
4.2 Percent chemical composition and cell wall contents of
different ingredients used in concentrate mixture (on
Dm basis)
37
4.3 Percent chemical composition of concentrate mixtures
SBM ‘C’, ‘T-1’( replacing 10 parts of soybean meal with
cottonseed cake expeller), ‘T-2’ (replacing 10 parts of
soybean meal with decorticated cottonseed cake
solvent extracted), green oats and wheat straw
38
4.4 In vitro degradability of different cakes after incubation
at 48 hrs. 40
4.4(a) In vitro degradability of different concentrate mixtures
after incubation at 48 hrs. 41
4.5 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on fortnightly body weight changes (kg)
in female crossbred calves
42
4.6 Productive performance of female crossbred calves fed
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) as a partial replacement of soybean meal
(SBM) in complete feed mixtures
45
4.7 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on nutrient intake (kg) in female
crossbred calves (during metabolic trial)
47
Table
No. Title
Page
No.
4.8 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on digestibility coefficient (%) of various
nutrient of different complete feed mixture in female
crossbred calves
49
4.9 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on nutritive evaluation of rations in terms
of % DCP and % TDN in female crossbred calves
50
4.10 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on nitrogen balance in female crossbred
calves
51
4.11 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on blood biochemical profile in female
crossbred calves
53
4.12 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC) on economics of feeding
55
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
No. Title
After
Page No.
1 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)
with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated
cottonseed cake (DCSC) on fortnightly body weight
changes in female crossbred calves
42
LIST OF PHOTOS
Photo
No. Title
A/Page
No.
1 Decorticated cottonseeds cake 27
2 Animal during Metabolic trial 29
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
% = Percentage
* = multiplication
@ = At the rate
˚C = degree Celsius
ADF = Acid detergent fibre
< = Less then
≤ = less or equal
> = More than
µl = Microlitre
a.m. = Ante Meridian
ad lib = ad libitum
ANOVA = Analysis of varience
ARC = Agriculture research council
BW = Body weight
CaCl2 = Calcium chloride
cm = centimeter
CP = Crude protein
CSC = cottonseed cake
DCSC = decorticated cottonseed cake
SBM = soybean meal
d = days
CPD = Crude protein digestibility
CRD = Complete randomized design
DCP = Digestible Crude protein
DM = Dry matter
DMD = Dry matter digestibility
DMI = Dry matter intake
EE = Ether extract
et. al. = Co-workers
Fig. = Figure (s)
g = Gram (s)
h/hr = Hour
HCl = Hydrochloric acid
i.e. = That is
IVDCPDR = In vitro ruminal crude protein digestibility
IVDMDR = In vitro ruminal dry matter digestibility
IVOMDR = In vitro ruminal organic matter digestibility
KCl = Potassium chloride
KF = Karan Fries
kg = Kilogram
kg/d = Kilogram per day
lbs = Pound
Lt. = litre (s)
m = meter (s)
mg = Milligram (s)
MgCl2.7H2O = Magnesium chloride hydrated
mm = millimeter (s)
MY = Milk Yield
NDF = Neutral detergent fibre
Na2CO3 = Sodium carbonate
Na2HPO4 = Disodium hydrogen phosphate
NaHCO3 = Sodium bicarbonate
NDRI = National Dairy Research Institute
No. = Number
NRC = National Research Council
N.S. = Not significant
NFE = Nitrogen free extract
OMD = Organic matter digestibility
p.m. = Post Meridian
RDP = Rumen degradable protein
RUP = Rumen Undegradable protein
SE = Standard error
Sr. No. = Serial number
SEM = Standard Error mean
TDN = Total digestible nutrients
TMR = Total mixed ration
UDP = Undegradable protein
v/v = Volume by volume
VFA = Volatile fatty acid
Yr = Year
ABSTRACT
To observed the effects of partial replacement of soybean (de-oiled) meal with cottonseed expeller or decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted on voluntary feed intake, digestibility of nutrients, nutritive evaluation of the feeds; growth of calves; blood profile and % feed efficiency; 18 karan fries female calves of similar age (8-9 months) and body weight (114-115 kg) were randomly divided into three groups of each and allotted diets ‘C’, ‘T-1’ or ‘T-2’. The diet ‘C’ having 15% soybean meal. Which was replaced by 10 parts with cottonseed cake expeller in ‘T-1’ diet or 10 parts by decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted in ‘T-2’ diet. All the crossbred female calves were fed individually rations (wheat straw: concentrate 50:50) along with 10kg oats green fodder/ animal/ day. Body weight was recorded fortnightly and blood samples collected at monthly intervals. An in vitro rumen degradability study of different diets was also undertaken to determine the rumen degradability of DM, OM and CP. The in vitro rumen dry matter degradability (IVDMDR) (%) significantly higher (P≤0.05) in ‘C’ (71.41±1.26) followed by ‘T-1’ (67.92±1.10) and ‘T-2’ (65.05±0.93) group. The in vitro rumen organic matter degradability (IVOMDR) (%) was significantly higher (P≤0.05) in ‘C’ (67.03±0.85) and lowest in ‘T-2’ (55.03±0.91) group. In vitro rumen crude protein degradability (IVCPDR) was significantly lower (P≤0.05) in ‘T-2’ (56.54±1.25) followed by ‘T-1’ (59.04±1.41) and ‘C’ (65.74±1.73). The dry matter intake (kg/day) was 4.14±0.40, 3.83±0.44 and 4.04±0.39 in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ respectively. The dry matter intake (kg/100kg BW) was 2.50±0.42, 2.35±0.45 and 2.71±0.57 in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ respectively, which did not differ significantly. The average daily gains were observed to be significantly higher (P≤0.05) in group ‘T-2’ (750±51g/day) than group ‘C’ (634±61 g/day) and group ‘T-1’ (583±37 g/day). The digestibility of ether extract (%) was significantly (P≤0.05) higher for ‘T-1’ (87.16±1.04) and ‘T-2’ (86.39±0.93) than ‘C’ (79.34±1.43). Whereas, digestibility of DM, OM, CP, CF, ADF, NDF and NFE did not differ significantly in all three groups. Nitrogen balance was significantly higher in ‘T-2’ (37.30±5.61) and ‘C’ (30.95±2.61) than ‘T-1’ (28.78±1.14), all animals were found in positive nitrogen balance. There was no significant difference in nitrogen intake and nitrogen retention in all three groups. Blood urea nitrogen was significantly higher (P≤0.05) in ‘T-2’ (18.08±0.64) than ‘C’ (14.77±0.61) and ‘T-1’ (14.67±0.58) while blood glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin: globulin ratio and haemoglobin not differ significantly in all three groups. The cost for per kg body weight gain was(Rs) 73.65, 69.38 and 56.78 in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ respectively. It can be concluded that soybean meal de-oiled can be replaced 10 parts with decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted to have higher growth rate; nutritive digestibility; nutritive evaluation and % feed efficiency in growing female calves.
प ( )
( ( ) , ,
, , औ %
( ८-९ औ ११४-११५ .) औ ' ', ' -1' ' -2' । ' ' १५% , १ ' -1' ( ) औ १ ' -2' ( ) । १ / / : ( : ५ :५ ) ।
औ . , औ । ( . . .ऍ . . ) (%) ' ' (७१.४१ ±
१.२६) ' -1' (६७.९२ ± १.१ ) औ ' -2' (६५. ५ ± .९३) । .
(%) ' ' (६७. ३ ± .८५) ) ' -2' (५५. ३ ± .९१) । . . . . . . ' -2' (५६.५४ ± १.२५) औ ' -1' (५९. ४ ± १.४१) ' ' (६५.७४ ± १.७३) . ( / ) ' ', ' -1' औ ' -2' ४.१४ ± .४ ,
३.८३± .४४ औ ४. ४ ± .३९ । ( ./ १ ) ' ', ' -1' औ ' -2' : २.५ ± .४२, २.३५ ± .४५ औ २.७१: ± .५७ । औ ' -2' (७५ ± ५१ / ) औ ' ' (६३४ ± ६१ / ) ' -1' (५८३ ± ३७ / ) । (%) ( ≤ 0.05) ' -1' (८६.३९ ± .९३)
औ ' -2' (८७.१६ ± १. ४) ' ' (७९.३४± १.४३) . , ,
, . ., , , औ । '' -2' (३७.३ ± ५.६१) औ ' ' (३ .९५ ± २.६१) -1' (२८.७८± १.१४)
, । औ ।
' -2' (१८. ८ ± .६४) ' ' (१४.७७ ± .६१) औ ' -1' (१४.६७± .५८) , , , , , : औ
। ' ', ' -1'
औ ' -2' : . ७३.६५, ६९.३८ औ ५६.७८ .
, , % औ १ ( ।
CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER –––– 1111
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
1 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
INTRODUCTION
Due to population explosion in India, there will be additional needs of
oils and fats besides grains. As there is a big shortage in oil seeds due to low
production and also export of quality oil seeds; the oil mills are extracting
complete oil from seeds or cakes through solvent extraction. Thus compared
to the oil seed cake solvent extracted cake are made available in plenty for
animals. In these days conventional protein supplements, such as full fat
soya, soya oil cake, soybean meal, mustard oil cake and groundnut cake tend
to increase the cost of animal production due to either their being transported
from other regions or being considered as export commodity in India. Thus,
the replacement of traditional ingredients of feeds with alternatives should be
attempted to lower the maintenance and production costs. The rations
formulated from alternative ingredients with small quantity of traditional
supplements must be efficient and economical, and should offer the same
performance as that of other balanced compounded feeds.
Cotton is very important cash crop in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra
and Gujarat. After removing the cotton fibre, the seeds are available for oil
production. Because of use of cottonseed oil in vegetable ghee preparation,
the expeller pressed cotton seed or decorticated cottonseed cake is becoming
available for animals. Hence, it will be in the interest of the animal nutritionists
to know their nutritive value for ruminants. As also now a days due to
increased prices and less availability of soybean meal dairy farmers are
seeking a suitable and viable alternate protein supplement to soybean meal or
full fat soybean (extruded). Among the alternatives cotton seed meal (solvent
extracted) is one which contain 38-44% crude protein, though it contain less
protein than soybean meal de-oiled (47%) but matches to soybean full fat as a
protein source (38%).
Several oil seeds have been investigated for this purpose (Njike, 1977;
Nzekwe and Olomu, 1982; Bamgbose, 1995). Cottonseed cake is a traditional
protein and energy supplement in dairy cattle ration and as an alternative to
soybean meal contains 68.31% total digestible nutrients (TDN), 38.03% crude
protein (CP), 34.92% neutral detergent fibre and 20.37% non-fibrous
2 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
carbohydrates (Valadares Filho et al., 2006). It also has reasonable
palatability and is available at a lower cost than soybean meal, thereby
making its use in animal feed a viable alternative (Lana, 2000).Whole
Cottonseed, cottonseed meal (decorticated) and cottonseed meal
(undecorticated) all are excellent protein ingredients. Whole cottonseed is
high in protein, energy and fiber. It is also a good, though, variable source of
thiamine but a poor source of carotene (Obioha, 1992).
It is a good source of phosphorus and vitamin E and is easily available
in considerable quantity in India. Supplementation of crushed cottonseed in
the ration of cow’s decreases heat increment lowers body temperature and
reduces heat stress of summer (Moody, 1962). In cotton growing regions,
whole cottonseed (WCS) is readily available and in some cases, it becomes
economical to use small-scale expander-expeller equipment to remove a
portion of the oil, which creates a by-product feed ingredient referred to as
expanded-expelled cottonseed. Approximately half the oil is removed during
this process. The expander-expeller process exposes the cottonseed protein
to some heat to make it undegradable in rumen. Excessive heat treatment of
feed stuffs may decrease proteolysis by denaturing the protein, thus blocking
reactive sites of amino acids through microbial proteolytic enzymes. Heat has
been used to decrease protein degradation in the rumen and to increase the
supply of dietary protein to the duodenum. Cottonseed cake, a by-product
from oil industry, is high in protein, and is a good source of crude fiber and
phosphorus. However, both contain gossypol, a polyphenolic bi-naphthyl
dialdehyde that can produce toxic effects in milch animals at higher levels of
inclusion in feeds. However, ruminants have the ability to detoxify large
amounts of gossypol within the rumen. Diets containing up to 25 percent
whole cottonseed have been reported to be safe for consumption by cattle.
Prior to 1980, gossypol was seldom mentioned in reports after feeding
cottonseed or cottonseed meal to mature cattle. It was known that young
cattle, prior to the development of a fully functional rumen, were susceptible to
gossypol poisoning, compared to mature cattle; because, during digestion of
cottonseed and cottonseed meal, gossypol remained bound in the rumen so
that it was mostly unavailable. However, Lindsey et al. (1980) demonstrated
that the ability of the rumen to detoxify gossypol exceeded when very high
3 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
intakes of free gossypol were consumed by mature cows. The unique physical
characteristics of cottonseed, along with its better nutritional value, have
resulted in its being extensively used in ruminant’s diets, but concerns about
gossypol have made producers reluctant to use cottonseed or cottonseed
cake in their diets. Cottonseed cakes contain three types of fibre - acid
detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre and crude fibre. The types of fibre
determine the overall quality. Cottonseed meal is a good protein source for
ruminants. Cottonseed meal has shown promises as a plant protein substitute
to the conventional ones, especially, soya bean meal and groundnut cake.
According to Njike (1977), cottonseed meal is the residue obtained after the
extraction of oil from cottonseed and the product is ground resulting in flakes.
It is produced in commercial quantities in Nigeria and it’s relatively cheap.
Bamgbose (1995) observed that cottonseed cake contains 36.15% protein,
19.96% fibre, 14.42% fat, while biological value was 51.0% compared to 61.0
and 73.0% for defatted and full-fat extruded soybean meals. The protein of
cottonseed meal was found to be low in cystine, methionine and lysine
(Nzekwe and Olomu, 1982). It is palatable with a nutritive value (for dehulled
meals) slightly lower (85-90 %) than that of soybean meal. It is among the
least expensive sources of protein in some region. It is for instance the main
source of protein for livestock in the cotton growing belt of India (NDDB,
2012).
Cottonseed meal has relatively low rumen degradability and is
therefore a good source of by-pass protein that is useful in rations for dairy
cows. Sehgal and Makkar (1994) reported that cottonseed cake
(undecorticated) has higher degradable protein (47.0%) compared to
groundnut cake. Cottonseed meal can replace other oilseed meals (soybean,
rapeseed, sunflower and groundnut) without affecting milk yield and
composition. When supplementing highly digestible forages such as maize
silage, cottonseed meal (expeller) can replace soybean meal without any
detrimental effect on DM intake and milk yield (Coppock et al., 1987).
Now because presently sufficient quantity of high protein decorticated solvent
extracted cottonseed meal is available after the extraction of complete oil from
the cottonseeds by solvent extracted plant, it will be in the interest of the dairy
4 IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
farmers to use this product. Hence the present study has been conducted with
following objectives:
• To study the in vitro protein degradability of decorticated cottonseed
cake (DCSC), cottonseed cake, soybean meal, groundnut cake and
other ingredients of the concentrate mixture.
• To study the effect of partial replacement of soybean meal with
decorticated cottonseed cake (Solvent extracted) and cottonseed cake
(Expeller) on nutrient utilization, body weight gain in growing calves
and on blood biochemical profile.
CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER –––– 2222
REVIEW OF REVIEW OF REVIEW OF REVIEW OF LITLITLITLITEEEERRRRAAAATURETURETURETURE
5 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 COTTON CROP PRODUCTION IN WORLD
Cotton as a fibre crop is produced all around the world but mostly in the
tropics. It does not grow wild as in early days but grows commercially as a
cash crop. The major producers of cotton are also the major producers of
cottonseeds. China, India, USA, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Brazil are the
major producers globally. The trade in cottonseed as oil crop is very less
compared to other oilseeds. Of the total global production of 35 million tons,
27 million tons is crushed for oil production and around 8 lakh tons is globally
traded. Other by-products of cotton crop like cottonseed oil and cottonseed oil
cake have their production figures hovering around 4.5 and 16 million tons
respectively. India has the distinction of having the largest area under cotton
cultivation and is the second largest producer of cotton and its derivatives,
having annual production of cottonseeds and cottonseed oil cake around
11.50 and 4.0 million tons, respectively, (USDA, 2011).
Although cotton is cultivated in almost all the states in the country, the
states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka account for more than
95 percent of the area under cultivation and output. These states are also the
major producers of cottonseeds as this is a major by-product of cotton
crop. Cottonseeds arrive in the market as a by-product of ginning operation
carried on cotton. Cottonseeds are oilseeds those are place 2nd in the list of
largest produced oilseeds in the world. This oil seed has a vast number of
uses as it provides oil for humans, feed for animals, fertilizer for plants,
padding fibre and also used in explosives and computer chip boards.
Solvent extracted decorticated cottonseed meal is normally sold as a
41% protein product but is available as 35% corticated cottonseed cake, 38
%( de-oiled) and 44% decorticated cottonseed protein meals. They contain
over 1% phosphorus and have 70-80% TDN. Cottonseed cakes made from
whole cottonseed contain 18.1 percent acid detergent fibre, 32.3 percent
neutral detergent fibre and 11.4 percent crude fibre. Animals fed with whole
6 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
cottonseed or cottonseed cake (undecorticated) would receive substantially
more fibre in their diets.
Cottonseed cake contains minerals such as: calcium, magnesium,
phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulphur, copper, iron, manganese,
molybdenum and zinc. They also contain some amino acids viz: alanine,
aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, lysine, leucine,
arginine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine,
tryptophan, valine and tyrosine. The minerals provided in cottonseed cakes
cannot meet an animal's mineral nutritional needs. In such cases, the feed
may be combined with other types of grain alfalfa or oats, for instance to
provide proper balance.
Cottonseed cake is an excellent source of protein for a variety of
animal species. Cottonseed cake is often further processed into pellets of
varying size (1/4", 3/8", 1/2", 3/4" and 7/8") depending on the application.
Cottonseed meal can be fed alone or in combination with other plant and
animal protein sources to make a complete balanced ration. The
characteristics of a particular meal are largely determined by the type of oil
extraction process from which the meal was derived - mechanical (screw
press) or expander solvent extraction.
2.2 FEEDING VALUE OF COTTONSEED CAKE
Cottonseed cake (CSC) has been successfully tried as animal fed
ingredient for more than 100 years in areas where cotton production and
processing is prevalent. This is used primarily as a protein supplement for a
variety of beef production operations that include calf creeps and beef cows
feed ingredients. After oil, cottonseed cake is the second most valuable and
most abundant by-product of the crushing process from cottonseed.
The nutrient analysis of cottonseed cake is dependent upon the
process used to extract the cottonseed oil. The standard undecorticated
cottonseed cake contains 25% crude protein on as such fed basis. The crude
fibre level of cottonseed cake is significantly higher (13 vs. 5%) than that of
soybean meal. Consequently, the protein and energy content of cottonseed
cake undecorticated is lower than soybean meal.
7 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
According to Coppock (1987), the nutritional protein degradability of
cottonseed cake is similar to that of peanut meal, canola meal, and soybean
meal for lactating dairy cows, and to that of canola and soybean meal for
young calves. However, Sehgal and Makkar (1994) reported a lower protein
degradability of cottonseed cake (60.5%) compared to GNC (76.3%).
From an historical perspective, when Oklahoma researchers (Hibberd
et al., 1987) added increasing levels of cottonseed cake to low-quality native
grass hay diets containing equal amounts of corn. They observed a significant
improvement in digestibility of feed. Several growth trials have supported
these results through comparable performance using either hay or silage
based diets (Brown, 1991).
Several research trials with beef cows have estimated the protein and
energy value of cottonseed cake, relative to other protein sources, under a
variety of dietary conditions. A Louisiana study (Coombs, 1996) evaluated the
effect of self-fed protein supplements during late gestation and early lactation,
with an energy ingredient during the second half of the supplementation
period, on cow body weight changes and subsequent calf performance. Cows
also had ad libitum access to a Bermuda grass hay (9.9% crude protein and
49.6% TDN) throughout the supplementation period. The experimental
supplement evaluated included cottonseed cake with salt (desired daily intake
of 0.7kg), a commercially available high protein (40%), and low protein (20%)
block. The result showed that there was no difference among protein
supplement sources on cow body weight change and weaning weights of
calves and when low-quality native grass hay (4.7% crude protein) was used
as the base diet.
Gonzalez et al. (1988) supplemented fall-calving cows at calving with
1.12kg of cottonseed cake daily. During the first five weeks of lactation, the
control treatment (no protein supplementation) lost more than 100 lbs of body
weight, while the cows supplemented with cottonseed cake gained almost 50
lbs. Hay intake was higher by 33% for control and 110% for the cottonseed
cake supplemented cows during the first five weeks after calving. The
supplemented cows produced more milk with faster weight gain than control
cows. This study showed that small quantities of cottonseed cake efficiently
8 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
improved the utilization of low-quality forage and performance of lactating
beef cows.
Florida researchers conducted two trials that evaluated the effects of
supplemental cottonseed cake on the performance of nursing beef calves
(Kunkle et al., 1991). The nursing calves averaged 430 to 560 lbs at the
initiation of the two summer trials. Consumption of the cottonseed cake- salt
supplement averaged 452g per head per day in trial 1 and 345g per head per
day in trial 2. The calves supplemented with cottonseed cake gained 255g
per head per day more in trial 1 and 200g per head per day more in trial 2
compared to control.
2.3 EFFECT OF COTTONSEED OR COTTONSEED CAKE ON FEED
INTAKE AND DIGESTIBILITY OF NUTRIENTS
According to Church (1993), one of the most important factors that can
influence digestibility is the diet composition. According to Van Soest (1994),
Orskov (2000) and McDonald et al. (2002), the factors that could affect the
nutrient digestibility would be feed intake, the proportion and degradability of
the cell wall, the composition of the feed component, feed composition, feed
preparation, protein-to-energy ratio, rate of degradability and factors inherent
to the animal.
Wanapat et al. (1996) found that straw intake was significantly
decreased from 1.25% to 0.88% of live weight as the level of cottonseed cake
was increased from 2-5 kg/d in dairy cows. However, a summary of 18
feeding trials (Coppock et al., 1987) with whole cottonseed showed no
significant reduction (P > 0.05) in dry matter intake when whole cottonseed
was included up to 25% of the ration.
Shirley (1998) reported no difference in DMI when feeding expanded
expelled cottonseed in place of Whole cottonseed. Pena et al. (1986) also did
not found any change in OM intake when feeding, raw, extruded or roasted
cottonseed. Similarly other studies (Saijpaul et al., 2006; Sullivan et al., 1993)
did not find any difference in DMI when feeding whole linted cottonseed and
cracked or ground pima cottonseed. Arajuo et al. (2004) also observed no
influence of the treatments on the nutrient intake.
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Van Horn et al. (1979) analysed different sources of protein
(cottonseed meal and soybean meal) and different CP levels in the diet (13.5
and 16.3%) reported an increase in DM intake in both treatments; however,
this increase was more significant when the protein source was cottonseed
cake.
Chaudhary and Raj (2008) divided eighteen Surti buffaloes, in their
early stage of lactation, into three groups of six animals each, and allotted
them to three dietary treatments viz. T1 – zero per cent cottonseed in
concentrate mixture, T2 – 30 per cent cottonseed in concentrate mixture and
T3 – 60 per cent cottonseed in concentrate mixture. Additionally, all groups
were fed on basal roughage consisting of 15 kg green Lucerne and ad libitum
Sorghum Stover. The buffaloes of T3 group consumed significantly (P<0.05)
higher DM, DCP and TDN than T1 group, but there were no significant
differences observed between T2 and T1 groups.
Silva et al. (2009) found no change in the apparent digestibility
coefficient of the nutrients (P>0.05) with the replacement of soybean meal by
cottonseed cake which was probably due to the similarity in the experimental
diets. However, Pina et al. (2006) reported lower digestibility values for DM,
OM, EE, CP and NDF when analysing the use of cottonseed meal compared
to soybean meal. However, these authors used higher levels of these
ingredients in diets provided to pure-bred animals with greater milk
production.
2.4 EFFECT OF DECORTICATED COTTONSEED CAKE ON ANIMAL
GROWTH PERFOMANCE
When the oil is extracted out decorticated cottonseed cake is a high
protein supplement being produced after removing lint and cortex portion from
cottonseed and generally it is solvent extracted cottonseed cake. Also
cottonseed cake is considered to be a natural source of higher rumen
undegradable protein (Sehgal and Makkar, 1994) i.e. 39 percent known to be
rumen by pass protein. Thus this will be a better protein supplement for higher
growth and milk production in ruminants.
Torane et al. (2006) conducted an experiment to see the effect of
different levels and sources of bypass protein with urea treated or untreated
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wheat straw on performance of crossbred calves. One balanced concentrate
mixture (CM) with RDP to UDP ratio of 65:35 was compounded and fed to the
calves in control group C with untreated wheat straw ad libitum. Calves in
experimental groups T1 and T2 were fed ad libitum urea treated wheat straw
with decorticated groundnut cake and un-decorticated cottonseed cake having
RDP to UDP ratio of 78:22 and 52:48, respectively.
They found higher average daily gains for calves in group T2 as
compared to C and T1. Feed efficiency of calves in groups T2 and T1 was
superior over group C. The post feeding blood urea nitrogen level in calves of
group T2 was lower as compared to those in C and T1. The cost of composite
ration per kg gain in body weight for calves in groups C, T1 and T2were found
to have economic superiority of T2 over C and T1.
The results revealed that urea treatment of wheat straw improved the
nitrogen content, voluntary feed intake and the digestibility of nutrients.
Feeding of crossbred calves with urea treated wheat straw based ration with
un-decorticated cottonseed cake containing 48 per cent UDP, stimulated the
growth rate to achieve better and economic feed efficiency in early stages of
growth.
Bangani and co-workers (2000) compared the growth performance of
18 Holstein and 20 Jersey heifers fed calf starter containing either cottonseed
oil-cake (CSC) or soybean oil-cake (SBC). The diets were isonitrogenous and
isocaloric and were fed from two weeks of age until two or three months of
age to Holstein or Jersey calves respectively.
They found no differences between calf starter containing CSC or SBC
(P > 0.05) in respect of feed intake, growth rate or per cent efficiency of feed
conversion. Average daily gain of Jersey and Holstein heifer calves was
0.435±0.02 and 0.635±0.03 kg/day respectively. It was concluded that the
most important criterion for inclusion of CSC in calf starter ration is the cost of
cottonseed oil cake relative to that of soybean oil cake, provided that the
cottonseed oil cake used has a gossypol content of less than 200 ppm.
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2.5 EFFECT OF COTTONSEED CAKE ON LACTATION
PERFORMANCE
Coppock and Wilks (1991), in a review article, stated that inclusion of
about 15% of whole cottonseed in the diet of lactating cows resulted in a small
increase in milk yield, milk fat percentages and decrease in milk protein
percentages. This is also the level recommended by Arieli (1998).
Wanapat et al. (1996) found that milk production of crossbred Holstein-
Zebu cows fed a low protein basal diet of rice straw and cassava chips was
markedly improved when the cottonseed meal supplement was increased
from 2 to 4 kg/day. This feeding system is an economical attractive alternative
to farmers who traditionally use commercial concentrates.
Dhiman et al. (1999) found an increase in milk and milk protein yields
and a tendency for increase in fat yield for cows fed a full fat extruded
cottonseed in comparison to control that contained no oilseeds. Depressions
in milk protein have also been reported previously with the feeding of whole
cottonseed (Anderson et al., 1979). Bernard and Calhoun (1997) found no
change in milk yield when they compared diets containing 15% of a 50:50
mixture of extruded cottonseed and soybeans.
However, Imaizumi et al. (2002) found a decrease in milk production as
well as fat, lactose and protein content in the milk when soybean meal was
replaced with cottonseed meal in lactating Holsteins.
Chaudhary and Hemraj, (2008) studied lactating performance of Surti
buffaloes in their early stage of lactation. The animals were divided into three
groups and were allotted to three dietary treatments viz. T1 –0%, T2 – 30%
and T3 – 60% cottonseed in concentrate mixtures. They recorded higher milk
yield in T3 as compared to T1 group and there was no difference in milk yield
of T2 and T1 groups. A vasectomised bull was paraded among the
experimental animals daily for finding the buffaloes in heat and those showing
complete oestrus symptom were inseminated. Their results showed that
higher levels of cottonseed in the diet substantially improved the milk yield
and post-partum reproductive performance of buffaloes.
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2.6 EFFECT OF COTTONSEEDS/COTTONSEED CAKE ON BLOOD
BIOCHEMICAL PROFILE
The plasma protein level is a function of the hormonal balances,
nutritional status, water balance and the other factors affecting the health. The
level of the serum albumin is dependent upon the nutritional status and its
synthesis is diminished during fasting, malnutrition and poor condition of liver,
while the serum globulin level is related with immune status of the animal
(Jain, 1986).
The intake of gossypol through cottonseed affects the blood
biochemical profile of the animals (Mena et al., 2004).The blood profile of
cattle given cottonseed @1.2-2.0kg/d showed gossypol toxicity with higher
values of haemoglobin, proteins, albumin: globulin ratio, urea inorganic
phosphorus (Mena et al., 2004), aspartate amino transferase, lactate
dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, cholesterol and triglycerides (Coppook et al.,
1994).
Also Saijpaul et al. (2006) reported that levels of haemoglobin,
glucose, cholesterol, creatinine, urea nitrogen, uric acid, chloride, calcium and
phosphorus in the plasma of experimental animals, fed whole linted
cottonseed @ 5% of their milk yield, did not differ significantly from control
group, but there was a significant rise in the values of total proteins, albumin,
and globulin of the treatment group than control. However the values were
within the normal reported range (Kaneko, 1989).
Similarly Colin et al. (1996) reported no significant change in the blood
glucose and uric acid levels in cattle fed whole cottonseed meal for 430 days.
ALP is a membrane bound enzyme that is used to diagnose bone and liver
disorders while increase in ALT and AST are indicator of soft tissue damage
particularly that of liver. Production of ALT, AST and ALP is increased in
response to primary or secondary hepatic cellular disorders. Liver
degenerative changes occur in gossypol toxicity and the serum activities of
ALP, ALT and AST have been reported to be significantly higher due to
gossypol toxicity by feeding of cottonseed cake (Abd-Allah and El-Fadali,
1996).
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2.7 COTTONSEED MEAL AS SUBSTITUTE FOR SOYBEAN MEAL
With increase in prices of the soybean meal de-oiled/full fat soybean,
the dairy farmers will like to use alternative/ cheaper protein supplement.
Cotton seed cake expeller or solvent extracted being cheaper will be a good
source of protein supplement.
Ojewola and co-workers (2006) used cottonseed cake as substitute for
soybean meal in broiler ration. For this 6 week feeding trial was conducted,
cottonseed cake was substituted for soybean meal at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%
and the diets were respectively designated as diets 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in a
completely randomized design.
The results showed that there were no significant differences in the
bird’s mean daily weight gain and feed-to-gain ratio while the mean daily feed
intake was influenced. Birds fed diets 3 and 4 respectively consumed 150.93g
and 153.68g. Birds fed diet 3 gave the highest weight gain while diet 1 was
the least. Diet 5 had the highest percent mean values for nitrogen (81.45),
crude fibre (60.81), ether extract (95.57), ash (66.79) and dry matter (85.72)
retentions while birds fed diet 1 was least for same parameters.
Mineral utilization followed the same trend; diet 5 was the highest
(69.08), (84.72), (71.91), (79.39) for phosphorous, potassium, calcium and
magnesium respectively while diet 1 gave least values for same parameters.
Diet 5 was found to be the cheapest (N 290.01) and savings were significantly
(P<0.05) improved with the use of this diet while diets 1 and 3 had the least
values of N 285.94 and N 302.67 respectively for marginal revenue. Though,
the diets were comparable, diet 5 showed superior indices for nutrient
utilization and economics of production. In conclusion, there was an indication
that iron treated cotton seed meal can serve as a substitute for soybean meal
in broiler diet.
Balogun et al. (1990) studied the effect of undecorticated cottonseed
cake in weaner and growing finishing Large White × Landrace pigs for two
months studies. A digestibility study has done to determine the value of
undecorticated cottonseed cake (UCSC) as a protein supplement replacing
soya bean meal (SBM). They did a feeding experiment with pigs, four lots of
six pigs each were individually fed on isonitrogenous diets containing 0, 10,
20 and 30% undecorticated cottonseed cake. Their result shows that there is
14 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
no adverse effect of feeding undecorticated cottonseed cake on either on feed
intake or on weight gain.
In a second growth experiment lasting 35 days, 24 cross-bred pigs
were fed on diets containing 0, 20, 30 and 41.1% undecorticated cottonseed
cake (without soybean meal) in a randomized design involving six individually
fed pigs per treatment. The growth studies showed that 10% was the optimum
level of inclusion of undecorticated cottonseed cake in the diets of pigs.
2.8 COTTONSEED CAKE VIS-À-VIS GOSSYPOL (ANTI NUTRITIONAL
FACTOR)
Gossypol is a pigment found naturally in many Gossypium species
including cotton and is located in glands throughout the plant. Gossypol is
found in free state in the whole seed and is bound to lysine or other
components during processing into cake. Gossypol bound in this way has
generally been considered unavailable to the animal. Animal sensitivity to
gossypol is considerably different between species and classes of animals.
The quantity of free gossypol has been used as a guide by many nutritionists
to make recommendations on feeding of cottonseed products.
Whole cottonseed has been shown to contain from 0.40 to 2.0% free
gossypol. The level of gossypol is affected by species, variety, fertilization,
growing conditions, and insect pressure. The presence of gossypol affords the
plant some protection against predators such as insects, field mice, and
raccoons that might otherwise feed on these plants and/or their seeds
(Boatner, 1948; Berardi and Goldblatt, 1969).
Gossypol exists as two stereoisomers or mirror images of each other,
which are designated as (+) and (-) isomers. The minus or “(-)” isomer has
been shown to be more detrimental biologically within the animal. These
isomers exist in two distinct states: bound and unbound. The unbound form of
this compound has been shown to be most biologically active in the animal.
The bound gossypol is essentially unavailable to the animal, (because these
are chemical determinations) but the possibility for some crossover of
biological activity exists (Calhoun et al., 1995).
Whole cottonseed typically contains 1.5-2.0% gossypol, all in the
unbound form, but levels can vary to as low as 0.4% in some commercial
species. (Calhoun, 1995, Nomeir and Abou-Donia, 1985). Breakdown and
15 Review of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of LiteratureReview of Literature
maceration by chewing of this seed by the animal and subsequent exposure
of this gossypol to rumen microorganisms allows a number of deactivation,
binding, and degradation actions to occur that render the gossypol
unavailable to the animal. Due to the nature of the rumen, prolonged
exposure time, and extensive physical and chemical breakdown of the whole
seed, the ruminant is given some practical protection from the compound.
Binding to free epsilon amino nitrogen in the rumen whether as free amino
acids or peptides attaching to microbial cell walls, or binding to available metal
ions such as iron all contribute to the detoxifying action of the rumen.
Gossypol toxicity may be an issue when feeding large amounts of
cottonseed products. Gossypol is toxic to non-ruminants, but ruminants are
more tolerant (Danke et al., 1965). There are reports of signs of gossypol
toxicity in cows consuming 10.1kg/d of cottonseed cake (Lindsey et al.,1980),
but Blackwelder (1997) fed 8.4kg/day of cotton products (cottonseed cake and
whole cottonseed) without observed toxicity.
Calhoun and Holmberg, (1991) have discussed the potential for
gossypol toxicity in cattle consuming cotton products. They believed that free
gossypol was the toxic form of gossypol and as bound gossypol was not
available to ruminants and it was not toxic. Consequently, recommendations
for using cottonseed and cottonseed meal in animal diets were based on free
gossypol (Berardi and Goldblatt, 1980; Calhoun and Holmberg, 1991). Total
gossypol, which includes both free and bound gossypol was seldom
determined.
Rogers and Poore (1995) reported that it was safe to feed higher
levels of free gossypol in the diet when the source of free gossypol was whole
cottonseed instead of cottonseed meal. For example, for mature cows and
bulls the recommended safe levels of free gossypol in the diet were 900 and
1,200 ppm when whole cottonseed was fed compared with 200 and 600 ppm,
respectively, when the source of free gossypol was cottonseed cake. The
higher levels of free gossypol recommended for diets containing cottonseed
reflects the fact that free gossypol in unprocessed whole cottonseed is
extensively bound during digestion in the rumen and is less available than
free gossypol in cottonseed cake.
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Further Calhoun, (1995) and Mena et al. (2001) concluded that the
plasma gossypol response to free gossypol intake was 3.8 times higher when
the source of free gossypol was from cottonseed cake indicating higher
availability of free gossypol in cottonseed cake compared to cottonseeds.
Santos et al. (2002) in Holstein steers observed that cracked whole
cottonseed increased plasma concentrations of total gossypol, although total
gossypol intake measured as g/d or as mg/kg of live weight per day did not
differ.
However, in studies with cattle and sheep, in which different sources of
free gossypol (gossypol acetic acid, cottonseed and cottonseed cake
processed by different methods) were fed, it was observed that plasma and
tissue levels of gossypol and toxicity often were not correlated with either the
free gossypol content of the feed or free gossypol intakes (Calhoun et al.,
1990; Calk, 1992; Calhoun and Wan, 1995; Wan et al., 1995). These studies
demonstrate that free gossypol is of limited value for making
recommendations about levels of cottonseed and cottonseed cake that can be
fed safely to ruminants.
The official methods for the estimation of free and total gossypol are
spectrophotometric procedures based on the reaction of aniline with gossypol
to form dianilino gossypol (AOCS, 1985). Although widely used, this
procedure is only applicable to the determination of gossypol in cottonseed,
cottonseed cake and untreated cottonseed meals. They are unsuitable for the
determination of gossypol in mixed feeds because of interferences with other
components of feeds (Pons, 1977) and are not selective. They measure not
only gossypol, but also gossypol analogues and gossypol derivatives, with an
available aldehyde group that are soluble under the conditions of the
methods. The most serious limitation of spectrophotometric procedures is
they do not determine the (+) and (–) isomers of gossypol.
The gossypol molecule exhibits optical activity because of stearic
hindrance to rotation about the internaphthyl bond (Matlin et al., 1988). High
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) procedures also have been used
to measure free and total gossypol in cottonseed and cottonseed meal (Hron
et al., 1990). They are selective for gossypol and are 50 to100 times more
sensitive than the official methods (Pons 1977; Hron et al., 1990).
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2.9 PLASMA GOSSYPOL IN LACTATING DAIRY CATTLE FED
COTTONSEED AND COTTONSEED CAKE
Prieto et al. (2003) studied on lactating Holstein cows which were fed
diets with increasing levels of cracked Pima cottonseed to determine its
effects on plasma gossypol concentrations as well as milk yield and
composition and dry matter (DM) intake in a short-term study. All diets
contained 12.8% cottonseed, 43.5% concentrate, and 43.7% chopped alfalfa
hay on a DM basis. The proportion of whole Upland cottonseed to cracked
Pima cottonseed in the four diets was 100:0, 67:33, 33:67, and 0:100. All
periods were 35 d. Upland and cracked Pima cottonseed contained 0.64 and
1.00% total gossypol (DM) with 41 and 52% of gossypol as the (−) isomer,
respectively.
Total plasma gossypol concentrations increased linearly with
increasing proportions (100:0, 67:33, 33:67, and 0:100) of cracked Pima
cottonseed in the diet for primiparous (4.4, 6.0, 7.7, and 8.9 µg/ml) and
multiparous (4.3, 7.3, 9.7, and 11.4 µg/ml) cows, respectively. This indicates
the importance of animal variation when relating plasma gossypol levels with
gossypol intake.
They found no difference in Milk yield, as well as its components and
DM intake, were not affected by increasing dietary inclusion levels of cracked
Pima cottonseed up to 8.6% of DM intake for either primiparous or
multiparous cows, even though plasma gossypol concentrations increased
sharply over this dietary inclusion range. Although the highest dietary
inclusion level of Pima cottonseed (i.e.,12.8%) numerically depressed
performance of cows of both parties, these differences failed to reach
statistical significance in these short-term trials with few cows.
Wen-Ju Zhang and co-worker studied on Upland and Pima two main
varieties of cottonseed (CS), and Pima CS is considered nutritionally superior
to Upland CS because of its higher fat and protein content. Pima CS contains
more gossypol and a higher proportion of the (−) isomer than Upland CS.
They found that DM intake of dairy cattle is not altered when WCS is
included at up to 25% of the diet. The DM intake response to the inclusion of
WCS in the diet is a function of both climatic and dietary factors.
CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER –––– 3 3 3 3
MATERIALMATERIALMATERIALMATERIALSSSS AND METHODAND METHODAND METHODAND METHODSSSS
18 Materials & Methods
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In vitro and In vivo experiments were carried out to study the rumen
dry matter, organic matter and protein degradability of feed incorporating
cottonseed cake (undecorticated) and decorticated solvent extracted
cottonseed cake replacing 10 part of soybean meal. Also in vivo feed intake,
nutrient utilization, feed conversion ratio and blood parameters in growing
Karan fries calves fed with concentrate mixture have different composition.
The materials and methods used for this study are given below.
3.1 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT FEED INGREDIENTS
(AOAC, 2005)
3.1.1 Dry matter (DM)
Apparatus: Aluminium moisture cup, hot air oven, desicator, electronic
balance, tong, spatula
Procedure
A known quantity of ground sample (about 10 -50 g) was taken in a
pre-weighed moisture cup. The cup was placed in hot air oven at 100 ± 50C
for 24 h.
The loss in moisture content after drying was estimated and DM was
calculated as follows
(Wt. of moisture cup + sample after drying – Wt. of moisture cup) X 100
DM (%) = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Wt. of fresh sample
3.1.2 Total ash (TA)
Apparatus: Silica crucible, hot plate, muffles furnace, electronic weighing
balance and tong.
Procedure
A known quantity of sample (about 2.5 - 5 g) was taken in pre-weighed
silica crucible. After charring the sample on heater (till the smoke
19 Materials & Methods
disappeared), the crucible was kept in muffle furnace for ignition at 550°C for
4 h. The crucible was removed on cooling and kept in a desicator and
weighed again to find out weight of ash. The ash content was calculated as
given below:
(Wt. of crucible + ash after cooling - Wt. of crucible) X 100
Total ash (%) =
Wt. of sample (g)
Organic matter (OM)
Procedure
OM was determined by subtracting the total ash content from 100.
OM (%) = 100 – total ash (%)
3.1.3 Crude protein (CP)
Apparatus: Kjeldahl flasks, digestion tubes, digestion unit, Kjeldahl distillation
apparatus, Erlenmeyer flasks, titration assembly/burette.
Reagents: Digestion mixture (Na2SO4 and CuSO4 in the ratio of 9:1), 40%
NaOH solution (400 g NaOH pellets dissolved in distilled water and volume
made to 1000 ml), concentrated H2SO4 (98% purity and specific gravity 1.84)),
2% boric acid indicator solution (20 g boric acid dissolved to 1 L and added
with 10 ml 0.2% bromocresol green and 20ml 0.1% methyl red indicators),
N/100 H2SO4 solution.
Procedure
Crude protein (Nx6.25) was determined by Kjeldahl’s technique. A
known quantity of dry ground sample was taken in digestion tube and
digested with concentrated sulphuric acid and 2-3 g of digestion mixture
(potassium sulphate and copper sulphate in the ratio of 9:1) till the solution
become colourless. After digestion, the contents were cooled and volume was
made to 100 ml in a volumetric flask. A suitable volume of digested sample
was transferred in to the micro-kjeldhal distillation apparatus and an
approximate quantity of 40% sodium hydroxide solution was added to make
20 Materials & Methods
the content alkaline. A 100 ml distillate was collected in a conical flask
containing 2% boric acid solution with mixed indicators .The distillate was then
titrated against standard sulphuric acid solution (N/100).
Calculation
0.0014× Titre volume × Normality × Volume made N (g/100 g sample) = ---------------------------------------------------------------- x 100 (Aliquot taken× Sample taken)
The crude protein (%) of sample was calculated by multiplying the N content
with the factor 6.25. This was based on the principle that all the proteins
contain 16% nitrogen.
3.1.4 Ether extract (EE)
Apparatus: Soxhlet’s extraction apparatus, oil flask, thimble, hot air oven,
desicator, weighing balance
Reagent: Petroleum ether (boiling point 40-60oC)
Procedure
A known quantity of ground sample (about 3 g) was taken in a cellulose
thimble and extracted for 8 hours with petroleum ether in Soxhlet’s extraction
apparatus attached to a pre weighed oil flask. The oil flask was removed and
after evaporating the excess of ether, it was dried overnight in a hot air oven
(100±5°C). The flask was cooled in a desicator and weighed to a constant
weight. The difference between two weights gave the amount of ether extract
in the sample.
Calculation
(Wt. of oil flask with ether extract – Wt. of empty oil flask)
EE (%) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Wt. of sample
3.1.5 Crude fibre:-
Apparatus :- Hot plate, hot air oven, muffle furnace, spout less beaker,
21 Materials & Methods
condensation unit for flask (round bottom flask as condenser), muslin cloth
(24 threads each Warf and weft per sq. inch), wash bottle, steel spatula,
Buchner funnel with suction arrangements ( suction pump attached to swan
tap at one end and other end to side neck of conical flask having funnel).
Reagent :-Sulphuric acid solution 0.255N or 1.25g H2SO4/100ml, Sodium
hydroxide solution 0.313N or 1.25g of NaOH/100ml, antifoam agent (e.g. octyl
alcohol or silicon), ethyl alcohol at 95%(v/v), acetone.
Procedure
A measured amount of moisture and fat free sample was taken in
spout less beaker of 1 litre capacity previously marked to 200 ml. Then, 25 ml
of 10% sulphuric acid (w/w) was added and volume was made up 200 ml with
water from the sides of the beaker to have 1.25% acid solution (w/w) in the
beaker. The contents of beaker were successively refluxed for 30 minutes.
The beaker contents then filtered through muslin cloth with the help of
Buchner funnel with suction arrangements. After repeated hot water washing,
the residue left on muslin cloth was transferred to the same spout less beaker
with smooth steel spatula, followed by little washing of muslin cloth.
Again 25 ml 10% NaOH (w/v) was added and volume was made up to
200 ml with water to have 1.25% alkali solution. Contents were refluxed for 30
minutes and filtered through the muslin cloth again and washed with hot
water. The residue left on muslin cloth was transferred to clean silica crucible
with the help of steel spatula and little water washing. The content was dried
in hot air oven at 100±2°C and weighed. Silica containing dried residue was
kept in a muffle furnace at 550 °C ±5 °C for 4 hrs, for ashing and again
weighed next day. The crude fibre content of sample was estimated as
follows.
Crude fibre (g/100 g sample or crude fibre %) = (a-b)/w x100
Where,
a= weight (g) of silica basin plus oven dried sample
b= weight (g) of silica basin plus ash
22 Materials & Methods
w=weight of sample
3.2 ESTIMATION OF CELL WALL CONSTITUENTS
The fraction of cell wall constituents such as NDF, ADF were estimated (Van
Soest et al., 1991).
3.2.1 Neutral detergent fibre (NDF)
Apparatus: Spout less beaker, sintered glass crucible (G-1), vacuum pump,
hot air oven, muffles furnace, electronic balance, and desicator.
Reagents: Neutral detergent solution (NDS), amylase solution, acetone
Neutral detergent solution (NDS)
Sodium lauryl sulphate - 30.00 g
Disodium ethylene diamino tetra acetate (EDTA) - 18.61 g
Sodium borate decahydrate - 6.81 g
Disodium hydrogen phosphate (anhydrous) - 4.56 g
Triethylene glycol - 10 ml
Distilled water - to make volume 1litre
EDTA and sodium borate decahydrate were put together in a large
beaker with some distilled water and heated on hot plate until dissolved.
Similarly, sodium lauryl sulphate was dissolved in distilled water and
triethylene glycol was added to it. The solution of sodium lauryl sulphate and
triethylene glycol was added to the previous solution. Disodium hydrogen
phosphate was taken in another beaker and some amount of distilled water
was added and the contents were heated until dissolved. Then, it was added
to solution containing other ingredients and volume was made up to one litre
with distilled water.
23 Materials & Methods
Amylase solution: Dissolve 2 gm α–amylase heat resistant enzyme in 90 ml
water, filter through Whatman 54 paper, stored at 5°C.
Procedure
Approximately 1 g sample was taken in spout less beaker of 1 L
capacity. To this, 100 ml NDS and 0.5g of sodium sulphite were added. The
contents of spout less beaker were refluxed for half an hour. Thirty minutes
after onset of boiling, beaker was removed and 2 ml of enzyme solution was
added. One hour after initial boiling, the contents of beaker were filtered
through pre-weighed 50 ml sintered glass crucible (G-I) using oil-free vacuum
pump. The contents were washed repeatedly with hot boiling water and then
acetone to remove all salts. The sintered crucible containing residue was
dried in hot air oven (100±5°C) overnight, cooled and weighed to a constant
value. Then ashing was done and crucible along with ash was weighed again.
The NDF (ash free) was calculated as follows:
NDF (%) = (Wt. of crucible with residue – wt. of crucible with residual ash) ×100
Wt. of sample taken
3.2.2 Acid detergent fibre (ADF)
Apparatus: Spout less beaker, sintered glass crucible, vacuum pump, hot air
oven, electronic balance and desicator.
Reagents: Acid detergent solution (ADS), acetone, hot boiling water.
Acid detergent solution (ADS): 20 g cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide
(CTAB) was dissolved in one lit of 1 N H2SO4.
Procedure
Approximately 1 g of sample was taken in a spout less beaker of 1 L
capacity. To this, 100 ml ADS was added and the contents were refluxed for
exactly 1 hour. After refluxing, the residue was filtered through pre-weighed
sintered glass crucible G-I using vacuum pump and washed with hot water 2-
3 times followed by acetone to remove all salts. The sintered crucible
24 Materials & Methods
containing residue was dried in hot air oven (100 ± 5°C) and weighed again.
The ADF was calculated as follows:
(Weight of crucible+ fibre) – Weight of crucible
ADF (%) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ×100
Weight of sample on DM basis
3.2.3 Hemicellulose
Hemicellulose was soluble in ADS and there by calculated by
subtraction of ADF from NDF as follows:
Hemicellulose (%) = NDF (%) – ADF (%)
3.3 In vitro (First stage) technique (Tilly and Terry, 1963)
The control and experimental feeds were analyzed for the estimation of
rumen dry matter, organic matter and rumen protein degradability.
Reagents
a) McDougall’s buffer solution-
Sr.No Reagents Quantity
1 NaHCO3 49.0 g
2 Na2 HPO4. 18.6 g
3 KCl 28.5 g
4 NaCl 23.5 g
5 CaCl2 2.0 g
6 MgCl2.7H2O 6.0 g
i) Forty nine(49.0) g of NaHCO3 ,18.6 g Na2HPO4 were dissolved in
approximately 800 ml of water,100 ml of chloride solution containing
28.5 g KCl,23.5 g NaCl,6.0 g MgCl2.7H2O and 2.0 g CaCl2 per litre
were added and the mixture made to 1 litre. The solution was
thoroughly saturated with CO2 at 380C until it became clear.
25 Materials & Methods
ii) Strained rumen liquor: Rumen liquor was collected from fistulated
animal maintained on standard diet using plastic tube attached through
a filter flask to a vacuum pump.
iii) Immediately after removal, the rumen fluid was strained through four
layers of muslin cloth into a flask. CO2 was passed into the flask to
displace air from above the rumen liquor and it was kept at 38-390C
until required.
Procedure
i) 0.5 g of mill ground sample passed through 0.8 mm sieve and oven
dried at 1000C was placed into already numbered centrifuge tube.
ii) 40 ml of buffer solution was added, followed by 10 ml of the strained
rumen liquor in each tube. The mixture was stirred, gassed with CO2,
kept at 390C. CO2 was passed through each tube for maintaining
anaerobic condition for 48 hrs.
iii) The tube was sealed with a rubber cork fitted with Bunsen gas release
valve and then placed in an incubator at 390C for 48hr.The tubes were
shaken gently 3 or 4 times, a day.
iv) One blank tube, containing only rumen liquor and buffer, and at least two
tubes containing standard samples of known digestibility were included
in each batch of experimental tubes.
v) The pH was maintained during incubation within the limits 6.7-6.9.
Appropriate adjustments were made with 1N Na2CO3.
vi) After 48 hrs. of first incubation period, the bacterial activity was stopped
by adding 1 ml of 5% HgCl2 and 2ml of 1N Na2CO3 are also added to
improve sedimentation.
vii) The tubes were centrifuged at 1800 × g at 10C.
viii) The supernatant from the centrifuge tube was poured off and residue
was transferred to a pre-weighed crucible with minimum amount of
water.
26 Materials & Methods
ix) The crucibles plus the residues were dried at 1000C, cooled in a
desicator and weighed. The organic matter residues were obtained
after ashing the crucible plus the residues. Crude protein contents were
also estimated in the residues to find out the percent protein
degradability.
Calculations-
DMD%=
Sample dry matter -
×100
OMD% =
Sample organic matter -
×100
CPD% =
Sample crude protein -
×100
3.4 IN VIVO STUDY
3.4.1 Location of the farm
The experiment was conducted in the cattle yard of NDRI campus,
Karnal situated at an altitude of 250 meter above mean sea level, latitude and
longitude position being 29o 42” N and 79o54” E, respectively. The maximum
ambient temperature in summer goes up to 45oC and minimum temperature
in winter comes down to about 4oC with a diurnal variation to the order of 15-
20oC. The average annual rainfall is 700 mm, most of which is received from
early July to mid September.
3.4.2 Animals and their feeding
Eighteen growing female crossbred calves (Avg. age 8-9 months)
were taken from the institute herd. The animals were divided into three groups
27 Materials & Methods
of six each on the basis of their body weights, and age. All the animals were
kept on a measured amount of concentrate mixture, wheat straw and green
fodder @ 10 kg/animal/day to meet their nutrient requirements which were
calculated as per recommendations of NRC (2001). The three groups were
fed for 105 days as follows:
1. Control ’C’ group animals were fed a ration having concentrate mixture
(Maize 28, Bajra 5, GNC 10, Mustard cake 13, Soybean meal 15, Wheat bran
15, Rice bran/ polish 11, Mineral mixture 2 and Common salt 1part), and
wheat straw in the ratio of 50:50, along with 10 kg green fodder/animal/day to
meet the vitamin A requirements as per NRC (2001).
2. Experimental Group ‘CSC’ T-1 was fed a ration as in above, but 10 parts of
soya meal of concentrate mixture of control was replaced by expeller
cottonseed cake.
3. Experimental Group ‘DCSC’ T-2 was also fed with a similar ration as in
control except that in this soya meal of concentrate mixture was partially
replaced by 10 parts of decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSE) solvent
extracted.
The experimental feeding started after 15 days of acclimatization.
3.4.3 Housing of animals
All the animals were housed in the experimental sheds of NDRI, Karnal
for 105 days which was well ventilated having individual pens to facilitate
individual feeding. Proper cleanliness and healthy surroundings were ensured
throughout the experimental period. Body weights were recorded at fortnightly
intervals in the morning hours before offering any feed or water.
An initial adaptation period of about 90 days was given to the animals
in shed. Then animals were shifted to metabolic cages for seven days
metabolism trial in between the experimental period.
Photo : Decorticated Cottonseed Cake Solvent Extracted
28
Table 3.4.4: Description of experimental animals
Group Animal No. Date of birth Age
(months)
Initial B.wt.
(kg)
Control
7562 19/04/12 7.5 89
7575 03/07/12 5 70
7517 21/09/11 15 178
7560 04/04/12 8 122
7516 19/09/11 15 167
7582 28/08/12 4 60.2
Avg. B.wt. (kg) 9.08±1.97
114.33±20.34
T 1
7546 26/02/12 10 130
7580 09/08/12 4 75
7581 21/08/12 4 60
7520 05/10/11 14 125
7519 02/10/11 14 213
7574 29/06/12 6 76
Avg. B.wt. (kg) 8.66±1.9
113.16±23.13
T2
7563 20/04/12 8 80
7577 14/07/12 5.5 65
7523 20/11/11 13 153.3
7578 08/08/12 4.5 93
7576 11/07/12 5.5 68
7514 02/09/11 15 233
29
3.5 Metabolism trial
Animals were shifted to metabolism cages after 12 weeks of preliminary feeding
for the metabolism trial for seven days. Animals were weighed before and after the trial.
Respective TMRs were offered to each animal as explained earlier. Fresh drinking
water was provided twice a day and the quantity was measured each time to calculate
the total water intake.
3.5.1 Sampling, processing and storage of feed samples
The samples of TMR offered, residues, if any, were taken daily for DM estimation
during metabolism trial. These samples were pooled at the end of the collection period
and ground to pass through 1 mm sieve and stored in air tight containers. The samples
were analyzed for proximate principles (OM, CP, Ash, CF and EE) and cell wall
constituents (NDF and ADF) as per standard procedures to calculate the %TDN.
Faeces voided during 24 h was collected daily for seven days and weighed at
8:30 am daily. After thorough mixing, an approximately 2% of total sample on weight
basis was kept for DM estimation. Dried pooled faecal samples were ground to pass
through 1 mm sieve size and analyzed for proximate principles and cell wall
constituents as per standard procedures. For N estimation of faeces, measured
quantities of faecal samples were collected daily for seven days and stored in plastic
containers containing 25 ml of 25% H2SO4 solution.
Total urine voided from each animal was collected using urine collection cans.
Total urine output for 24 h was measured daily at 9:00 am and an aliquot (1% of total
output) was taken for the nitrogen estimation. The aliquots were stored in plastic
containers containing 10 ml of 25% H2SO4 for total nitrogen estimation.
3.5.2 Analysis of feed, faeces and urine
Dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract, and total ash in feeds
and faeces samples were determined (AOAC, 2005). The fractions of cell wall
constituents (NDF, ADF and ADL) were also determined (Van Soest et al., 1991). Urine
samples were analyzed for nitrogen content (AOAC, 2005).
Photo : Animal during Metabolic Trial
30
3.5.3 Estimation of total nitrogen in urine
From each sample 5 ml urine was transferred in to Kjeldahl digestion
tube, digested by adding 20 ml concentrated H2SO4 along with 2- 3 g
digestion mixture. Digested material was diluted with distilled water up to 100
ml in volumetric flask. An aliquot (10 ml) of digested sample was taken in
distillation tube and adequate amount of 40% NaOH was added into the tube
and distillation was done. The distillate was collected in a conical flask
containing 2% boric acid solution having mixed indicator, which was titrated
against N/100 H2SO4. Total-N was calculated as below:
V X B X DF X 0.014 X 100 X 1000
Total-N (mg/100 ml) =
Vol. of sample taken for digestion
V = vol. of H2SO4 used
B = normality of H2SO4
DF= dilution factor (total volume made/ aliquot taken for distillation)
3.5.4 Calculation of nutrient digestibility (%)
The nutrient (DM, OM, CP, CF, EE, NFE, NDF and ADF) digestibility
coefficients were calculated from the nutrient intake and nutrient outgo in
faeces during metabolism trial as below
(Nutrient intake – Nutrient outgo in faeces) X 100
Digestibility (%) =
Nutrient intake
3.5.5 Estimation of total digestible nutrient (TDN %)
TDN (%) = DCP + DCF + DNFE + (DEE × 2.25)
3.5.6 Periodical studies
Daily dry matter intake and fortnightly body weights were recorded.
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) in Karan fries calves was calculated as kg of
feed consumed (DM basis) per kg of live weight gain for 105 days study.
31
3.6 Haematological Parameters
During 105 days of feeding, the blood samples were collected at an
interval of 30 days from all the animals by jugular puncture in heparinised
vaccutainer, mixed well and brought to the laboratory after placing on ice. Just
after blood collection, the tubes were rotated between palm to ensure proper
mixing of blood and anticoagulant. The samples were kept in the ice- box after
collection. Haematological parameters were analyzed immediately in fresh
blood sample in automatic blood analyzer. Then, the samples were
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes to separate the plasma. The plasma
samples were stored at -20°C for the estimation of glucose, blood urea
nitrogen (BUN), total protein, albumin, and globulin.
Whole blood was analyzed using BC-2800 Vet Auto Haematological Analyzer.
Chemicals used for analyzer were purchased from M/s RFCL Limited, New
Delhi. The analysis was made within one hour of blood collection. The
haematological parameters determined by analyzer were white haemoglobin
(HGB).
3.6.1 Albumin
Albumin was estimated in blood plasma samples using kit supplied by
Span Diagnosis Ltd. Albumin binds with anionic dye Bromocresol Green
(BCG) to form green color complex which is measured at 630nm.
Albumin + BCG →green colored complex
Kit reagents were prepared and stored as per the instructions provided
with the assay kit.
Procedure
Pipette into tube
marked
Blank Standard Test
Serum / Plasma - - 10 µl
Albumin standard - 10 µl -
Albumin reagent 1000 µl 1000 µl 1000 µl
The content were mixed well and incubated at room temperature (15-
300C) or 1 min.
32
UV- spectrophotometer was blanked with reagent blank and the
absorbance of standard and test sample was measured.
Calculation
The concentration of albumin was calculated as per formula and
expressed in mg/dl
Plasma albumin (g/dl) = X 4
Concentration of standard=4 g/dl
3.6.2Total protein
Total protein was estimated in blood plasma samples using kit supplied by
Span Diagnosis Ltd. The peptide bonds of proteins react with cupric ion in
alkaline solution to form a colored chelate, which is measured at 578 nm.
Protein + Cu²+ → Cu-protein complex
Kit reagents were prepared and stored as per the instructions provided
with the assay kit.
Procedure
Pipette into tube
marked
Blank Standard Test
Serum / Plasma - - 10 µl
Protein standard - 10 µl -
Biuret reagent 1000 µl 1000 µl 1000 µl
The contents were mixed well and incubated at 370C temperature for 5
min.
UV- spectrophotometer was blanked with reagent blank and the
absorbance of standard and test sample was measured.
Calculation
The concentration of total protein was calculated as per formula and
expressed in g/dl
Absorbance of test
Absorbance of standard
33
Total protein concentration (g/dl) = X 6.5
Concentration of standard = 6.5 g/dl
3.6.3 Globulins = Total protein – albumin
3.6.4 Estimation of blood glucose
Plasma glucose was estimated using GOD-POD kit (Span Diagnostics
Ltd., India). In this procedure, glucose oxidase (GOD) oxidizes glucose to
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. In presence of enzyme peroxidase,
released hydrogen peroxide is coupled with phenol and 4-amino antipyrine (4-
AAP) to form colored Quinoneimine dye. Absorbance of colored dye
measured at 505 nm is directly proportional to glucose concentration in the
sample.
Procedure
10 µl of plasma aliquots were pipetted in 10x75 mm tubes (in
duplicate), to which1000 µl of working glucose reagent was added. The
contents were mixed well. The tubes were then incubated at room
temperature (15-30°c) for 30 minutes. Along with the unknown sample, blank
and standard tubes (in duplicate) containing 10µl of double distilled water and
10µl of standard (100 mg/dL) respectively were processed identically. UV-
Spectrophotometer (Bio-Age 756PC) was blanked with reagent blank and the
absorbance of standard and unknown sample was measured.
Concentration was calculated as per formula and expressed as mg/dl
Absorbance of test
Plasma glucose (mg/dL) = χ 100
Absorbance of standard
3.6.5 Estimation of blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
BUN was estimated in plasma samples by GOD-POD kits obtained from
Span Diagnostics Ltd. Urea hydrolyses to ammonia in presence of urease
Absorbance of test
Absorbance of standard
34
enzyme which reacts with hypochlorite and phenolic chromogen in alkaline
medium to form colored complex which is measured at 578 nm.
Kit reagents were prepared and stored as per the instructions provided
with the assay kit. The procedure is presented below:
10 µl of plasma aliquots were pipette in 10×75 mm tubes in duplicate,
to which 1000 µl of working BUN solution-1 was added.
Blank (10 µl distilled water) and standard (10 µl from standard
50mg/dL) were pipetted in duplicate, to which 1000 µl of working BUN
solution-1 was added.
The contents were mixed well and incubated at 37°C for 3 min.
1000 µl of working BUN solution-2 was added to each tube.
The contents were mixed well and incubated at 37°C for 5 min.
UV- spectrophotometer was blanked with reagent blank and the
absorbance of standard and test sample was measured.
Plasma BUN levels were calculated as per formula and expressed in
mg
Plasma BUN (mg/dl) = X 50
Concentration of standard= 50 mg/dl
3.7 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The results obtained during this study were analyzed by analysis of
variance (ANOVA) using software package SPSS version 16.0, 2010.
Absorbance of test
Absorbance of standard
CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER –––– 4 4 4 4
RESULTRESULTRESULTRESULTSSSS AND DISCUSSION AND DISCUSSION AND DISCUSSION AND DISCUSSION
35 Results & Discussion
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 PERCENT INGREDIENT AND ANALYSIS OF CONCENTRATE
MIXTURES
A concentrate mixture based on maize as the major energy ingredient
and soybean meal (de-oiled) as protein supplement was formulated. The
Control ‘C’ concentrate mixture consisted of (kg/ton) maize 280, bajra 50,
mustard oil cake130, groundnut cake 100, wheat bran 150, rice polish 110,
soybean meal 150, mineral mixture 20 and common salt 10. It was not having
any feed additive. The 100 parts (kg/ton) of soybean meal was replaced with
cottonseed cake expeller (CSC) for experimental group ‘T-1’ or with
decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted (DCSC) for experimental
group ‘T-2’ (Table 4.1) to study the effects of partial replacement of soybean
meal (SBM) with these cakes available as protein supplements at a lower
price than soybean meal (Table 4.1). Additional Urea was added in group ‘T-
1’ and ‘T-2’ to make the concentrate mixtures isonitrogenous.
The percent chemical composition and cell wall contents of different
ingredients used in concentrate mixtures is depicted in Table 4.2 and percent
chemical composition of Control ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ concentrate mixtures and
also of green oats and wheat straw fed to crossbred cows is given in table
4.3. The main roughage was wheat straw. However, chopped (2-3cm size)
green oats, a non-leguminous fodder was also a source of roughage to meet
the vitamin A requirements of the crossbred cows. Weighed quantity of wheat
straw mixed with each separate concentrate mixture (‘C’, ‘T-1’ or ‘T-2’) in the
ratio of 50:50 was offered individually to three groups of crossbred calves and
10kg chopped oats fodder per animal per day was also mixed to make
complete feed mixtures for all the groups of crossbred calves.
The diets pertaining to the concentrate mixtures of three experimental
groups; green oats and wheat straw showing chemical composition and cell
wall contents was Dry matter 90.2, 90.3, 91.1,16.0 and 90.6, organic matter
90.4, 90.9, 90.2, 88.5 and 91.6, crude protein 19.8, 20.0, 19.9, 8.3 and 2.6,
ether extract 4.2, 6.2, 4.8, 2.7 and 0.87, crude fibre 10.8, 10.4, 9.4, 42.3 and
33.1, Neutral detergent fibre 36.2, 31.7, 33.8, 63.2 and 81.6, acid detergent
36 Results & Discussion
fibre 15.1, 15.2, 12.7, 43.0 and 57.1, hemicellulose 21.1, 16.5, 21.1, 20.2 and
24.5 percent in control ‘C’, ‘T-1’, ‘T-2’, oats fodder and wheat straw
respectively.
Table 4.1:- Percent ingredient composition of experimental concentrate
mixtures fed to female crossbred calves
Ingredients
Groups
Price (Rs/qnt) SBM
‘C’
CSC
‘T-1’
DCSC
‘T-2’
Maize grain 28 28 28 1480
Bajra 5 5 5 1500
Mustard oil cake 13 13 13 1800
Ground nut cake 10 10 10 3250
Wheat bran 15 15 15 1380
Rice polish 11 11 11 1300
Soybean meal 15 5 5 3500
Cotton seed cake
(Expeller) - 10 - 1900
Decorticated cottonseed
solvent extracted - - 10 2000
Salt 1 1 1 300
Mineral mixture 2 2 2 5300
Urea - 1 0.25 700
The Table 4.3 clearly depicts that the three concentrate mixtures i.e. ‘C’, ‘T-1’
and ‘T-2’ having soybean meal or soybean meal partially replaced with
cottonseed cake (expeller) or decorticated cottonseed cake (solvent
extracted) respectively had medium level of crude protein (19 to 20 percent),
ether extract (4.2 to 6.2%), nitrogen free extract (52.0 to 56.3) showing not
much variation in chemical compositions.
37 Results & Discussion
Table 4.2 Percent chemical composition and cell wall contents of
different ingredients used in concentrate mixture (on DM basis)
Ingredients
DM
OM
EE
CP
TA
AIA
NDF
ADF
Hemi -
cellulose
Maize 91.76 97.20 4.45 10.37 2.20 0.28 18.25 9.34 8.91
Bajra 90.58 97.67 3.85 11.80 2.43 0.43 37.42 5.35 32.07
Ground nut cake (Expeller)
91.62 92.74 7.36 41.50 6.07 1.52 22.42 14.32 8.10
Cotton seed cake (Expeller)
90.32 94.50 7.33 25.55 5.50 0.38 38.70 37.52 1.18
Decorticated cottonseed cake
(Solv. Ext.) 90.17 92.90 0.70 44.05 7.10 0.81 31.00 18.00 13.00
Mustard oil cake 91.51 93.86 10.44 37.30 6.24 1.04 23.32 21.62 1.70
Soybean meal (Deoiled)
90.26 94.09 1.79 45.11 5.01 0.53 17.49 16.62 0.87
Wheat bran 90.52 93.90 2.55 17.10 6.10 0.51 33.86 16.34 17.52
Rice polish 88.07 91.89 1.13 17.50 9.21 1.26 35.27 18.45 16.82
Thus all these concentrate supplied higher level of nitrogen as well as readily
available energy to the growing cross bred female calves for rapid growth.
Wheat straw being highly fibrous (NDF 81.6%, ADF 57.1% and crude fibre
33.1%) may release less energy slowly. The hemicellulose content of the
wheat straw 24.5% compared to the concentrate mixture (16.1 to 21.1)
indicating that wheat straw was also a potential source of digestible energy,
but due to high contents of acid detergent lignin (Sehgal and Punj,1983, Dey
38 Results & Discussion
2002) the hetero polysaccharide was not available in plenty to the ruminants.
The values for crude protein and total ash (TA) contents of groundnut cake
and mustard oil cake in the present study were quite comparable (Dutta and
Singh, 1994; Dey, 2002).
Table 4.3 Percent chemical composition of concentrate mixtures SBM
‘C’, ‘T-1’ (replacing 10 parts of soybean meal with cottonseed cake
expeller), ‘T-2’ (replacing 10 parts of soybean meal with decorticated
cottonseed cake), green oats and wheat straw (on DM basis)
Parameters
Groups Oat
fodder
Wheat
straw SBM
‘C’
CSC
‘T-1’
DCSC
‘T-2’
Dry matter 90.2 90.3 91.1 16.0 90.6
Organic matter 90.4 90.9 90.2 88.5 91.6
Crude Protein 19.8 20.0 19.9 8.5 2.6
Crude fibre 10.8 10.4 9.4 42.3 33.1
Ether extract 4.2 6.2 4.8 2.7 0.9
Nitrogen free
extract 56.3 52.0 55.8 44.2 45.8
Total ash 9.6 9.1 9.8 11.5 8.4
Acid insoluble ash 1.8 1.4 1.1 3.6 4.0
Neutral detergent
fibre 36.2 31.7 33.8 63.2 81.6
Acid detergent
fibre 15.1 15.2 12.7 43.0 57.1
Hemicellulose 21.1 16.5 21.1 20.2 24.5
39 Results & Discussion
The oats green fodder had only 6.38 percent lignin (Dey, 2002) due to
which it may supply sufficient amount of available energy from hemicellulose
(20.2%) and crude fibre (42.3%). As the oat was fodder little matured it
contained only 8.5 percent crude protein in the present study. The percent
chemical composition of green oats fodder observed in this study was similar
to as reported by earlier research worker (Tripathi et al., 2000, Sachin, 2012).
The proximate principles of wheat straw (Table 4.3) viz crude protein
(2.6%), crude fibre (33.1%), NFE (44.2%) and total ash (11.5%) were in close
agreement with the value reported in the literature i.e. 2.5 to 4.5, 30.5 to 48.9,
37.5 to 57.4 and 7.2 to 10.9 percent respectively (Sehgal and Makkar,1994,
Sehgal et al., 1999, Dey, 2002, Tripathi et al., 2007). The cottonseed cake
(expeller) used was having 25.55% crude protein and 7.7% ether extract and
thus was observed to be a quality protein supplement. It has also got higher
undegradable protein compared to groundnut cake and mustard oil cake
(Sehgal and Makkar, 1994). The crude protein content of soybean meal de-
oiled was 45.11% quite comparable to the decorticated cottonseed cake
solvent extracted (44.05%), though a difference in the purchase price (Table
4.1) was quite high (Rs 38/- vs Rs 20/- per kg).
4.2 IN VITRO STUDIES
The in vitro studies were conducted to measure the rumen dry matter,
organic matter and crude protein degradability of protein supplements viz
Soybean meal (de-oiled), cottonseed cake (expeller), decorticated cottonseed
cake solvent extracted and of three concentrate mixture prepared using these
supplements being fed to female cross bred calves in groups as ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and
‘T-2’ respectively. The 1st stage of Tilley and Terry (1963) was used and the
protein supplements and concentrate mixtures were incubated for 48h. (Table
4.4/ 4.4a). The data showed that the soybean meal and concentrate mixture
‘C’ had higher (P≤0.05) DM (64.41±1.61, 71.41±0.26), OM (64.49±0.58,
67.03±0.85) and CP(64.46±0.60, 65.74 ±1.73) degradability followed by
cottonseed cake (expeller) and conc. mixture (T-1) i.e. DM (59.58±1.02,
67.92±1.10), OM (52.86±1.58, 58.28±0.94) and CP (58.96±1.98, 59.04±1.41)
and decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted and concentrate mixture
40 Results & Discussion
‘T-2’ had lowest (P≤0.05) DM (55.70±0.45, 65.05±0.93), OM (53.31±0.70,
55.03±0.91) and CP (55.92±0.87, 56.54±1.25) degradability. The data clearly
showed that decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted protein
supplement had higher rumen undegradable protein. Cottonseed cake
(expeller) also had more undegradable protein than soybean meal de-oiled.
Thus decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted can be fed to the
growing animals requiring rapid rate of growth with advantage compared to
soybean meal de-oiled as the more crude protein will be available at the site
of absorption. Torane et al. (2006) reported that RDP: UDP ratio of 52:48 in
undecorticated cottonseed cake stimulated higher growth rate in crossbred
calves because of higher rumen undegradable protein availability from this
cake. However, in the present study the cottonseed cake expeller had RDP:
UDP ratio of 59:41 compared to 65:35 in soybean meal and 56:44 in
decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted (Table 4.4). Sehgal and
Makkar (1994) reported a RDP: UDP ratio of 61:39 in cottonseed cake
(expeller) which was quite comparable to the RDP: UDP ratio of 59:41 in the
present study.
Table 4.4 In vitro degradability of different cakes after incubation at 48
hrs.
In vitro degradability
Ingredients Dry matter Organic matter Crude protein
Soybean meal 64.41c±1.61 64.49a±0.58 64.46b±0.60
Cottonseed cake
(Expeller) 59.58b±1.02 52.86a±1.58 58.96a±1.98
Decorticated
Cottonseed cake
(Solv. ext.)
55.70a±0.45 53.31a±0.70 55.92a±0.87
SEm 1.38* 1.97* 1.41*
Values bearing different superscripts, a, b, c in a column differ significantly (P < 0.05) *Significant (P < 0.05)
41 Results & Discussion
4.4 (a) In vitro degradability of different Concentrate mixtures after incubation at 48 hrs.
In vitro degradability
Conc. Mixtures Dry matter Organic matter Crude protein
SBM ‘C’ 71.41b±1.26 67.03c±0.85 65.74b±1.73
CSC ‘T-1’ 67.92a±1.10 58.28b±0.94 59.04a±1.41
DCSC ‘T-2’ 65.05a±0.93 55.03a±0.91 56.54a±1.25
SEm 1.07* 1.84* 1.56*
Values bearing different superscripts a, b, c in a column differ Significantly (P < 0.05) *Significant (P < 0.05) SBM: Soybean Meal CSC: Cotton Seed Cake (Expeller) DCSC: Decorticated Cotton Seed Cake (Solv. ext.)
4.3 GROWTH STUDIES
Average fortnightly body weights of female cross bred (Tharparkar X
Holstein Friesion) calves fed concentrate mixture ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ with
wheat straw and green oats fodder as complete feed mixture individually in
three groups ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ have been shown diets in table 4.5.
Fortnightly changes in body weights of these calves of group ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and
‘T-2’ diet have been illustrated graphically in figure 1.
At the start of the experiment, the average body weight were 114.37 +
20.35,113.17+ 23.13 and 115.37+ 26.96 for ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diet groups
respectively. The average live weight of the female cross bred calves at the
end of 105 days of experimental period were recorded to be 181.00 + 23.63,
174.50+ 28.13, and 194.13+ 34.19kg in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diet groups
respectively. These cross bred calves of ‘C’ and ‘T-2’ diets showed higher
gain in body weight (66.6+ 3.96 and 78.8+ 10.32kg) then ‘T-1’ (61.3+ 6.5kg)
diet indicating significantly (P< 0.05) higher growth in ‘T-2’ diet then ‘C’ and ‘T-
1’ diet group respectively (Table 4.6).
42 Results & Discussion
Table 4.5 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on
fortnightly body weight changes (kg) in female cross bred calves
Groups
Fortnights SBM ‘C’ CSC ‘T-1’ DCSC ‘T-2’
0 114.37±20.35 113.17±23.13 115.37±26.96
1st 125.13±21.58 124.33±24.21 129.87±28.40
2nd 134.97±21.89 134.17±25.44 139.83±30.07
3rd 146.50±22.80 142.37±26.07 151.82±30.84
4th 151.80±22.70 153.32±26.57 159.83±31.08
5th 162.42±24.28 161.40±27.70 172.03±30.49
6th 173.50±23.40 166.83±28.54 181.83±32.58
7th 181.00±23.63 174.50±28.17 194.17±34.19
Also the average daily gains were observed to be higher (P< 0.05) in
‘T-2’ diet (750+51g) compared to ‘C’ (634+61g) and ‘T-1’ (583+37g) diets and
the differences were statistically significant (P< 0.05). Thus there was an
improvement of 18.3 percent and 28.6 percent in body weight gains of cross
bred calves fed decorticated cottonseed cake ‘T-2’ diet over that SBM of ‘C’
and CSC ‘T-1’ diet. Growth performance (fig. 1) revealed that the initial
differences in body weight gain in ‘C’ and ‘T-1’ diet were narrow, but ‘T-2’ diet
since the start of the experiment at each fortnight of the 105 days
experimental period showed higher body weight gains compared to other two
dietary groups ‘C’ and ‘T-1’ and even after 3rd fortnight the growth
performance of ‘T-1’ diet was lower than ‘C’ diet group indicating that partial
replacement of soybean meal with cottonseed cake (Expeller) was not
advantages to growing female calves. This may be attributed to 1% urea
addition for making the dietary treatment isonitrogenous and the farm bred
Figure 1 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM)with cottonseed
cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on fortnightly body weight
changes in female cross bred calves
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bo
dy
wt.
(kg
)
Fortnights
SBM
CSC
DCSC
43
animals may not have relished the sudden given urea diet. The total
dry matter intake was also low in this dietary treatment (‘T-1’ diet).
Growth is influenced by so many factors such as nutritional, hormonal,
managemental, biochemical, genetical and environmental. The other factors
remaining the same, it is only nutrition which might affect the growth rate. The
general growth curve may be divided in to self accelerating phase of
increasing slope and a self inhibiting phase of decreasing slope. Growth curve
is sigmoid in nature. The present study pertains only to be the accelerating
phase of growth (fig.1). Thus the difference in growth performance in three
groups of animals offered ‘C’ ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets respectively could be
attributed to the better utilization of partial replaced soybean meal with 10
parts of decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted in concentrate
mixture ‘T-2’ in a complete feed mixture than cottonseed cake expeller ‘T-1’.
The difference in growth performance was attributed to the feed intake
also. The animals of group ‘T-1’ diet eat less dry matter (4.50+ 0.58) than ‘T-2’
indicating higher feed efficiency of ‘T-2’ diet. Contrary to this Gonzalez et al.
(1988) showed that small quantity of cottonseed cake efficiently improved the
utilization of low quality forage and the performance of animals, but in the
present study the % feed efficiency was found to be higher with 10 parts
replacement of soybean meal with decorticated cottonseed cake solvent
extracted and not with cottonseed cake expeller as compared to soybean
meal containing dietary treatment ‘C’.
4.4 EFFECT OF PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF SOYBEAN MEAL WITH
COTTONSEED CAKE OR DECORTICATED COTTONSEED CAKE ON
VOLUNTRY FEED INTAKE, PRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE AND
PERCENT FEED EFFICIENCY
The total dry matter intake, animal productivity in terms of growth of
cross bred calves; percent feed efficiency (measured as the gain in weight
(kg) per 100kg of feed intake) or feed conversion ratio (measured as the
DMI/kg gain) of cross bred calves kept on three different feed regimes viz
control ‘C’, ‘T-1’, and ‘T-2’ diet for 105 days experimental period has been
shown in table 4.6.
44
The calves in C’, ‘T-1’, and ‘T-2’ diet were offered a weighed quantity of
wheat straw and concentrate mixture in the ratio of 50:50 and 10kg green oats
per calf per day and actual total dry matter consumption for the 105 days
experimental period (434.9+42.00, 402.8+ 43.30, 425.1+ 41.40kg) and dry
matter intake per day per cross bred calves (4.14+ 0.40, 3.83+ 0.44, 4.04+
0.39kg) remained statistically same in all the groups, the calf performance in
terms of growth rate ‘g’ (634+ 61, 583+ 37, 750+ 51) in C’, ‘T-1’, and ‘T-2’
differed (P< 0.05) and it was better in the ‘T-2’ group in which 10 parts of
soybean meal was partially replaced by decorticated cottonseed cake ( solv.
ext.) over control and ‘T-1’ diet (Table 4.6). The productive performance in
terms of growth of crossbred calve in CSC ‘T-1’ diet was not better than the
other two dietary group ‘C’ and ‘T-2’ numerically little less dry matter intake
per day/calf was observed in ‘T-1’ diet which may have reflected in the lower
growth rate. Wanapat et al. (1996) reported that straw intake was significantly
(P< 0.05) decreased from 1.25% to 0.88% of live weight as the level of
cottonseed cake was increased from 2 to 5kg /day in dairy cows. However a
summary of 18 feeding trials (Coppock et al., 1987) with whole cottonseed
showed no significant reduction (P> 0.05) in dry matter intake when whole
cottonseed was included up to 25% of the ration, But Shirley et al.(1998)
reported no difference in dry matter intake when feeding expended expelled
cottonseed cake in place of whole cottonseed. Similarly other studies (Saij
Paul et al, 2006; Sullivan et al., 1993) did not find any difference in DMI when
feeding whole linted cottonseed and cracked or ground Pima cottonseed. As
in the present study Arajuo et al. (2004) also observed no influence of the
processing of cottonseed on the nutrient intake.
45
Table 4.6 Productive performance of female crossbred calves fed with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) as a
partial replacement of soybean meal SBM) in complete feed mixtures.
Particular
Groups
SEm
(P < 0.05)
SBM
‘C’
CSC
‘T-1’
DCSC
‘T-2’
No. of animals 6 6 6
Avg. initial body weight (kg) 114.3± 20.30 113.2± 23.10 115.36± 26.90 12.82 NS
Avg. final body weight (kg) 181±23.60 174.5± 28.10 194.1± 34.20 15.85 NS
Total Wt. gain(kg) 66.6ab± 3.96 61.3a± 6.50 78.8b± 10.32 4.39*
Average daily gain ‘g’ 634 ab± 61 583a± 37 750b± 51 41.81*
Dry matter intake(DMI) (kg)
a) From concentrate** 181.6±19.20 164.38±22.60 172.8±20.20 11.37 NS
b) From wheat straw** 135.4±20.53 121.4±22.20 130.2±20.70 11.57 NS
c) From green oats** 117.8±3.10 117±4.80 122.1±1.50 1.93 NS
Total dry matter intake** 434.9±42.00 402.8±46.30 425.1±41.40 23.72 NS
Average dry matter intake/day 4.14±0.40 3.83±0.44 4.04±0.39 0.22 NS
Average dry matter
intake/100kgBW 2.50±0.42 2.36±0.45 2.71±0.57 0.26 NS
Average dry matter intake/kg
W0.75(g) 89.10±12.74 83.41±14.46 93.88±17.34 71.53 NS
Feed conversion ratio (kg
DMI/kg gain) 6.26±0.52 6.75±1.08 6.69±1.07 0.51 NS
% Feed efficiency (kg gain/
100kg feed intake ) 16.21ab±2.13 15.34a±0.69 18.55b±1.73 0.95*
Means with different superscripts a, b, ab in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level **105 days
Contrary to this Chaudhary et al. (2009) found significant higher dry
matter intake in lactating Surti buffaloes which were fed 60% cottonseed cake
46
in concentrate mixture. Zhang and Co-workers (2007) observed that dry
matter intake was not altered when cottonseed was included up to 25% of the
diet. The percent feed efficiency (kg gain/100kg feed intake) was found to be
higher (18.55+1.75) in the group ‘T-2’ in which decorticated cottonseed cake
solvent extract replaced 10 parts of soybean meal. However, statistically no
difference was observed between ‘C’ and CSC ‘T-1’ diets. Though did not
significant average DMI /100kg BW was also found to be higher in ‘T-2’ diet
compared to other indicating higher palatability of decorticated cottonseed
cake in crossbred calves.
4.5 EFFECT ON NUTRIENT INTAKE AND NUTRIENT UTILIZATION
Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal ‘C’ with cottonseed cake
‘T-1’ or decorticated cottonseed solv. ext. ‘T-2’ on nutrient intake /day (kg) in
female crossbred calves during metabolic trial period has been depicted in
Table 4.7. The data showed that the nutrient intake and DMI /100kg body
weight did not differ significantly in all the three groups ‘C’, ‘T-1’, and ‘T-2’
and thus accordingly except Ether extract, no other nutrient intake differed.
Though numerically TDN intake was found to be then more in ‘C’ then others;
the difference was not significant.
Crude fat (ether extract) intake differed significantly (P< 0.05) and it
was higher in ‘C’, ‘T-1’, and ‘T-2’ diet (0.28±0.03, and 0.27±0.03kg) than
control ‘C’ (0.14±0.01 kg) diet.
The variation present in the digestibility coefficients of dry matter,
organic matter, crude protein, crude fibre and nitrogen free extract were within
the range, and no significant differences were observed in the digestibility of
these nutrients among the various groups of animals. Dry matter digestibility
(%) (63.63±1.32, 61.19±1.10 and 60.62±1.63 ), organic matter
digestibility (%) (69.35 ±1.38, 67.42±1.40 and 66.97±1.47), crude protein
digestibility (%) (59.77±2.51, 59.7±1.93 and 61.00±2.73), crude fibre
digestibility(%) (64.51±1.70, 58.87±1.25 and 61.69 ± 2.44) and NFE
digestibility (%) (70.24 ± 1.20, 65.84 ± 1.50 and 70.13 ± 1.90) in control ‘C’,
‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’, respectively. However, digestibility of ether extract was
significantly higher (87.16±1.04 and 86.39±0.93) in ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ than ‘C’
(79.34±1.43). Similar to the digestibility coefficient of nutrient viz DM, OM, CP,
47
CF, except EE. The digestibility coefficient cell wall content i.e. NDF, ADF of
‘C’ ,’T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets, also did not differ significantly but showed numerically
higher value for diet ‘C’ compared to ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ (Table 4.8). There was no
difference in the digestibility of ADF between ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ in which the
cottonseed cake expeller or decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted
was added as a 10 part replacement of soybean meal. Thus all the three diets
were found to be equally good as for as the nutrient digestibility was
concerned.
Table 4.7 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on
nutrient intake (kg) in female cross bred calves (during metabolic trial)
Parameters Groups SEm
(P <0.05) Nutrient
intake(kg) SBM ‘C’
CSC ‘T-1’
DCSC ‘T-2’
Dry matter 4.80±0.33 4.38±0.45 4.50±0.58 0.26NS
Crude protein 0.54±0.03 0.53±0.05 0.50±0.06 0.03NS
Ether extract 0.14±0.01a 0.28±0.03b 0.27±0.03b 0.02*
Crude fibre 1.32±0.09 1.21±0.13 1.22±0.17 0.07NS
Nitrogen Free
Extract 2.71±0.16 2.29±0.20 2.46±0.23 0.12NS
Total Digestible
Nutrient 3.20±0.16 2.66±0.26 2.62±0.23 0.14NS
Means with different superscriptsa,b in a row differ significantly (P <0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level *Significant at 5% level
Kakkar and Mudgal, (1997) and Mudgal and Mulla (1985) observed no
significant (P< 0.05) difference in the intake or digestibility coefficients for dry
matter, organic matter, crude protein, crude fibre and nitrogen free extract.
However, they observed a significant difference in the utilization of ether
extract. Kehar et al. (1950-51) reported that crude fibre digestibility of
48
decorticated cottonseed cake and undecorticated cottonseed was similar. In
contrast Kakkar and Mudgal, (1997) observed higher crude fibre digestibility
of decorticated cottonseed cake than undecorticated cottonseed cake as well
as whole cotton seed.
Similarly, Suliman and Babiker (2007) also did not observe difference
which range between 1.11 to 1.18 kg/day in fattening lambs fed with different
protein supplements like groundnut cake, sesame cake, cottonseed cake and
sunflower seed cake. Ward et al. (2008) reported no change in dry matter
intake by Barki lambs fed diet containing soybean meal, cottonseed meal and
cottonseed meal supplemented with ferrous sulphate though slightly lower dry
matter intake was observed in lambs fed soybean diets.
Digestibility of crude fat (ether extract) differed significantly (P<0.05)
and was higher in ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ (79.34±1.43 and 87.16±1.04) than control ‘C’
diet (86.39±0.93%). Digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein
and nitrogen free extract did not differ significantly (P<0.05). similar to the
findings in the present study Bangani et al. (2000) found no difference in
respect of dry matter intake and feed conversion efficiency in groups fed with
cottonseed cake and soybean oil cake meal to the Holstein and jersey heifer
calves. El-din et al. (1992) and Binondi et al. (1993) also reported no
difference between diets containing cottonseed oil cake meal and soybean oil
cake meal in Holstein bull calves.
Philips and Rao (2001) also observed no difference in dry matter
digestibility in lambs fed with diets containing pigeon pea, cottonseed meal or
alfalfa as protein sources. Ward et al. (2008) reported that un-decorticated
CSM supplemented with ferrous sulphate significantly improved the nutrient
digestibility in growing Barki male lambs compared to those lambs fed un-
decorticated CSM or SBM without the addition of ferrous sulphate.
Numerically lower intake and lower growth rate in cottonseed cake (expeller)
diet ‘T-1’ than ‘C’ and diet ‘T-2’ can also be due to no addition of ferrous
sulphate in diet ‘T-1’ which may have higher free gossypol.
49
Table 4.8 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on
digestibility coefficient (%) of various nutrients of different complete
feed mixture in female cross bred calves.
Particulars
Groups SEm
(P <0.05) SBM ‘C’
CSC
‘T-1’
DCSC
‘T-2’
Dry matter 63.63±1.32 61.19±1.10 60.62±1.63 0.81 NS
Organic matter 69.35±1.38 67.42±1.40 66.97±1.47 0.80 NS
Crude protein 59.77±2.51 59.7±1.93 61.00±2.73 1.32 NS
Ether extract 79.34±1.43a 87.16±1.04b 86.39±0.93b 1.05*
Crude fibre 64.51±1.70 58.87±1.25 61.69±2.44 1.16 NS
Nitrogen Free
Extract 70.24±1.20 65.84±1.50 70.13±1.90 0.98 NS
Acid detergent fibre 50.93±1.86 48.96±1.49 46.08±2.71 1.22 NS
Neutral detergent fibre
60.47±1.16 58.10±1.86 58.52±1.50 0.69 NS
Means with different superscripts a, b in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level * Significant at 5% level
4.6 NUTRITIVE EVALUATION IN TERMS OF PERCENT DIGESTIBLE
CRUDE PROTIEN (%DCP) AND PERCENT TOTAL DIGESTIBILE
NUTRIENTS (%TDN)
The nutritive evaluation in terms of percent digestible crude protein
(%DCP) and percent total digestible nutrient(%TDN) in complete feed
mixtures of ‘C’ , ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ in crossbred female calves has been given
Table 4.9.
50
The percent DCP values for ‘C’ , ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diet groups( 6.52+ 0.20,
7.59+ 0.30 and 6.61+ 0.32) were not similar and varies statistically (P< 0.05).
The percent TDN values of ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ dietary groups were quite
similar (61.36+ 1.69, 62.81± 2.42 and 61.60±2.41)and did not vary statistically
(P< 0.05). The data showed that the ‘T-1’ diet had higher DCP than ‘C’ and ‘T-
2’ diets indicating higher availability of DCP in ‘T-1’ diet but the energy
availability remained the same as the percent TDN remained the same due to
similar digestibility of nutrients in all the groups.
Thus, the highest availability of digestible protein in ‘T-1’ diet did not
reflected in the body weight gain in this group of crossbred female calves
indicating that DCP utilization was not efficient in ‘T-1’ diet.
Table 4.9 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on
nutritive evaluation of ration in female crossbred calves
Particulars SBM ‘C’
CSC ‘T-1’
DCSC ‘T-2’
SEm
%DCP 6.52a±0.20 7.59b±0.30 6.61a±0.32 0.20*
%TDN 61.36±1.69 62.81±2.42 61.60±2.41 1.20 NS
Means with different superscripts a, b in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level
4.7 NITROGEN BALANCE
The effect of partial replacement of soybean meal ‘C’ with cottonseed cake or
decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted in ‘T-1’ or ‘T-2’ diets on the
nitrogen balance in crossbred female calves have been shown in Table 4.10.
51
Table 4.10 Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal with cottonseed
cake (expeller) or decorticated cottonseed cake (Solvent extracted) on
Nitrogen balance (g) in female cross bred calves
Particulars
Groups SEm
(P
<0.05) SBM
‘C’
CSC
‘T -1’
DCSC
‘T -2’
Nitrogen intake (g/d) 84.08±5.80 81.23±5.99 80.00±4.60 3.30NS
N outgo through
faeces(g/d) 36.98b±4.48 33.23b±2.99 25.46a±4.53 2.23*
N outgo through urine(g/d) 16.15±3.11 19.22±3.53 17.24±3.93 1.94NS
Total outgo (g/d) 53.13±7.42 52.45±5.99 42.70±8.35 3.97NS
N Balance (g/d) 30.95ab±2.61 28.78a±1.14 37.30b±5.61 2.42*
Absorb N(g/d) 47.10ab±2.50 48.00a±3.74 54.28b±3.35 2.21*
Percent Absorb N 56.67a±2.97 59.15a±2.19 66.01b±3.80 1.78*
N Retained 38.21±4.98 36.39±2.99 46.39±7.01 3.00NS
N Retained (%) of N
absorbed 66.22±5.61 61.63±4.74 69.32±7.31 3.37NS
Means with different superscripts a, b, ab in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level * Significant (P < 0.05)
The nitrogen balance was measured as the nitrogen intake through
feed, nitrogen outgo through faeces and nitrogen outgo through urine. Total
nitrogen intake (g/d) through feed was 88.08±5.80, 81.23±5.99 and
80.00±4.60 respectively in three dietary groups ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’. Nitrogen
outgo through faeces per day was 36.98± 4.48, 33.23±2.99 and 25.46±4.53.
the nitrogen outgo through urine (g/d) was obtained to be 16.15±3.11,
19.22±3.53 and 17.24±3.93 and the nitrogen balance of calculated as
52
30.95±2.61, 28.78±1.14 and 37.30±5.61 in three groups of concentrate
mixtures ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ respectively.
The total nitrogen outgo was low in ‘T-2’ diet (42.70±8.35) compared to
‘C’ and ‘T-1’ group but the nitrogen balance was found to be higher in ‘T-2’
diet; which also reflected in higher body weight gain in this group (Table 4.6).
Though non significantly the nitrogen retained as percent of nitrogen
absorbed was also higher in ‘T-2’ group indicating a higher biological value of
this ‘T-2’ diet compared to the other two dietary groups i.e. ‘C’ and ‘T-1’.
Khalid et al. (2012) observed that organic nitrogen sources with high RUP
(Rumen undegradable protein) were more efficient in improving the nitrogen
balance in lambs when compared to the lower RUP or inorganic nitrogen
source. Increased nitrogen retention was observed in lambs fed diets
supplemented with CSM as a natural higher undegradable protein source
(Caton et al., 1988).
4.9 BLOOD BIOCHEMICAL PROFILE
The partial replacement of soybean meal with cottonseed cake
(expeller) or decorticated cottonseed cake (Solvent Extracted) showed no
adverse effect on blood biochemical profile (4.11). Blood urea nitrogen values
(mg/dl) were significantly higher in ‘T-2’ (18.08±0.64) compared to other
(14.77±0.61, 14.67±0.58). The values for blood glucose (mg/dl) 60.19±1.15,
60.15±0.89 and 59.30±0.95, total protein (g/l) 7.13±0.23, 7.38±0.27 and
7.51±0.26, albumin (g/l) 3.72±0.10, 3.86±0.07 and 3.66±0.11, globulin (g/l)
3.42±0.23, 3.52±0.27 and 3.81±0.28, Albumin: Globulin ratio 1.26±0.10,
1.45±0.19 and 1.20±0.13 and haemoglobin (g/dl) 11.11±2.63, 8.60±0.22 and
8.30±0.25 in control, T-1 and T-2 respectively, did not vary much and
remained in normal range. Numerically the values for glucose were found to
be little lower in ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diet compared to ‘C’ may be due to gossypol in
cottonseed cakes.
53
Table 4.11:- Effect of partial replacement of soybean meal with
cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated cottonseed cake (DCSC) on
blood biochemical profile in female cross bred calves
Particulars
Groups SEm
(P <0.05) SBM
‘C’
CSC
‘T -1’
DCSC
‘T -2’
BUN (mg/dl) 14.77a±0.61 14.67 a±0.58 18.08b±0.64 0.39*
Glucose (mg/dl) 60.19±1.15 60.15±0.89 59.30±0.95 0.57 NS
Total protein (g/l) 7.13±0.23 7.38±0.27 7.51±0.26 0.15 NS
Albumin(g/l) 3.72±0.10 3.86±0.07 3.66±0.11 0.05 NS
Globulin (g/l) 3.42±0.23 3.52±0.27 3.81±0.28 0.15 NS
Albumin : Globulin 1.26±0.10 1.45±0.19 1.20±0.13 0.08 NS
Haemoglobin (g/dl) 11.11±2.63 8.60±0.22 8.30±0.25 0.88 NS
Means with different superscripts a, b in a row differ significantly (P <0.05) NS- Non significant at 5% level * Significant (P <0.05)
The blood profile of cattle given cottonseed @1.2-2.0kg/d showed
gossypol toxicity with higher values of haemoglobin, proteins, albumin:
globulin ratio, urea and inorganic phosphorus (Mena et al., 2004).In contrast
Torane et al. (2006) reported significantly lower (P<0.01) concentration of
BUN in calves fed experimental ration T2 containing urea treated wheat straw
and un-decorticated cottonseed cake. Cottonseed cake is a source of natural
rumen protected protein and is an indicative of slow release of ammonia in the
rumen from such type of naturally protected slowly degradable protein source.
Colin et al. (1996) showed no significant change in the blood glucose and uric
acid levels in cattle fed whole cottonseed meal for 430 days.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is a measure to assess protein status of
animal. Blood urea nitrogen and protein intake has a positive relationship and
54
BUN value is an indicator of protein intake (Preston et al. 1965; Rusche et al.
1993). It has also been reported that plasma glucose and urea N were
unaffected in lambs fed concentrate diets (Carro et al., 2006) while in contrast
to this Sano et al. (2007) found that increased in glucose concentration may
be due to more by-pass protein and increased availability of glucogenic amino
acids for glucose synthesis. Similarly Khalid et al. (2012) observed that
feeding protein with high rumen un-degradable value resulted in increased
concentration of blood glucose due to more glucogenic amino acids available
for gluconeogenesis. However, this could not be confirmed in the present
study.
Preston et al. (1965) reported that the quantity of ammonia absorbed
from the rumen was reflected in circulating BUN. Several studies (Roseler et
al., 1993; Baker et al., 1995; Hong et al., 2003) had shown that MUN (milk
urea nitrogen) was highly correlated with BUN. In healthy ruminants, BUN and
MUN concentrations are indicative of the protein to energy ratio in the diet.
Decreased haemoglobin and TEC are symptomatic of gossypol toxicity.
Lindsey et al. (1980) found depressed haemoglobin, and total protein of
plasma got elevated in cows fed the solvent meal. While Nikokyris et al.
(1991) could not observe any effect on haemoglobin in lambs when fed diet
incorporated with cottonseed meal up to 30%.
4.10 ECONOMICS OF FEEDING
The economics of feeding cottonseed cake or decorticated cottonseed
cake solvent extracted as a partial replacement of 10 unit of soybean de-oiled
in the concentrate mixture (4.12) have been calculated by considering the
market purchase prices of feed ingredients, oat fodder and wheat straw
(Table 4.1). The values regarding the economics of feeding and body weight
gains of animals are presented in Table 4.12. The cost of concentrate
mixtures was worked out to be Rs 1660, 1507 and 1512 per/100kg in ‘C’, ‘T-1’
and ‘T-2’ diets (4.12).
55
4.12 Economics of feeding
Attributes
Groups
SBM ‘C’
CSC ‘T-1’
DCSC ‘T-2’
Cost of concentrate (Rs/100kg) 1660 1507 1512
Cost of wheat straw (Rs/100kg) 300 300 300
Cost of green oats (Rs/100kg) 150 150 150
Total intake of wheat straw (kg)* 150.4 134.9 144.66
Cost on wheat straw (Rs) 451.20 404.7 433.98
Total intake of concentrate (kg)* 201.8 182.6 192
Cost on concentrate (Rs) 3349.88 2751.78 2903.04
Total intake of green oats (kg)* 736.25 731.25 763.13
Cost on green oats (Rs) 1104.37 1096 1144.69
Total cost of feeds (Rs) 4905.45 4253.35 4481.72
Total weight gain (kg) 66.60 61.30 78.80
Cost /kg gain 73.65 69.38 56.87
*105 days
The differences in cost of concentrate mixtures were due to
replacement of costly soybean meal with little cheaper cottonseed cake
(expeller) or decorticated cottonseed cake (solvent extracted) Table 4.1. The
market price of green oats was Rs 150/qtl, and that of wheat straw was taken
as Rs 300/qtl. The cost of total feed intake for 105 days also varied in different
groups due to variation in feed intakes and the cost worked out was Rs 4905/-
, Rs 4235/- and Rs 4481/- for ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets respectively, showing
lower cost for ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets because both cottonseed cake and
decorticated cottonseed cake were cheaper than soybean meal (de-oiled).
The total gain in experimental animals during a period of 105 days was 66.60,
61.30 and 78.8 kg in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets respectively.
The net cost of production i.e. per kg gain in body weight was Rs
73.65, 69.38 and 56.87 in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diets respectively indicating that
56
‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ concentrate mixtures replaced with cottonseed cakes (Expeller
and Solvent Extracted) were better and economical than soybean meal de-
oiled.
CHACHACHACHAPTER PTER PTER PTER –––– 5 5 5 5
SUMMARY &CONCLUSIONSUMMARY &CONCLUSIONSUMMARY &CONCLUSIONSUMMARY &CONCLUSIONSSSS
57 Summary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & Conclusions
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
An experiment was conducted to see the effect of partial replacement
of soybean meal (SBM) with cottonseed cake (CSC) or decorticated
cottonseed cake (DCSC) on growth, nutrient utilization, body weight gain in
growing calves and on blood biochemical profile. Also the in vitro protein
degradability of decorticated cottonseed cake (Solvent extracted), cottonseed
cake, (expeller) soybean meal (de-oiled), Ground Nut cake (expeller) and
other ingredients of the concentrate mixture and also the experimental
concentrate mixture was measured. The control ‘C’ diet contained 15%
soybean meal and 10 parts of this was replaced by cottonseed cake (expeller)
in group ‘T-1’ diet and decorticated cottonseed cake (solvent extracted) in
group ‘T-2’ and concentrate mixtures were prepared.
The rumen in vitro dry matter, organic matter, crude protein
degradability (1st stage Tilley and Terry,1963) was measured for soybean
meal 64.41±1.61, 64.49 ±0.58 and 64.46±0.60, cottonseed cake (expeller)
59.58±1.02, 52.86 ±1.58 and 58.96 ±1.98 and decorticated cottonseed cake
(solvent extracted) 55.70 ±0.45, 53.31±0.70 and 55.92 ±0.87, respectively.
Also for the control ‘C’ concentrate mixture 71.41±1.26, 67.03±0.85 and
65.74±1.73, conc. ‘T-1’ 67.92±1.10, 58.28±0.94 and 59.04±1.4 and conc. ‘T-2’
65.05±0.93, 55.03±0.91 and 56.54±1.25, respectively.
The animals were fed ad libitum (concentrate and wheat straw 50:50
and 10kg green oats to full fill the requirement of vitamin A) and clean tap
water provided to the animals every day. Daily feed intake and fortnightly
body weight of the calves were recorded for 105 days. After completion of 85
days of experimental period, a metabolic trial of 7 days duration was
conducted on all the animals to assess their voluntary feed intake, productive
performance, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance and the nutritive
evaluation of the feed given to the different group of the animals, concentrate
mixture ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ contained crude protein (%)19.1, 20.0 and 19.9,
ether extract (%) 4.2, 6.2 and 4.8 and nitrogen free extract (%) 56.3, 52.0 and
55.8 respectively and contributed towards meeting the needs of nitrogen as
well as readily available source of energy to the animals for rapid growth.
58 Summary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & Conclusions
Wheat straw contained 90.6, 2.6, 33.1, 0.9, 45.8, 81.6, 57.1 and 24.5 percent
of DM, CP, EE, Nitrogen free extract (NFE), NDF, ADF and hemicellulose
respectively. Green oats contained 16.0, 8.5, 2.7, 44.2, 63.2, 43.0 and 20.2
percent of DM, CP, EE, Nitrogen free extract (NFE), NDF, ADF and
hemicellulose respectively.
At the start of experiments, the average body weights of the groups
were, group ‘C’ 114.37±20.35 kg, group ‘T-1’ 13.17±23.13 kg and group ‘T-2’
115.37±26.96 kg respectively. The average live weight of the cross bred
(Karan fries) female calves at the end of 105 days of experimental period
were ‘C’ 181.00 ±23.63 kg, ‘T-1’ 174.50±28.17 kg and ‘T-2’ 194.17±34.19kg,
respectively. Thus the calves of ‘T-2’ shows significant (P≤0.05) higher gains
in body weights (78.8±10.32 kg) than ‘C’ and ‘T-1’ diet (66.6±3.96 and
61.3±6.50 kg) respectively. Also the average daily gains were observed to be
significant (P≤0.05) higher in ‘T-2’ (750.0±51g) than ‘C’ and ‘T-1’ (634.0±61
and 583.0±37 g).
The results further showed that the total DMI for 105 days
experimental period (434.9±42.00, 402.8±46.30 and 425.1±41.40kg) DMI per
day (4.14±0.40, 3.83±0.44 and 4.04±0.39 kg), feed conversion ratio
(6.26±0.52, 6.75±1.80 and 6.69±1.07) and percent feed efficiency
(16.21±2.13, 15.34±0.69 and 18.55±1.73) in ‘C’, ‘T-1’and ‘T-2’ diet, did not
differ significantly in three groups.
The digestibility coefficient (%) of dry matter (63.63±1.32, 61.19±1.10
and 60.62±1.63), organic matter (69.35±1.38, 67.42±1.40 and 66.97±1.47),
crude protein (59.77±2.51, 59.7±1.93 and 61.00±2.73), crude fibre
(64.51±1.70, 58.87±1.25 and 61.69±2.44), nitrogen free extract (70.24±1.20,
65.84±1.50 and 70.13±1.90), acid detergent fibre (50.93±1.86, 48.96±1.49
and 46.08±2.71) and neutral detergent fibre (60.47±1.16, 58.10±1.86 and
58.52±1.50) in ‘C’, ‘T-1’and ‘T-2’ diet respectively, the values were not
significantly different in three groups. However the digestibility coefficient for
ether extract was significantly higher in group ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’, (87.16±1.04 and
86.39±0.93) than group ‘C’ (79.34±1.43) diet.
Nitrogen intake (g/d) was 84.08±5.80, 81.23±5.99 and 80.00±4.60 in
‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ groups respectively. Nitrogen intake did not differ
significantly among the three groups (P≤0.05). Excretion of nitrogen (g/d)
59 Summary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & ConclusionsSummary & Conclusions
through faeces was lower in group ‘T-2’ 25.46±4.53 than ‘C’ and ‘T-
1’(36.98±4.48 and 33.23±2.99) and through urine was (16.71±3.11, 19.22
±3.53 and 17.24±3.93) in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’ diet groups respectively, which
did not differ significantly among the three groups (P≤0.05). However, it was
observed that nitrogen balance (g/d) was significantly higher (P≤0.05) in
group ‘T-2’ (37.30±5.61), than group ‘C’ and ‘T-1’(30.95±2.61 and 28.78±1.14)
and absorbed nitrogen was also significantly higher in ‘T-2’ (54.28±3.35) than
‘C’ and ‘T-1’ (47.10±2.50 and 48.00±3.74). Thus animals in ‘T-2’ dietary
group showed higher percent of absorbed nitrogen (66.01±3.80) than ‘C’ and
‘T-1’ diets i.e.(56.67±2.97 and 59.15±2.19). All the animals were found in
positive nitrogen balance.
The blood urea nitrogen was found significantly higher in ‘T-2’
(18.08±0.64) than ‘C’ (14.77±0.61) and ‘T-1’ (14.67±0.58), besides the BUN,
values of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin: globulin ratio and
haemoglobin varied slightly but not significantly in all three groups.
The total input cost (Rs) on different dietary treatments ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’
was 4905.45, 4253.35 and 4481.72, total gain in body weight (kg) 66.60, 61.3
and 78.8 and cost/kg gain (Rs) 73.65, 69.38 and 56.87in ‘C’, ‘T-1’ and ‘T-2’
groups respectively.
It can be concluded that incorporation of decorticated cotton seed
cake as a partial replacement (10 parts) of soybean meal in a concentrate
mixture fed as a complete feed mixture will show higher growth rate in
crossbred female calves with better percent feed efficiency and no effects on
blood profile.
As the market price of decorticated cotton seed cake (Solvent extract)
is less than soybean meal de-oiled and it showed better growth and average
daily gains than soybean meal. Thus it will be in advantage to feed
decorticated cottonseed cake solvent extracted in a concentrate mixture for a
rapid rate of growth in crossbred female calves.
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