Elements of StyleElements of StyleThere are six!There are six!

They are:They are:DictionDiction

ImageryImagery

SyntaxSyntax

ToneTone

Point of ViewPoint of View

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language

DictionDictionDiction is often defined as the Diction is often defined as the authorauthor’’s s

choice of words.choice of words.

There are two ways to think of diction:There are two ways to think of diction:

1) Specific effect of word choice: 1) Specific effect of word choice: connotationconnotation and and denotationdenotation..

2) Overall style2) Overall style

ConnotationConnotation

Connotation is the Connotation is the emotionalemotional sense of the sense of the word or the word or the cultural meaningcultural meaning associated associated with the word. Connotations evoke with the word. Connotations evoke associations. For example, the word associations. For example, the word ““cancercancer”” evokes fear, trepidation, and evokes fear, trepidation, and more.more.

DenotationDenotationDenotation refers to the Denotation refers to the dictionarydictionary or or precise precise meaningmeaning of a word. Authors of a word. Authors’’ use of the right use of the right word for the passage can be key to their word for the passage can be key to their clarity of expression. clarity of expression.

Caution:Caution: Be open-minded about the meaning of words. Be open-minded about the meaning of words. The meaning of words changes over time. When you The meaning of words changes over time. When you are reading older texts chances are some of the words are reading older texts chances are some of the words do not mean exactly the same thing today as they did do not mean exactly the same thing today as they did when the text was written. For example, the word when the text was written. For example, the word ““terrificterrific”” today means today means ““wonderful or great.wonderful or great.”” In an older In an older text as in the case of some passages on the AP Exam, text as in the case of some passages on the AP Exam, terrific means terrific means ““terrifying.terrifying.””

StyleStyle

Style is the voice of the writer. It is an Style is the voice of the writer. It is an accumulation of the other elements and accumulation of the other elements and how they are used that defines an authorhow they are used that defines an author’’s s style.style.

Style can also mean something similar to Style can also mean something similar to tone.tone.

Authoritative:Authoritative: the voice is commanding and the voice is commanding and knowing.knowing.

Emotive:Emotive: the voice evokes emotion. the voice evokes emotion.

Didactic:Didactic: the voice is preachy, insistent. the voice is preachy, insistent.

Objective:Objective: the voice is uncommitted, without the voice is uncommitted, without judgment.judgment.

Typical Style DescriptorsTypical Style Descriptors

Ornate:Ornate: the voice is perhaps pretentious, the voice is perhaps pretentious, flowery, or ostentatious.flowery, or ostentatious.

Plain:Plain: the voice is simple, straightforward, to the voice is simple, straightforward, to the pointthe point

Scholarly:Scholarly: the voice is learned and the voice is learned and authoritative, erudite.authoritative, erudite.

Scientific:Scientific: the voice is precise and relies on the voice is precise and relies on the language of science.the language of science.

ImageryImagery

Imagery is most often associated with Imagery is most often associated with poetry but it is equally important to poetry but it is equally important to

prose writers. Imagery is prose writers. Imagery is language that language that engages the senses and evokes emotion.engages the senses and evokes emotion.

Types of ImageryTypes of Imagery

Visual Imagery:Visual Imagery: what we can see what we can see

Auditory:Auditory: what we can hear what we can hear

Tactile:Tactile: what we can touch what we can touch

Olfactory:Olfactory: what we can smell what we can smell

Gustatory:Gustatory: what we can taste what we can taste

Kinesthetic:Kinesthetic: sense of movement sense of movement

Organic:Organic: internal sense of being (well or ill) internal sense of being (well or ill)

Effects of ImageryEffects of Imagery

Helps establish toneHelps establish tone

Creates realistic settingsCreates realistic settings

Creates empathy in readers for charactersCreates empathy in readers for characters

Helps readers imagine themselves as part of a Helps readers imagine themselves as part of a narrative.narrative.

SyntaxSyntax

Syntax refers to Syntax refers to the order of words in a the order of words in a sentencesentence. There are many different types . There are many different types of sentences dictated by the sequence of of sentences dictated by the sequence of

words within them. Writers vary the syntax words within them. Writers vary the syntax within a passage to create specific effects.within a passage to create specific effects.

A study of syntax is important for A study of syntax is important for several reasons:several reasons:

Sentences impact the narrative pace of a Sentences impact the narrative pace of a passage, making it read quickly or slowly, which passage, making it read quickly or slowly, which has an impact on the idea or theme.has an impact on the idea or theme.

Certain types of sentences are better at Certain types of sentences are better at emphasizing ideas so key notions become emphasizing ideas so key notions become prominent through repetition or parallel prominent through repetition or parallel structure.structure.

Sometimes there are questions in the multiple Sometimes there are questions in the multiple choice section of the exam that ask you to choice section of the exam that ask you to identify types of sentences. (Review Appendices)identify types of sentences. (Review Appendices)

More Elements of More Elements of Syntax:Syntax:Climax:Climax: the main idea or most important point in a the main idea or most important point in a sentence. The position of the climax may be sentence. The position of the climax may be varied for effect.varied for effect.

Cadence:Cadence: the rhythm of a sentence that comes the rhythm of a sentence that comes through parallel elements and repetition.through parallel elements and repetition.

Narrative pace:Narrative pace: the pace or speed of a passage the pace or speed of a passage that comes through the following elements:that comes through the following elements:

length of wordslength of words

omission of words or punctuationomission of words or punctuation

length of sentenceslength of sentences

number of dependent/subordinate clausesnumber of dependent/subordinate clauses

repetition of soundsrepetition of sounds

The 3 The 3 PP’’s of Syntaxs of Syntax

Prominence:Prominence: refers to the refers to the importance given importance given to an idea in a sentenceto an idea in a sentence. It is achieved by . It is achieved by repetition and placement. repetition and placement.

Position:Position: where the key idea is locatedwhere the key idea is located. Most . Most often it comes at the beginning or the end of a often it comes at the beginning or the end of a sentence. Sometimes, however, writers use sentence. Sometimes, however, writers use unconventional syntax or invert the word order unconventional syntax or invert the word order to draw attention to certain words or ideas.to draw attention to certain words or ideas.

3 P3 P’’s Continueds Continued

Pace:Pace: the speed of the textthe speed of the text. Use of fast paced . Use of fast paced short sentences creates a frenetic or anxious short sentences creates a frenetic or anxious scene. Long sentences filled with adjectives scene. Long sentences filled with adjectives can have a more calming affect.can have a more calming affect.

ToneToneTone is the attitude of the speaker toward Tone is the attitude of the speaker toward another character, a place, an idea or a another character, a place, an idea or a

thing.thing.

A passage or paragraph has a specific A passage or paragraph has a specific tone, which refers to its emotional quality. tone, which refers to its emotional quality. This quality is created by imagery, diction This quality is created by imagery, diction

and syntax. and syntax.

The first key to analyzing tone is to The first key to analyzing tone is to recognize it. Second, you need the words recognize it. Second, you need the words

to accurately describe it. (Look at the to accurately describe it. (Look at the Handout!)Handout!)

MoodMoodMood is related to tone but is most often Mood is related to tone but is most often used in relation to setting. Think of it as used in relation to setting. Think of it as

the the emotional quality of the setting.emotional quality of the setting.

HereHere’’s a Tip:s a Tip: Be aware of tone shifts Be aware of tone shifts within a text. If the tone changes within a text. If the tone changes suddenly, it can signal a revelation of suddenly, it can signal a revelation of some sort or a change in the character. some sort or a change in the character. Tone shifts are critical markers in a Tone shifts are critical markers in a passage.passage.

Point of ViewPoint of View

This is one of the most important This is one of the most important elements of writing that you need to elements of writing that you need to

understand for the AP Language Exam. understand for the AP Language Exam. When reading, always be aware of who When reading, always be aware of who

the speaker is and the speakerthe speaker is and the speaker’’s s relationship to the other characters.relationship to the other characters.

Types of Points of ViewTypes of Points of View

First Person:First Person: narrator tells his/her own story narrator tells his/her own story (uses I, me, we, us). This point of view is (uses I, me, we, us). This point of view is limited by the narrator can know, see, or limited by the narrator can know, see, or understand. In First Person passages, be understand. In First Person passages, be aware of the speakeraware of the speaker’’s agenda and possible s agenda and possible biases.biases.

Second Person:Second Person: narrator uses second person narrator uses second person pronouns (you) to make immediate pronouns (you) to make immediate connections with readers. Very rare.connections with readers. Very rare.

Points of View Points of View ContinuedContinued

Third Person-Limited:Third Person-Limited: story is told from one story is told from one charactercharacter’’s perspective, using third person s perspective, using third person pronouns (she, her, he, it, they, them). It is pronouns (she, her, he, it, they, them). It is limited to one characterlimited to one character’’s feelings and s feelings and thoughts, similar to the first-person pov.thoughts, similar to the first-person pov.

Third Person-Omniscient:Third Person-Omniscient: the third person the third person narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all the other characters without constraints of the other characters without constraints of time and space.time and space.

Points of View Points of View ContinuedContinued

Objective:Objective: an objective narrator tells a story an objective narrator tells a story like a camcorder would, only describing sights like a camcorder would, only describing sights and sounds without any emotion or interest.and sounds without any emotion or interest.

Figurative LanguageFigurative Language

Literally this means Literally this means language not meant language not meant to be taken literallyto be taken literally. The most prominent . The most prominent

element of figurative language is element of figurative language is metaphor. But it is more than that...metaphor. But it is more than that...

Allegory:Allegory: a description or a narrative (poetry or a description or a narrative (poetry or prose) with a secondary, or underlying meaning.prose) with a secondary, or underlying meaning.

Character allegory:Character allegory: characters represent specific characters represent specific concepts, values or ideas.concepts, values or ideas.

Apostrophe:Apostrophe: (similar to personification) (similar to personification) addressing someone or something that is incapable addressing someone or something that is incapable of response as if it could hear and respond.of response as if it could hear and respond.

Allusion:Allusion: an expression used to call something to an expression used to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly, often a mind without mentioning it explicitly, often a reference to another literary work.reference to another literary work.

Types of Figurative Types of Figurative LanguageLanguage

Irony:Irony: a discrepancy between what is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is real. There are three perceived and what is real. There are three types:types:

Verbal IronyVerbal Irony--what is said is different than --what is said is different than what is meant.what is meant.

Dramatic IronyDramatic Irony--the reader knows something --the reader knows something a character does not know.a character does not know.

Situational IronySituational Irony--an aspect of a situation --an aspect of a situation doesndoesn’’t fit with what is appropriate or t fit with what is appropriate or expected.expected.

Metaphor:Metaphor: comparison of two dissimilar comparison of two dissimilar things in order to see one in a new way.things in order to see one in a new way.

Metonymy:Metonymy: (similar to (similar to synecdochesynecdoche) use of a ) use of a closely related detail for the thing that is closely related detail for the thing that is actually meant. For example using The White actually meant. For example using The White House to refer to the President.House to refer to the President.

Overstatement:Overstatement: (hyperbole) saying more (hyperbole) saying more than the situation warrants.than the situation warrants.

Paradox:Paradox: two contradictory or incompatible two contradictory or incompatible elements.elements.

Personification:Personification: attributing human qualities attributing human qualities or characteristics to non-living or non-human or characteristics to non-living or non-human things in order to create empathy.things in order to create empathy.

Simile:Simile: a metaphor that uses a metaphor that uses ““asas”” or or ““like.like.””

Epic or Homeric Simile:Epic or Homeric Simile: an extended simile an extended simile used in epic poems and Greek dramas. Look used in epic poems and Greek dramas. Look for for ““just asjust as”” or or ““so thenso then”” as a signal for the as a signal for the comparison.comparison.

Synecdoche:Synecdoche: the use of a part for the whole such the use of a part for the whole such as as ““boots on the ground.boots on the ground.”” similar to similar to metonymymetonymy..

Symbol:Symbol: a thing, person, or idea that stands for a thing, person, or idea that stands for something else.something else.

Understatement:Understatement: saying less than the saying less than the situationsituation warrants.warrants.

Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia: the literary device that relies on the literary device that relies on words that imitate the sound that they name. words that imitate the sound that they name. TheyThey’’re sound effect words or noise words. Writers re sound effect words or noise words. Writers choose these words as a way of conveying the choose these words as a way of conveying the sound of the things that they are describing and sound of the things that they are describing and emphasizing something about the scene that emphasizing something about the scene that they're describing. Examples of onomatopoeia are they're describing. Examples of onomatopoeia are boom, meow, crash, sizzle, crunch and buzz. boom, meow, crash, sizzle, crunch and buzz.