Embedded Developer: March 2015

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TECH REPORTWhere Wheels Meet RailsEmbedded Modules for Train Axle Monitoring

TECH SERIESWi GaNWireless Power Amplifier Comparison

Understanding Soft Errors in Semiconductor Memory

DESIGN CONTESTThe Big I.D.E.A.2015 International Design Engineering Award

COVER STORYIndustrial-Grade Boxer BoardTransforms the Maker Movement

Figure 3: Load variaAon efficiency of MOSFET and eGaN FET in a class E wireless power amplifier

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GRAND PRIZEClemens Valens

JANUARY 1 - ENTRY PHASE » Fill in and submit questionnaire. (Special bonus drawing for entries before March 15. Five contestants will win prizes worth $100 each.)

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» Entries must be submitted for judging by June 30.

AUGUST 1 - WINNERS ANNOUNCED » GRAND PRIZE: $3000 Prize Value

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August 1

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

3

44

Where the

WHEELS Meet the RAILS

Designing Embedded Equipment to Monitor Axles on a Running Train

DESIGN CHALLENGES

Rolling stock is the most maintenance-intensive part of the railway system and train axles, and wheels and brakes are the most vulnerable. The axles of a running train have to be constantly measured in “real time“ for diagnostics and safety.

Other requirements include:

• Measurement and storage of the temperature profile of brakes, wheels, and axle bearing to detect cracks and overheated parts

• Time-synchronized measurements by up to 6 units at individual parts of the axis

• Storage of data on a rugged media and encryption of all data sent to the base station

• Temperature range as wide as possible

• Power dissipation as low as possible to avoid self-heating

• High reliability plus long-term product availability and support

DESIGN SOLUTIONS

• 2x SATA SSD for storage of measured temperature data

• The QorIQ embedded module (Freescale P2020 QorIQ™ P2 platform MCU) provides:

A TQMP2020 module with a Freescale QorIQ can save you design time and money

Benefits of TQ embedded modules (shown above—ready for mounting on a starter kit):

• Smallest in the industry, without compromising quality and reliability

• Bring out all the processor signals to the Tyco connectors

• Can reduce development time by as much as 12 months

• The TQMP2020 module comes with a Freescale QorIQ™ Power Architecture® MCU and supports Linux and QNX operating systems

• The full-function STKP2020 Starter Kit is an easy and inexpensive platform to test and evaluate the TQMP2020 module

For more information on the TQMP2020 and other modules, or to purchase modules or starter kits:

www.convergencepromotions.com/TQ-USA

» A reliable NOR-Flash to boot from

» 2x GBit Ethernet for system interconnection and connection to the base station

» 2x SATA interfaces and IEEE1588 support for time synchronization amongst the units for all data being stored

» Security Engine for encryption of data transferred to the base station

» Industrial grade temperature range: -40°C…+85°C

» A fanless design with lowest possible power consumption

» A module size being more than 22% smaller than comparable ones from the competition

» Product longevity support for more than 10 years

TQ-USA is a brand of modules distributed in North America by Convergence Promtions


5

TECH REPORT

5

Where the

WHEELS Meet the RAILS

Designing Embedded Equipment to Monitor Axles on a Running Train

DESIGN CHALLENGES

Rolling stock is the most maintenance-intensive part of the railway system and train axles, and wheels and brakes are the most vulnerable. The axles of a running train have to be constantly measured in “real time“ for diagnostics and safety.

Other requirements include:

• Measurement and storage of the temperature profile of brakes, wheels, and axle bearing to detect cracks and overheated parts

• Time-synchronized measurements by up to 6 units at individual parts of the axis

• Storage of data on a rugged media and encryption of all data sent to the base station

• Temperature range as wide as possible

• Power dissipation as low as possible to avoid self-heating

• High reliability plus long-term product availability and support

DESIGN SOLUTIONS

• 2x SATA SSD for storage of measured temperature data

• The QorIQ embedded module (Freescale P2020 QorIQ™ P2 platform MCU) provides:

A TQMP2020 module with a Freescale QorIQ can save you design time and money

Benefits of TQ embedded modules (shown above—ready for mounting on a starter kit):

• Smallest in the industry, without compromising quality and reliability

• Bring out all the processor signals to the Tyco connectors

• Can reduce development time by as much as 12 months

• The TQMP2020 module comes with a Freescale QorIQ™ Power Architecture® MCU and supports Linux and QNX operating systems

• The full-function STKP2020 Starter Kit is an easy and inexpensive platform to test and evaluate the TQMP2020 module

For more information on the TQMP2020 and other modules, or to purchase modules or starter kits:


» A reliable NOR-Flash to boot from

» 2x GBit Ethernet for system interconnection and connection to the base station

» 2x SATA interfaces and IEEE1588 support for time synchronization amongst the units for all data being stored

» Security Engine for encryption of data transferred to the base station

» Industrial grade temperature range: -40°C…+85°C

» A fanless design with lowest possible power consumption

» A module size being more than 22% smaller than comparable ones from the competition

» Product longevity support for more than 10 years

TQ-USA is a brand of modules distributed in North America by Convergence Promtions


MYLINK

http://www.orderpcbs.com

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88

Wireless power transmission is one of the fastest growing applications in both consumer and industrial electronics. As embedded systems within both transmitting and receiving devices, it is crucial for power system designers to understand the fundamental system design and the components contributing to its performance. There are three main constituents of a wireless power system with the amplifier, a transmit coil, and a receive coil typically housed within a receiving device as shown in figure 1 [1].

By Bhasy Nair, Director of Global Field Applications Engineering and Michael A. de Rooij, Executive Director of Applications Engineering, Efficient Power Conversion (EPC)

Wi GaN:A Comparative Analysis of Class E and ZVS Class D Amplifiers for Use in Wireless Power Transfer Systems

9

TECH SERIES

9

Wireless power transmission is one of the fastest growing applications in both consumer and industrial electronics. As embedded systems within both transmitting and receiving devices, it is crucial for power system designers to understand the fundamental system design and the components contributing to its performance. There are three main constituents of a wireless power system with the amplifier, a transmit coil, and a receive coil typically housed within a receiving device as shown in figure 1 [1].

By Bhasy Nair, Director of Global Field Applications Engineering and Michael A. de Rooij, Executive Director of Applications Engineering, Efficient Power Conversion (EPC)

Wi GaN:A Comparative Analysis of Class E and ZVS Class D Amplifiers for Use in Wireless Power Transfer Systems

1010

Figure 1: Wireless power system with components – source, amplifier, and device

Amplifier

ImpedanceMatchingNetwork


SourceCoil

DeviceCoil

Rectifier

LoadSupply

Source Device

Figure 2: Class E amplifier

VDD

LRFck

Le

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Figure 4: ZVS class D amplifier.

VDD

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Figure 5(a): Class E amplifier efficiency and power output as DC output load changes

Figure 4 (a) Class E Amplifier Efficiency and power output as load changes.

Figure 4 (b) ZVS CD Amplifier Efficiency and power output as load changes. Figure 5(b): ZVS Class D amplifier

efficiency and power output as DC output load changes





Figure 2: Class E amplifier.

Figure 3: Load variation efficiency of MOSFET and eGaN FET in a class E wireless power amplifier.


Figure 5(a): Class E amplifier efficiency and power output as DC output load changes.

Figure 5(b): ZVS Class D amplifier efficiency and power output as DC output load changes.

Figure 1: Wireless power system with components—source, amplifier, and device.

At the heart of the wireless power system is the amplifier—identifying the best amplifier topology and most efficient components is the focus of this article. Distinguishing attributes of a good amplifier such as EMI, load impedance drive range, and the ability to operate in accordance with multiple standards will be addressed.

Wireless Power Amplifier Topologies Selecting a standard to which to design an amplifier is the first task, since each standard requires a different power architecture and communications protocol. Over the past several years, three standards for wireless power have emerged – the Wireless Power Consortium’s Qi, the Power Matters Alliance [10] and the Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP), also known as Rezence® [2].

The Rezence standard centers on the highly resonant loose-coupling approach that allows much larger distance and spatial freedom between transmit and receive units. The operating frequency of Rezence standard is 6.78MHz, which is part of the ISM Band. The two most popular amplifier topologies for resonant power transfer are class E and ZVS class D.

Both topologies yield high performance, but for Class E amplifiers special low capacitance high voltage MOSFETs are required to accomplish operation at this high frequency. Replacing the silicon-based power MOSFET with an enhancement-mode gallium nitride eGaN FET [3], the losses in a Class E amplifier can be reduced by 20%. This decrease in losses is due to the lower gate capacitance and on-resistance of the GaN FETs relative to MOSFETs for similar output capacitance and voltage rating. Thus, they require and dissipate less energy. In turn, this means that GaN FETs can operate at higher frequencies resulting in higher performance capability for the amplifier. The ability to switch at higher frequencies is critical for the implementation of the Rezence.

Limitations of Class E Amplifier: Rapid Roll Off of Efficiency and Output Power Silicon power MOSFETs are commonly used in class E amplifiers such as the one shown in figure 2. The gate charge of MOSFETs are much higher than that of a eGaN FET and the higher drive power required for MOSFTs has a major impact on the overall efficiency of the system. As shown in Figure 2, the superior switching

characteristics of eGaN FETs, with their smaller gate and drain capacitances, reveal that the losses in the eGaN FET amplifier are about 20% lower, allowing for a 5% increase in efficiency over a power MOSFET based amplifier.

One major setback of the class E amplifier is that the output power and efficiency rapidly roll off as the output DC load increases, and shown in Figure 3. This roll-off condition needs to be corrected by complex and expensive matching circuits that can adapt to the changing load conditions [4].

ZVS Class D Amplifier for Wireless Power TransferZVS class D amplifier topologies avoid the rapid roll-off and provide a higher and flatter efficiency over the entire load range. The ZVS class D amplifier is a modified class D design (shown in figure 4) that uses an “LC tank” (ZVS tank) circuit. This ZVS tank ensures that the FETs switch at or near zero voltage, even with variations in load conditions, thereby avoiding the output power and efficiency roll off seen with class E amplifiers [5].

Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the comparison of the efficiency and load curves of both amplifiers [2].

11

TECH SERIES

11

Figure 1: Wireless power system with components – source, amplifier, and device

Amplifier



SourceCoil

DeviceCoil

Rectifier

LoadSupply

Source Device

Figure 2: Class E amplifier

VDD

LRFck

Le

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Figure 2: Class E amplifier.

Figure 3: Load variation efficiency of MOSFET and eGaN FET in a class E wireless power amplifier.


Figure 5(a): Class E amplifier efficiency and power output as DC output load changes.

Figure 5(b): ZVS Class D amplifier efficiency and power output as DC output load changes.

Figure 1: Wireless power system with components—source, amplifier, and device.

At the heart of the wireless power system is the amplifier—identifying the best amplifier topology and most efficient components is the focus of this article. Distinguishing attributes of a good amplifier such as EMI, load impedance drive range, and the ability to operate in accordance with multiple standards will be addressed.

Wireless Power Amplifier Topologies Selecting a standard to which to design an amplifier is the first task, since each standard requires a different power architecture and communications protocol. Over the past several years, three standards for wireless power have emerged – the Wireless Power Consortium’s Qi, the Power Matters Alliance [10] and the Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP), also known as Rezence® [2].

The Rezence standard centers on the highly resonant loose-coupling approach that allows much larger distance and spatial freedom between transmit and receive units. The operating frequency of Rezence standard is 6.78MHz, which is part of the ISM Band. The two most popular amplifier topologies for resonant power transfer are class E and ZVS class D.

Both topologies yield high performance, but for Class E amplifiers special low capacitance high voltage MOSFETs are required to accomplish operation at this high frequency. Replacing the silicon-based power MOSFET with an enhancement-mode gallium nitride eGaN FET [3], the losses in a Class E amplifier can be reduced by 20%. This decrease in losses is due to the lower gate capacitance and on-resistance of the GaN FETs relative to MOSFETs for similar output capacitance and voltage rating. Thus, they require and dissipate less energy. In turn, this means that GaN FETs can operate at higher frequencies resulting in higher performance capability for the amplifier. The ability to switch at higher frequencies is critical for the implementation of the Rezence.

Limitations of Class E Amplifier: Rapid Roll Off of Efficiency and Output Power Silicon power MOSFETs are commonly used in class E amplifiers such as the one shown in figure 2. The gate charge of MOSFETs are much higher than that of a eGaN FET and the higher drive power required for MOSFTs has a major impact on the overall efficiency of the system. As shown in Figure 2, the superior switching

characteristics of eGaN FETs, with their smaller gate and drain capacitances, reveal that the losses in the eGaN FET amplifier are about 20% lower, allowing for a 5% increase in efficiency over a power MOSFET based amplifier.

One major setback of the class E amplifier is that the output power and efficiency rapidly roll off as the output DC load increases, and shown in Figure 3. This roll-off condition needs to be corrected by complex and expensive matching circuits that can adapt to the changing load conditions [4].

ZVS Class D Amplifier for Wireless Power TransferZVS class D amplifier topologies avoid the rapid roll-off and provide a higher and flatter efficiency over the entire load range. The ZVS class D amplifier is a modified class D design (shown in figure 4) that uses an “LC tank” (ZVS tank) circuit. This ZVS tank ensures that the FETs switch at or near zero voltage, even with variations in load conditions, thereby avoiding the output power and efficiency roll off seen with class E amplifiers [5].

Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the comparison of the efficiency and load curves of both amplifiers [2].

1212

Figure 5. Impact of imaginary part of impedance on efficiency

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ZVS-CD 55 Ω, 16 W

ZVS-CD 36 Ω, 16 W

SE-CE 55 Ω, 16 W

SE-CE 36 Ω, 16 W

Figure 6: Efficiency impact of reflected load variaAons on both the class E (red) and ZVS class D amplifiers (blue) driving an A4WP class 3 compliant load

Figure 6. S-‐parameter chart of Class 3 resonator superimposedwith Class E and ZVS class D impedance rangeFigure 7: Class E and ZVS class D amplifier impedance

capability superimposed with the A4WP class 3 standard

Figure 8: MulA-‐bit adapAve matching network

Amplifier Connection

CS

QS1

QS2

LCoil

GateDriverCS1

CS2

QS3

QS4

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QSn

QSm

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Figure 9(a): EMI content of current waveform Class E

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Figure 9(b): EMI content of current waveform Class ZVS Class D

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on the reflected load impedance change, the adaptive matching controller will activate the appropriate cell to get the coil back to resonance.

Adaptive matching will also improve coil efficiency as it effectively narrows the impedance range of the coil and brings it back to operate closer to resonance.

Since the operational range capability of the ZVS class D amplifier is wider than that of class E amplifier as shown in Figure 6, a smaller number of discrete matching circuits (cells) will be needed to retune the ZVS class D amplifier in order to bring it within the amplifier capability. This results in a lower cost and a more attractive system solution for wireless power transfer, particularly at higher power (> 16W).

EMI Generation Comparison Between Class E and ZVS Class D To understand the difference in EMI generation between the class E and ZVS class D amplifiers, both will be simulated in LTspice [7] when operating to deliver 14W into an A4WP Class 3-compliant load. Figure 9 shows the simulation results of the EMI content of the current Figure 8: Multi-bit adaptive matching network

Figure 9(a): EMI content of current waveform Class E. Figure 9(b): EMI content of current waveform Class ZVS Class D.

Adaptive Tuning for Optimizing PerformanceFigure 7 shows the range of impedance capability of both class E and ZVS class D amplifiers, on a Smith Chart® for a A4WP standard Class 3 source load. The shorter purple dashed arc arrow shows the class E amplifier range and the longer red dashed arc arrow shows the ZVS class D amplifier range. It is clear from the chart that neither of the amplifiers are capable of operating over the entire impedance range of a Class 3 Power Transfer Unit (PTU), represented by the area shaded in blue [6].

In order to achieve operation over the entire impedance range of a Class 3 PTU, retuning of the coil is needed which is accomplished by changing the value of the tuning capacitor. The automated process of doing this is called adaptive matching. A single retuning adaptive matching cell is comprised of a back-to-back high voltage low RDS(on) FET switch (shown in the gray boxes in Figure 8) that is connected in series with the appropriate parallel tuning capacitor to retune the coil. A multi-bit adaptive switching circuit is. comprised of multiple of these retuning cells capable of retuning the coil to within the amplifier capability in discrete steps. Depending

waveform for a single-ended class E and single-ended ZVS class D amplifier. Notice that the even order harmonics are absent in the current waveforms for ZVS class D whereas these harmonics are present in the class E amplifier. Even-order harmonics impact fundamental asymmetrically and are extremely difficult to filter out. Since the ZVS class D amplifier has almost zero even harmonic content in the spectrum, EMI compliance becomes less of an issue compared to a class E amplifier [8].

Environmental Impact and ComplianceThere are several operating conditions that can affect a wireless power system, such as; the (1) distance between the source coil and the receive coil, (2) position of the source coil relative to the receive coil, (3) placement of multiple devices on the source coil and (4) the introduction of a solid metal object to the source coil. All these factors will lead to changes in the effective coupling between the source coil and the receiving device coils. This causes the coil impedance to shift from the ideal resonance operating point, by increasing or decreasing both the real and reactive components of the load causing a de-tuning effect and adversely impacting the performance of the system.

Changes in ImpedanceFigure 6 shows the efficiency for both the class E (red) and ZVS class D (blue) amplifiers using eGaN FETs operating through a range of reflected load reactances plotted for various reflected load resistances. Again, it is noteworthy that the ZVS class D amplifier exhibits a relatively flat efficiency over the entire impedance range compared to class E, except at resonance points, demonstrating the stable performance of ZVS class D amplifier [5].

Figure 6: Efficiency impact of reflected load variations on both the class E (red) and ZVS class D amplifiers (blue) driving an A4WP class 3 compliant load.

Figure 7: Class E and ZVS class D amplifier impedance capability superimposed with the A4WP class 3 standard.

13

TECH SERIES

13

Figure 5. Impact of imaginary part of impedance on efficiency

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Effic

ienc

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]

Imaginary Impedance [Ω]

Total Amplifier Efficiency

ZVS-CD 55 Ω, 16 W

ZVS-CD 36 Ω, 16 W

SE-CE 55 Ω, 16 W

SE-CE 36 Ω, 16 W

Figure 6: Efficiency impact of reflected load variaAons on both the class E (red) and ZVS class D amplifiers (blue) driving an A4WP class 3 compliant load

Figure 6. S-‐parameter chart of Class 3 resonator superimposedwith Class E and ZVS class D impedance rangeFigure 7: Class E and ZVS class D amplifier impedance

capability superimposed with the A4WP class 3 standard

Figure 8: MulA-‐bit adapAve matching network

Amplifier Connection

CS

QS1

QS2

LCoil

GateDriverCS1

CS2

QS3

QS4

CS3

QSn

QSm

CSn

AdditionalCellsGate

DriverGateDriver

Figure 9(a): EMI content of current waveform Class E

1.2A1.0A0.8A0.6A0.4A0.2A0.0A

-0.2A-0.4A-0.6A-0.8A-1.0A

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Figure 9(b): EMI content of current waveform Class ZVS Class D

420V350V280V210V140V

70V0V

-70V-140V-210V-280V-350V-420V

1.2A1.0A0.8A0.6A0.4A0.2A0.0A

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f0f0

Voltage Current10MHz 100MHz 1GHz10MHz 100MHz 1GHz

on the reflected load impedance change, the adaptive matching controller will activate the appropriate cell to get the coil back to resonance.

Adaptive matching will also improve coil efficiency as it effectively narrows the impedance range of the coil and brings it back to operate closer to resonance.

Since the operational range capability of the ZVS class D amplifier is wider than that of class E amplifier as shown in Figure 6, a smaller number of discrete matching circuits (cells) will be needed to retune the ZVS class D amplifier in order to bring it within the amplifier capability. This results in a lower cost and a more attractive system solution for wireless power transfer, particularly at higher power (> 16W).

EMI Generation Comparison Between Class E and ZVS Class D To understand the difference in EMI generation between the class E and ZVS class D amplifiers, both will be simulated in LTspice [7] when operating to deliver 14W into an A4WP Class 3-compliant load. Figure 9 shows the simulation results of the EMI content of the current Figure 8: Multi-bit adaptive matching network

Figure 9(a): EMI content of current waveform Class E. Figure 9(b): EMI content of current waveform Class ZVS Class D.

Adaptive Tuning for Optimizing PerformanceFigure 7 shows the range of impedance capability of both class E and ZVS class D amplifiers, on a Smith Chart® for a A4WP standard Class 3 source load. The shorter purple dashed arc arrow shows the class E amplifier range and the longer red dashed arc arrow shows the ZVS class D amplifier range. It is clear from the chart that neither of the amplifiers are capable of operating over the entire impedance range of a Class 3 Power Transfer Unit (PTU), represented by the area shaded in blue [6].

In order to achieve operation over the entire impedance range of a Class 3 PTU, retuning of the coil is needed which is accomplished by changing the value of the tuning capacitor. The automated process of doing this is called adaptive matching. A single retuning adaptive matching cell is comprised of a back-to-back high voltage low RDS(on) FET switch (shown in the gray boxes in Figure 8) that is connected in series with the appropriate parallel tuning capacitor to retune the coil. A multi-bit adaptive switching circuit is. comprised of multiple of these retuning cells capable of retuning the coil to within the amplifier capability in discrete steps. Depending

waveform for a single-ended class E and single-ended ZVS class D amplifier. Notice that the even order harmonics are absent in the current waveforms for ZVS class D whereas these harmonics are present in the class E amplifier. Even-order harmonics impact fundamental asymmetrically and are extremely difficult to filter out. Since the ZVS class D amplifier has almost zero even harmonic content in the spectrum, EMI compliance becomes less of an issue compared to a class E amplifier [8].

Environmental Impact and ComplianceThere are several operating conditions that can affect a wireless power system, such as; the (1) distance between the source coil and the receive coil, (2) position of the source coil relative to the receive coil, (3) placement of multiple devices on the source coil and (4) the introduction of a solid metal object to the source coil. All these factors will lead to changes in the effective coupling between the source coil and the receiving device coils. This causes the coil impedance to shift from the ideal resonance operating point, by increasing or decreasing both the real and reactive components of the load causing a de-tuning effect and adversely impacting the performance of the system.

Changes in ImpedanceFigure 6 shows the efficiency for both the class E (red) and ZVS class D (blue) amplifiers using eGaN FETs operating through a range of reflected load reactances plotted for various reflected load resistances. Again, it is noteworthy that the ZVS class D amplifier exhibits a relatively flat efficiency over the entire impedance range compared to class E, except at resonance points, demonstrating the stable performance of ZVS class D amplifier [5].

Figure 6: Efficiency impact of reflected load variations on both the class E (red) and ZVS class D amplifiers (blue) driving an A4WP class 3 compliant load.

Figure 7: Class E and ZVS class D amplifier impedance capability superimposed with the A4WP class 3 standard.

1414

eGaN® FET is a registered trademark of Efficient Power Conversion Corporation.

References

[1] M. A. de Rooij, Wireless Power Handbook: A Supplement to GaN Transistors for Efficient Power Conversion. El Segundo, CA: Power Conversion Publications, March 2015

[2] Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP), http://www.rezence.com/

[3] A. Lidow, M.A de Rooij, “Performance Evaluation of Enhancement Mode GaN Transistors in Class-D and Class-E Wireless Power Transfer Systems,” Bodo’s Power Systems, May 2014, pp 56-60.

[4] Efficient Conversion Power Corporation, White Paper WP014: eGaN FETs in Wireless Power Transfer systems. www.epc-c.com

[5] A. Lidow, “How to GaN: Stable and Efficient ZVS Class D Wireless Energy Transfer at 6.78 MHz,” EEWeb: Pulse Magazine, Issue 126, PP 24-31, July 2014.

[6] A. Lidow, “Wi GaN: eGaN® FETs In Wide Load Range High Efficiency Power,” EEWeb: Wi Wireless & RF Magazine, Nov. 2014 pp 13-17.

[7] Linear Technology, LTspice Design Simulation and Device Models, [Online] Available: www.linear.com/ltspice

[8] M.A de Rooij, “Topology Performance Comparison using eGaN® FETs in 6.78 MHz Highly Resonant Wireless Power Transfer,” DesignCon 2015, Santa Clara, CA, 26-29 January 2015.

[9] “System Description Wireless Power Transfer,” Vol. I: Low Power. Part 1: Interface Definition, Version 1.0.3, September 2011.

[10] Power Matters Alliance. [Online] Available: www.powermatters.org

[11] A4WP Wireless Power Transfer System Baseline System Specification (BSS), A4WP-S-0001 v1.2.1, May 07, 2014.

Multi-mode Wireless Power Transfer Capability The rising demand for wireless power for a range of mobile devices, such as tablets, laptops and even power tools, together with the multitude of wireless power transfer standards (i.e., Qi, PMA and Rezence) [9–11] serves to hinder adoption of this technology, as it leads to end-user confusion and loss of inter-operability. The Qi and PMA standards operate at much lower frequencies (<315kHz) compared to Rezence operating at 6.78MHz and a single multi-mode amplifier that can transfer power regardless of the standard used by the receiving device is needed.

Amplifiers designed in accordance with the Qi and PMA low frequency operation cannot typically support operation at 6.78MHz operation required for the Rezence platform. Thus, in order for a MOSFET-based amplifier to support the three standards at least two sets of converters and two resonator coils will be required, making this solution cost prohibitive and bulky. The class E topology uses the FET in a resonant mode

Figure 10: MulA-‐mode amplifier using eGaN FETs

at 6.78MHz and hence adopting it for a much lower frequency for Qi or PMA is not a practical solution.

The ZVS class D topology amplifier can easily be modified to work as a multi-mode power converter, as shown in Figure 10. With Q3 turned off to isolate the ZVS tank circuit, the half bridge (Q1 and Q2) can be used to support Qi or PMA mode. With Q3 turned on to connect the ZVS tank circuit to the output of the amplifier, the same amplifier can now operate as a ZVS class D amplifier at 6.78MHz to drive Rezence standard products, thus providing a very attractive and competitive multi-mode solution [7].

SummaryIn this article, both class E and ZVS class D amplifier topologies were evaluated for their ability to address the demands of wireless power transfer to the Rezence standard. A fundamental limitation of the class E amplifier topology is that output power and efficiency roll-off rapidly with load variations the deviate from the optimal design value. The characteristics of both types of amplifiers were evaluated under the various operating conditions. Comparing the performance showed that the ZVS class D is a better choice than the class E amplifier, as it generates no even-order harmonics and can operate over a wider impedance range. In addition, a ZVS class D amplifier can be easily modified to support multi-mode operation for the three wireless power standards.

Figure 10: Multi-mode amplifier using eGaN FETs.

15

TECH SERIES

15

eGaN® FET is a registered trademark of Efficient Power Conversion Corporation.

References

[1] M. A. de Rooij, Wireless Power Handbook: A Supplement to GaN Transistors for Efficient Power Conversion. El Segundo, CA: Power Conversion Publications, March 2015

[2] Alliance for Wireless Power (A4WP), http://www.rezence.com/

[3] A. Lidow, M.A de Rooij, “Performance Evaluation of Enhancement Mode GaN Transistors in Class-D and Class-E Wireless Power Transfer Systems,” Bodo’s Power Systems, May 2014, pp 56-60.

[4] Efficient Conversion Power Corporation, White Paper WP014: eGaN FETs in Wireless Power Transfer systems. www.epc-c.com

[5] A. Lidow, “How to GaN: Stable and Efficient ZVS Class D Wireless Energy Transfer at 6.78 MHz,” EEWeb: Pulse Magazine, Issue 126, PP 24-31, July 2014.

[6] A. Lidow, “Wi GaN: eGaN® FETs In Wide Load Range High Efficiency Power,” EEWeb: Wi Wireless & RF Magazine, Nov. 2014 pp 13-17.

[7] Linear Technology, LTspice Design Simulation and Device Models, [Online] Available: www.linear.com/ltspice

[8] M.A de Rooij, “Topology Performance Comparison using eGaN® FETs in 6.78 MHz Highly Resonant Wireless Power Transfer,” DesignCon 2015, Santa Clara, CA, 26-29 January 2015.

[9] “System Description Wireless Power Transfer,” Vol. I: Low Power. Part 1: Interface Definition, Version 1.0.3, September 2011.

[10] Power Matters Alliance. [Online] Available: www.powermatters.org

[11] A4WP Wireless Power Transfer System Baseline System Specification (BSS), A4WP-S-0001 v1.2.1, May 07, 2014.

Multi-mode Wireless Power Transfer Capability The rising demand for wireless power for a range of mobile devices, such as tablets, laptops and even power tools, together with the multitude of wireless power transfer standards (i.e., Qi, PMA and Rezence) [9–11] serves to hinder adoption of this technology, as it leads to end-user confusion and loss of inter-operability. The Qi and PMA standards operate at much lower frequencies (<315kHz) compared to Rezence operating at 6.78MHz and a single multi-mode amplifier that can transfer power regardless of the standard used by the receiving device is needed.

Amplifiers designed in accordance with the Qi and PMA low frequency operation cannot typically support operation at 6.78MHz operation required for the Rezence platform. Thus, in order for a MOSFET-based amplifier to support the three standards at least two sets of converters and two resonator coils will be required, making this solution cost prohibitive and bulky. The class E topology uses the FET in a resonant mode

Figure 10: MulA-‐mode amplifier using eGaN FETs

at 6.78MHz and hence adopting it for a much lower frequency for Qi or PMA is not a practical solution.

The ZVS class D topology amplifier can easily be modified to work as a multi-mode power converter, as shown in Figure 10. With Q3 turned off to isolate the ZVS tank circuit, the half bridge (Q1 and Q2) can be used to support Qi or PMA mode. With Q3 turned on to connect the ZVS tank circuit to the output of the amplifier, the same amplifier can now operate as a ZVS class D amplifier at 6.78MHz to drive Rezence standard products, thus providing a very attractive and competitive multi-mode solution [7].

SummaryIn this article, both class E and ZVS class D amplifier topologies were evaluated for their ability to address the demands of wireless power transfer to the Rezence standard. A fundamental limitation of the class E amplifier topology is that output power and efficiency roll-off rapidly with load variations the deviate from the optimal design value. The characteristics of both types of amplifiers were evaluated under the various operating conditions. Comparing the performance showed that the ZVS class D is a better choice than the class E amplifier, as it generates no even-order harmonics and can operate over a wider impedance range. In addition, a ZVS class D amplifier can be easily modified to support multi-mode operation for the three wireless power standards.

Figure 10: Multi-mode amplifier using eGaN FETs.

1616

in Semiconductor Memory

By Reuben George, Cypress Semiconductor

The past few decades have

brought about unprecedented

advancements in semiconductor

technology. However, with each advance

in semiconductor technology, new

obstacles to maintaining the exponential

improvement of process technology arise.

Today, CMOS technology has shrunk to

such a size that extraterrestrial radiation

and chip packaging cause failures at an

increasing rate. Since these errors are

temporary, they are called soft errors. The

first instance of soft errors was in 1978,

when Intel was unable to deliver its chips

to AT&T due to uranium-contaminated

packaging modules. Intel, while coining the

term “soft fail,” reported that radioactive

contamination could cause not only flips in

stored data, but also microcontroller lock-

up. At Cypress Semiconductor, we came

across the first instance of soft errors in

2001, when a large telecommunications

client found that a single soft error in an

SRAM was causing hundreds of computers

in a system farm to crash.

Understanding and Mitigatingthe Effect of

Soft ErrorsCosmic Rays dispersed by the atmosphere Source CERN

A SOFT-ERROR IS A

CHANGE OF STATE

INDUCED BY AN

ENERGETIC PARTICLE.

HOWEVER, UNLIKE

A HARD ERROR, THE

AFFECTED DEVICE’S

NORMAL OPERATION

CAN BE RESTORED

BY A SIMPLE RESET/

REWRITE OPERATION.

17

TECH REPORT

17

in Semiconductor Memory

By Reuben George, Cypress Semiconductor

The past few decades have

brought about unprecedented

advancements in semiconductor

technology. However, with each advance

in semiconductor technology, new

obstacles to maintaining the exponential

improvement of process technology arise.

Today, CMOS technology has shrunk to

such a size that extraterrestrial radiation

and chip packaging cause failures at an

increasing rate. Since these errors are

temporary, they are called soft errors. The

first instance of soft errors was in 1978,

when Intel was unable to deliver its chips

to AT&T due to uranium-contaminated

packaging modules. Intel, while coining the

term “soft fail,” reported that radioactive

contamination could cause not only flips in

stored data, but also microcontroller lock-

up. At Cypress Semiconductor, we came

across the first instance of soft errors in

2001, when a large telecommunications

client found that a single soft error in an

SRAM was causing hundreds of computers

in a system farm to crash.

Understanding and Mitigatingthe Effect of

Soft ErrorsCosmic Rays dispersed by the atmosphere Source CERN

A SOFT-ERROR IS A

CHANGE OF STATE

INDUCED BY AN

ENERGETIC PARTICLE.

HOWEVER, UNLIKE

A HARD ERROR, THE

AFFECTED DEVICE’S

NORMAL OPERATION

CAN BE RESTORED

BY A SIMPLE RESET/

REWRITE OPERATION.

1818

As memory process technology scales for improved performance and power, the reduced voltage and shrinking node capacitance makes these devices more susceptible to soft errors. Soft errors not only corrupt data, but can also lead to loss of function and system critical failures. Industrial controllers, military equipment, networking systems, medical devices, automotive electronics, servers, handheld devices, and consumer applications are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of soft errors. An uncorrected soft error can lead to system failures in mission critical applications such as implantable medical devices and automotive engine control, as well as high-end security systems. Soft errors have the potential to cause elevator controllers to malfunction, while in a networking system it can cause the traffic to go haywire. Such occurrences, though rare, have the potential to cause havoc at a massive scale.

A soft-error is a change of state induced by an energetic particle. However, unlike a hard error, the affected device’s normal

operation can be restored by a simple reset/rewrite operation. Soft errors can occur in digital and analog circuits, transmission lines, and magnetic storage. When a high-energy particle interacts with the semiconductor substrate, it generates many electron-hole pairs. The resulting electric field in the depletion region causes a charge drift, creating current disturbance. If the charge displacement overcomes the critical charge stored in the memory cell, the stored data may flip, causing an error when it is next read. Soft errors manifest themselves as single-bit upsets (SBU) or multi-bit upsets (MBU), depending on the energy of the causative particle. An SBU occurs when only one bit is flipped by a single energetic particle; while an MBU occurs when a high energy particle flips multiple bits in a word.

The rate that measures soft errors— Soft Error Rate (SER)—determines the probability of device failure due to energetic particles. Since soft errors are random, the occurrence of soft errors doesn’t define reliability but rather the rate of failure of the memory.

Causes of Soft ErrorsALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles are emitted by radioactive nuclei in a process called alpha decay. Alpha particles have kinetic energies of a few MeV and are the direct cause of soft errors in semiconductor memories. They have a dense layer of charge and create electron-hole pairs as they pass through a substrate. If the disturbance is strong enough, a bit will flip. This lasts only for a fraction of a nanosecond, and hence is very hard to detect.

Low-energy alpha particles are generated by the radioactive decay of trace amounts of Uranium-238, and Thorium-232 present in mold compounds, packages, and other assembly materials. However it’s nearly impossible to maintain the ideal material purity (less than 0.001 counts per hour per cm2) needed for reliable performance of most circuits. Small amounts of epoxy can reduce the incidence of soft errors by shielding the chip from alpha radiation.

COSMIC RAYS

Manufacturers have managed to control contaminants emitting alpha particles, but they have been unable to counter cosmic radiation. In fact, cosmic rays are the likeliest cause of soft errors in modern semiconductors, since radioactive contaminants have been largely controlled. The primary particles of the cosmic rays don’t usually reach the earth’s surface. However, they do

Effect of radiation inside a MOS transistor

create a stream of energetic secondary particles, mostly energetic neutrons. While neutrons are uncharged and hence can’t cause soft errors, they can be captured by the nucleus in a chip, an event that can result in alpha particles.

Cosmic radiation increases with altitude due to a lower shielding effect of the atmosphere. In addition, modules used at the Poles are also highly susceptible to soft errors for the same reason. To reduce soft errors, modules used in high exposure applications undergo a special process called Radiation Hardening.

THERMAL NEUTRONS

Neutrons void of kinetic energy are an important source of soft errors due to neutron capture reactions. The capture of a thermal neutron by a Boron isotope (10B) nucleus, found in large quantities in Boronphsophosilicate glass dielectric layers, emits an alpha particle, Lithium nucleus, and gamma ray. Either the Alpha particle or the Lithium nucleus can cause a soft error.

Thermal neutrons are especially important for medical electronics used in cancer radiation therapy. The neutrons combined with the photon beam used in treatment result in a thermal neutron flux that generates a very high rate of soft errors. However, thermal neutrons aren’t a major cause of soft errors nowadays, since manufacturers eliminated borated dielectrics by the 150nm process node.

THE FIRST INSTANCE OF SOFT ERRORS WAS IN 1978, WHEN INTEL WAS UNABLE TO DELIVER ITS CHIPS TO AT&T DUE TO URANIUM-CONTAMINATED PACKAGING MODULES.

19

TECH REPORT

19

As memory process technology scales for improved performance and power, the reduced voltage and shrinking node capacitance makes these devices more susceptible to soft errors. Soft errors not only corrupt data, but can also lead to loss of function and system critical failures. Industrial controllers, military equipment, networking systems, medical devices, automotive electronics, servers, handheld devices, and consumer applications are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of soft errors. An uncorrected soft error can lead to system failures in mission critical applications such as implantable medical devices and automotive engine control, as well as high-end security systems. Soft errors have the potential to cause elevator controllers to malfunction, while in a networking system it can cause the traffic to go haywire. Such occurrences, though rare, have the potential to cause havoc at a massive scale.

A soft-error is a change of state induced by an energetic particle. However, unlike a hard error, the affected device’s normal

operation can be restored by a simple reset/rewrite operation. Soft errors can occur in digital and analog circuits, transmission lines, and magnetic storage. When a high-energy particle interacts with the semiconductor substrate, it generates many electron-hole pairs. The resulting electric field in the depletion region causes a charge drift, creating current disturbance. If the charge displacement overcomes the critical charge stored in the memory cell, the stored data may flip, causing an error when it is next read. Soft errors manifest themselves as single-bit upsets (SBU) or multi-bit upsets (MBU), depending on the energy of the causative particle. An SBU occurs when only one bit is flipped by a single energetic particle; while an MBU occurs when a high energy particle flips multiple bits in a word.

The rate that measures soft errors— Soft Error Rate (SER)—determines the probability of device failure due to energetic particles. Since soft errors are random, the occurrence of soft errors doesn’t define reliability but rather the rate of failure of the memory.

Causes of Soft ErrorsALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles are emitted by radioactive nuclei in a process called alpha decay. Alpha particles have kinetic energies of a few MeV and are the direct cause of soft errors in semiconductor memories. They have a dense layer of charge and create electron-hole pairs as they pass through a substrate. If the disturbance is strong enough, a bit will flip. This lasts only for a fraction of a nanosecond, and hence is very hard to detect.

Low-energy alpha particles are generated by the radioactive decay of trace amounts of Uranium-238, and Thorium-232 present in mold compounds, packages, and other assembly materials. However it’s nearly impossible to maintain the ideal material purity (less than 0.001 counts per hour per cm2) needed for reliable performance of most circuits. Small amounts of epoxy can reduce the incidence of soft errors by shielding the chip from alpha radiation.

COSMIC RAYS

Manufacturers have managed to control contaminants emitting alpha particles, but they have been unable to counter cosmic radiation. In fact, cosmic rays are the likeliest cause of soft errors in modern semiconductors, since radioactive contaminants have been largely controlled. The primary particles of the cosmic rays don’t usually reach the earth’s surface. However, they do

Effect of radiation inside a MOS transistor

create a stream of energetic secondary particles, mostly energetic neutrons. While neutrons are uncharged and hence can’t cause soft errors, they can be captured by the nucleus in a chip, an event that can result in alpha particles.

Cosmic radiation increases with altitude due to a lower shielding effect of the atmosphere. In addition, modules used at the Poles are also highly susceptible to soft errors for the same reason. To reduce soft errors, modules used in high exposure applications undergo a special process called Radiation Hardening.

THERMAL NEUTRONS

Neutrons void of kinetic energy are an important source of soft errors due to neutron capture reactions. The capture of a thermal neutron by a Boron isotope (10B) nucleus, found in large quantities in Boronphsophosilicate glass dielectric layers, emits an alpha particle, Lithium nucleus, and gamma ray. Either the Alpha particle or the Lithium nucleus can cause a soft error.

Thermal neutrons are especially important for medical electronics used in cancer radiation therapy. The neutrons combined with the photon beam used in treatment result in a thermal neutron flux that generates a very high rate of soft errors. However, thermal neutrons aren’t a major cause of soft errors nowadays, since manufacturers eliminated borated dielectrics by the 150nm process node.

THE FIRST INSTANCE OF SOFT ERRORS WAS IN 1978, WHEN INTEL WAS UNABLE TO DELIVER ITS CHIPS TO AT&T DUE TO URANIUM-CONTAMINATED PACKAGING MODULES.

2020

Mitigating Soft ErrorsSoft errors can be avoided by improving process technology and memory cell layout, system-level changes, and changing chip design and architecture.

Improving in Process Technology and Memory Cell Layout

The reliability of a memory device can be enhanced by increasing the critical charge stored in the memory cell. The resistance of a device to soft errors can also be increased by using a process technology that reduces the thickness of diffusion. This reduces the amount of time a charge particle spends in a memory cell. A triple-well architecture can also be used to drift charges away from the active region. This process creates an opposite electric field with respect to the NMOS-depletion region and forces charges into the substrate. It only acts when a soft error occurs in the NMOS region.

System-level Mitigation

At the system-level, designers can prevent the effect of soft errors by using

external error correction code (ECC) logic. In this technique, the user employs additional memory chips with parity bits for error detection and correction by. As expected, system-level mitigation is expensive and also adds more complexity to the system and its software.

Changes in Chip Design and Architecture

This is the best way to combat soft errors. Chip designers can mitigate soft errors by using Error Correction Code (ECC). During a write operation, the ECC encoder algorithm includes parity bits with every addressable word of data stored in the memory. During a read operation, the ECC detection algorithm uses parity bits to determine whether any of the data bits have changed. If there is single-bit error, the ECC correction algorithm determines the location of the concerned bit. It can then facilitate error correction by flipping the data bit back to its complementary value.

ECC alone, however, cannot address multi-bit upsets (MBU). For these,

designers have to implement bit interleaving. This technique arranges bit lines such that physically adjacent bits are mapped to different word registers. The bit-interleave distance separates two consecutive bits mapped to the same word register. If the bit-interleave distance is greater than the spread of a multi-cell hit, it results in single bit upset (SBUs) in multiple words rather than a multi-bit upset (MBU) in a single word. Typical bit-interleave distance depends on the process technology. Neutron testing is performed with a subsequent physical MBU analysis to determine the safe interleaving distance for each process technology node. In a bit-interleaved memory, single-bit error correction algorithm can be used to detect and correct all errors. The ECC algorithm applies only to the copy of the affected word of data. The data as it resides in memory still contains the flipped bit. If this flipped bit in memory remains uncorrected, exposure to another bit flipping in the same word of data can result in a multi-bit upset. It is important, therefore, that the ECC logic indicates the occurrence and

correction of a single-bit upset. The system can then use this information to recognize the event and write-back corrected data. This technique is known as memory scrubbing.

With semiconductor chips being manufactured on shrinking process nodes, the risk of soft errors is increasing. Hence, many experts expect soft errors to be a limiting factor to continued shrinking unless new technology is developed that overcomes soft errors. Furthermore, with technology entering more spheres of human life, the need for reliability is bound to increase. This trend increases the need for on-chip Error Correcting Code (ECC) for memory modules. All major memory manufacturers have started releasing chips with on-chip ECC to meet the demand for high reliability memories. Given the high-performance applications that SRAM devices are used for, error correcting capabilities are a must for SRAMs. Cypress, the world leader in SRAMs, has a family of ultra-reliable Asynchronous SRAMs with on-chip ECC and bit interleaving.

SOFT ERRORS CAN OCCUR IN DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS, TRANSMISSION LINES, AND MAGNETIC STORAGE.

COSMIC RAYS ARE THE LIKELIEST CAUSE OF SOFT ERRORS IN MODERN SEMICONDUCTORS, SINCE RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS HAVE BEEN LARGELY CONTROLLED.

21

TECH REPORT

21

Mitigating Soft ErrorsSoft errors can be avoided by improving process technology and memory cell layout, system-level changes, and changing chip design and architecture.

Improving in Process Technology and Memory Cell Layout

The reliability of a memory device can be enhanced by increasing the critical charge stored in the memory cell. The resistance of a device to soft errors can also be increased by using a process technology that reduces the thickness of diffusion. This reduces the amount of time a charge particle spends in a memory cell. A triple-well architecture can also be used to drift charges away from the active region. This process creates an opposite electric field with respect to the NMOS-depletion region and forces charges into the substrate. It only acts when a soft error occurs in the NMOS region.

System-level Mitigation

At the system-level, designers can prevent the effect of soft errors by using

external error correction code (ECC) logic. In this technique, the user employs additional memory chips with parity bits for error detection and correction by. As expected, system-level mitigation is expensive and also adds more complexity to the system and its software.

Changes in Chip Design and Architecture

This is the best way to combat soft errors. Chip designers can mitigate soft errors by using Error Correction Code (ECC). During a write operation, the ECC encoder algorithm includes parity bits with every addressable word of data stored in the memory. During a read operation, the ECC detection algorithm uses parity bits to determine whether any of the data bits have changed. If there is single-bit error, the ECC correction algorithm determines the location of the concerned bit. It can then facilitate error correction by flipping the data bit back to its complementary value.

ECC alone, however, cannot address multi-bit upsets (MBU). For these,

designers have to implement bit interleaving. This technique arranges bit lines such that physically adjacent bits are mapped to different word registers. The bit-interleave distance separates two consecutive bits mapped to the same word register. If the bit-interleave distance is greater than the spread of a multi-cell hit, it results in single bit upset (SBUs) in multiple words rather than a multi-bit upset (MBU) in a single word. Typical bit-interleave distance depends on the process technology. Neutron testing is performed with a subsequent physical MBU analysis to determine the safe interleaving distance for each process technology node. In a bit-interleaved memory, single-bit error correction algorithm can be used to detect and correct all errors. The ECC algorithm applies only to the copy of the affected word of data. The data as it resides in memory still contains the flipped bit. If this flipped bit in memory remains uncorrected, exposure to another bit flipping in the same word of data can result in a multi-bit upset. It is important, therefore, that the ECC logic indicates the occurrence and

correction of a single-bit upset. The system can then use this information to recognize the event and write-back corrected data. This technique is known as memory scrubbing.

With semiconductor chips being manufactured on shrinking process nodes, the risk of soft errors is increasing. Hence, many experts expect soft errors to be a limiting factor to continued shrinking unless new technology is developed that overcomes soft errors. Furthermore, with technology entering more spheres of human life, the need for reliability is bound to increase. This trend increases the need for on-chip Error Correcting Code (ECC) for memory modules. All major memory manufacturers have started releasing chips with on-chip ECC to meet the demand for high reliability memories. Given the high-performance applications that SRAM devices are used for, error correcting capabilities are a must for SRAMs. Cypress, the world leader in SRAMs, has a family of ultra-reliable Asynchronous SRAMs with on-chip ECC and bit interleaving.

SOFT ERRORS CAN OCCUR IN DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS, TRANSMISSION LINES, AND MAGNETIC STORAGE.

COSMIC RAYS ARE THE LIKELIEST CAUSE OF SOFT ERRORS IN MODERN SEMICONDUCTORS, SINCE RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINANTS HAVE BEEN LARGELY CONTROLLED.















NXP Logic Presents






MOSFETs, and Power.




The Big

Submission Phase

March 1Entry Phase



August 1

2222

http://convergencepromotions.com/TheBigIdea.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?x-yt-ts=1421782837&x-yt-cl=84359240&v=LlJOa-QR45I















NXP Logic Presents






MOSFETs, and Power.




The Big

Submission Phase

March 1Entry Phase



August 1

2323

http://convergencepromotions.com/TheBigIdea.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?x-yt-ts=1421782837&x-yt-cl=84359240&v=LlJOa-QR45I

24

the Maker Movement

The Raspberry Pi™, Banana Pi, Beagle Board, and Panda Board have opened up a wealth of new resources for students and DIY-ers interested in electronic design. Bridging the gap between products built for hobby applications and those used in mainstream, industrial, or commercial products has been daunting—until now. This article introduces a new generation of single-board computer (SBC) that has been designed for engineers searching for the simplicity and programmability of a Raspberry Pi and Beagle Board in a production-ready, industrial-grade SBC called the Boxer Board.

New Industrial-Grade

RUGGED

TRANSFORMS

By Glenn ImObersteg Convergence Promotions

COVER STORY

25

the Maker Movement

The Raspberry Pi™, Banana Pi, Beagle Board, and Panda Board have opened up a wealth of new resources for students and DIY-ers interested in electronic design. Bridging the gap between products built for hobby applications and those used in mainstream, industrial, or commercial products has been daunting—until now. This article introduces a new generation of single-board computer (SBC) that has been designed for engineers searching for the simplicity and programmability of a Raspberry Pi and Beagle Board in a production-ready, industrial-grade SBC called the Boxer Board.

New Industrial-Grade

RUGGED

TRANSFORMS

By Glenn ImObersteg Convergence Promotions

26

The Life of Pi

Raspberry Pi was conceived in 2006 by Raspberry Pi Foundation Trustee, Eben Upton, and an assemblage of teachers, academics, and computer enthusiasts with the intent of devising a simple computer to inspire students. The 2012 product launch was met with instant acclaim and success; one distributor, Premier Farnell, sold out within a few minutes, and another, RS Components, took over 100,000 pre-orders on day one.

Send in the Clones

The instant success of Raspberry Pi quickly spawned a number of clones, including the Banana Pi, Arduino™, Beagle Board, Panda Board, and the rest of the animal kingdom and new food groups. All of these new boards were similar in their low-cost platform designs and they all targeted the student, DIY, and hobby markets.

Trying on Capes and Hats

One of the reasons for the popularity of the Raspberry Pi and Beagle Board has always been the ability to attach physical, application-specific hardware to the GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) connector. An entire cottage industry spawned from supporting hundreds of boards and add-ons, including buttons, LCDs, LEDs, sensors, and more. Recently, the fashionable HATs (Hardware Attached on Top) joined the family, even amidst the controversy

that many developers claim the idea is borrowed from BeagleBone capes.

DIY and Student Modules: Not Ready for Prime Time

Sales of Raspberry Pi are edging towards the five million mark, and the lure of low-cost boards, easy programmability, and a plethora of accessories is undeniable. The popularity of these modules makes a convincing argument for developing ‘real-life’ projects using one of the boards discussed here, if you can overcome the dichotomy between student applications and real-world applications in the industrial, medical and aerospace industries. There are three primary reasons why the hobby modules will not be able to successfully make that leap:

Sustainability and Continuity of Supply

Will today’s hobby boards be available in quantity in five or ten years when you need to do a product update? The chances are that you won’t be making those decisions. If you are a typical engineer, you will have changed jobs 2.5 times (Google’s average for engineering job life-span), and if you have used a Raspberry Pi 1 or 2, or B, or B+ in an OEM application, what obstacles—such as inventory and technical support—will your successors have to contend with in a redesign? The solution is clear: for a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs to have continuity of supply, component control, and obsolescence management.

Engineering Support

The professional engineering community will never be able to replicate the depth of enthusiasm that the foundations and communities offer their colleagues in design and applications support, products, and hardware and software fixes. However, this enthusiasm can’t replace the 24-hour manufacturer hotlines and field application engineers that many manufacturers employ to provide customer support worldwide.

Certification and Quality Control

Engineers designing applications from IoT to avionics have to meet the strictest standards, such as quality (ISO 9001) or environmental management (EN ISO 14001) standards, in addition to certification for every industry the product will be used.

Crossing the Great Divide

How can you decide between the functionality, programmability, easy accessibility to peripherals, and low cost of the DIY modules versus a production-ready, industrial-grade reliable product? Now you can, and we have discovered it is possible to have your pie and eat it too. TQ-Group has designed a board with the TI Sitara™ AM3352 that is simple to program, flexible, affordable, and manufactured to the strictest environmental and quality management standards. Certified for medical, aviation, automotive, and other OEM applications, and backed by a team of FAEs in Europe and North America, this board is rugged, industrial-grade, and production-ready. We call it the Boxer Board.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY: A Tale of Three CPUs

Consider the following adages:

• Design cycles are measured in years

• Engineers get really attached to their devices

• MCUs take on a life of their own long after they’re designed into applications

The following conversation (or urban myth?) from a few years ago is a classic illustration of the importance of continuity of supply; a Boeing engineer in the late 1990’s remarked that a Boeing 777 aircraft had three redundant flight computers, each fitted with Intel 486, Motorola 68K, and AMD 29K processors, and each set up in a voting scheme to compensate for hardware and software errors. Although there was a debate about whether the third CPU was an Intel i960 or i860, the fact is—all of these chips had been out of production for more than a decade. They had firewalled software teams to develop separate code bases for each CPU so that application level bugs would not be replicated across all three architectures, which feed into the voting system. With this level of complexity, there was no way that this system was going to be re-designed for quite some time. The moral of this tale is that for a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs continuity of supply, component control and obsolescence management.

For a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs to have continuity of supply, component control, and obsolescence management.

COVER STORY

27

The Life of Pi

Raspberry Pi was conceived in 2006 by Raspberry Pi Foundation Trustee, Eben Upton, and an assemblage of teachers, academics, and computer enthusiasts with the intent of devising a simple computer to inspire students. The 2012 product launch was met with instant acclaim and success; one distributor, Premier Farnell, sold out within a few minutes, and another, RS Components, took over 100,000 pre-orders on day one.

Send in the Clones

The instant success of Raspberry Pi quickly spawned a number of clones, including the Banana Pi, Arduino™, Beagle Board, Panda Board, and the rest of the animal kingdom and new food groups. All of these new boards were similar in their low-cost platform designs and they all targeted the student, DIY, and hobby markets.

Trying on Capes and Hats

One of the reasons for the popularity of the Raspberry Pi and Beagle Board has always been the ability to attach physical, application-specific hardware to the GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output) connector. An entire cottage industry spawned from supporting hundreds of boards and add-ons, including buttons, LCDs, LEDs, sensors, and more. Recently, the fashionable HATs (Hardware Attached on Top) joined the family, even amidst the controversy

that many developers claim the idea is borrowed from BeagleBone capes.

DIY and Student Modules: Not Ready for Prime Time

Sales of Raspberry Pi are edging towards the five million mark, and the lure of low-cost boards, easy programmability, and a plethora of accessories is undeniable. The popularity of these modules makes a convincing argument for developing ‘real-life’ projects using one of the boards discussed here, if you can overcome the dichotomy between student applications and real-world applications in the industrial, medical and aerospace industries. There are three primary reasons why the hobby modules will not be able to successfully make that leap:

Sustainability and Continuity of Supply

Will today’s hobby boards be available in quantity in five or ten years when you need to do a product update? The chances are that you won’t be making those decisions. If you are a typical engineer, you will have changed jobs 2.5 times (Google’s average for engineering job life-span), and if you have used a Raspberry Pi 1 or 2, or B, or B+ in an OEM application, what obstacles—such as inventory and technical support—will your successors have to contend with in a redesign? The solution is clear: for a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs to have continuity of supply, component control, and obsolescence management.

Engineering Support

The professional engineering community will never be able to replicate the depth of enthusiasm that the foundations and communities offer their colleagues in design and applications support, products, and hardware and software fixes. However, this enthusiasm can’t replace the 24-hour manufacturer hotlines and field application engineers that many manufacturers employ to provide customer support worldwide.

Certification and Quality Control

Engineers designing applications from IoT to avionics have to meet the strictest standards, such as quality (ISO 9001) or environmental management (EN ISO 14001) standards, in addition to certification for every industry the product will be used.

Crossing the Great Divide

How can you decide between the functionality, programmability, easy accessibility to peripherals, and low cost of the DIY modules versus a production-ready, industrial-grade reliable product? Now you can, and we have discovered it is possible to have your pie and eat it too. TQ-Group has designed a board with the TI Sitara™ AM3352 that is simple to program, flexible, affordable, and manufactured to the strictest environmental and quality management standards. Certified for medical, aviation, automotive, and other OEM applications, and backed by a team of FAEs in Europe and North America, this board is rugged, industrial-grade, and production-ready. We call it the Boxer Board.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY: A Tale of Three CPUs

Consider the following adages:

• Design cycles are measured in years

• Engineers get really attached to their devices

• MCUs take on a life of their own long after they’re designed into applications

The following conversation (or urban myth?) from a few years ago is a classic illustration of the importance of continuity of supply; a Boeing engineer in the late 1990’s remarked that a Boeing 777 aircraft had three redundant flight computers, each fitted with Intel 486, Motorola 68K, and AMD 29K processors, and each set up in a voting scheme to compensate for hardware and software errors. Although there was a debate about whether the third CPU was an Intel i960 or i860, the fact is—all of these chips had been out of production for more than a decade. They had firewalled software teams to develop separate code bases for each CPU so that application level bugs would not be replicated across all three architectures, which feed into the voting system. With this level of complexity, there was no way that this system was going to be re-designed for quite some time. The moral of this tale is that for a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs continuity of supply, component control and obsolescence management.

For a product to be a valid solution in the embedded market, it needs to have continuity of supply, component control, and obsolescence management.

28

Microprocessor AM3352, AM3354 (on request)

Memory

256MB DDR3L-SDRAM, 512KB on request

16MB NOR-Flash, Up to 16MB on request

1x Micro-SD-Card

System Interfaces

1x CAN (3.3V, not galvanically separated) ISO 11898

2x 10/100/1000 Mbit (LS switch) IEEE 1588

1x I²C

1x SPI

1x UART (UART to TTL Serial Cable 3.3V)

2x USB 1x 2.0 OTG (Micro USB), 1x USB 2.0 HOST (USB Typ A)

1x WiFi – 2.4 GHz IEEE Std 802.11 b/g/n

1x Bluetooth 4.0

Other Interfaces & Busses

6x 12-bit ADC channels (1.8V MAX)

20x GPIO

16-bit data bus width

CPU JTAG debugging interface

General

Dimensions 120 mm x 80 mm

Audio 1x Audio (Headphone, Mic In, Line In, Line Out)

RTC Yes

Reset Button Yes

Temperature Sensor

Yes, with 2KByte EEPROM

System Connector

Pinstrip (80 pins), including Raspberry Pi B+ compatible pinstrip

Temperature Range

-20°C…+70°C

Operating Systems

Linux 3.14, QNX, WEC 2013

Nick-named the ‘Boxer Board’ by Convergence Promotions LLC, the North American sales and distribution company for TQ-Group, the SBCa335x debuted at Embedded World in late February 2015 and received instant acclaim.

The Boxer Board is based on the Sitara™ AM3352 (optional 3354) processor (800 MHz ARM Cortex™-A8 Core) from Texas Instruments. Its compact and rugged design of only 4.8” (12 cm) by 3.2” (8 cm), temperature range of -20°C to +70°C, and low-power consumption (typ. 2W), makes the Boxer Board suitable for industrial applications in the smallest of spaces. It provides pin-compatibility with the Raspberry Pi B+, so adding capes and hats is a breeze.

Interfaces for Even the Most Demanding Applications

The Boxer Board has an impressive number and variety of interfaces including:

• 2x Gigabit Ethernet, 2x USB (Host and OTG)

• CAN and WiFi (2.4 GHz b/g/n) and Bluetooth 4.0

• 1x HDMI, micro SD and access to UART, SPI, I2C, 20 GPIOs

• 6x 12-bit ADC channels, and more

This array of interfaces makes the Boxer Board applicable for a wide range of industrial and medical applications particularly for the IoT and M2M markets. Its compatible interface to Raspberry Pi B+ Capes and Hats provides added flexibility and speeds time-to-market.

Priced under $100 with WiFi and Bluetooth

Even with WiFi, Bluetooth, and a number of other interfaces not included with Raspberry Pi or BeagleBone Black, the production-ready, industrial-grade Boxer Board with the Sitara™ AM3352 will still retail for under $100.

Boxer Board Specification

The new Boxer Board SBC from TQ combines the simplicity of the BeagleBone Black with a rugged design for industrial applications.

The new Boxer Board (TQ SBCa335x) was designed from specifications and requirements for a customer who manufactures water treatment plants for emerging nations. The requirements for the development were:

• Ease of programming and low-cost

• Industry certifications for in-plant operations

• Guarantee of long-term availability

• Continuous and reliable operation at high temperatures

As a solution, engineers Dominik Mücke and Jens Linke from TQ-Systems GmbH in Munich, Germany, developed the SBCa335x—an SBC using the same processor family as the BeagleBone Black with pin-compatible headers for the BeagleBone Black Capes and Raspberry Pi B+ Capes and Hats.

Dominik Mücke and Jens Linke from TQ-Systems GmbH

WHAT’S IN A NAME?

Raspberry Pi: “A reference to a fruit naming tradition in the old days of microcomputers. A lot of computer companies were named after fruit. There’s Tangerine Computer Systems, Apricot Computers, and the old British company Acorn, which is a family of fruit. The name Pi came about because originally they were going to produce a computer that could only really run Python. So the Pi in there is for Python”.*

Beagle Board: Named for “Boris” the Beagle

Boxer Board: Named for the author’s dog “Winston,” an 85-pound Boxer.

*Techspot interview with Eben Upton, by Jose Vilches on May 22, 2012

COVER STORY

29

Microprocessor AM3352, AM3354 (on request)

Memory

256MB DDR3L-SDRAM, 512KB on request

16MB NOR-Flash, Up to 16MB on request

1x Micro-SD-Card

System Interfaces

1x CAN (3.3V, not galvanically separated) ISO 11898

2x 10/100/1000 Mbit (LS switch) IEEE 1588

1x I²C

1x SPI

1x UART (UART to TTL Serial Cable 3.3V)

2x USB 1x 2.0 OTG (Micro USB), 1x USB 2.0 HOST (USB Typ A)

1x WiFi – 2.4 GHz IEEE Std 802.11 b/g/n

1x Bluetooth 4.0

Other Interfaces & Busses

6x 12-bit ADC channels (1.8V MAX)

20x GPIO

16-bit data bus width

CPU JTAG debugging interface

General

Dimensions 120 mm x 80 mm

Audio 1x Audio (Headphone, Mic In, Line In, Line Out)

RTC Yes

Reset Button Yes

Temperature Sensor

Yes, with 2KByte EEPROM

System Connector

Pinstrip (80 pins), including Raspberry Pi B+ compatible pinstrip

Temperature Range

-20°C…+70°C

Operating Systems

Linux 3.14, QNX, WEC 2013

Nick-named the ‘Boxer Board’ by Convergence Promotions LLC, the North American sales and distribution company for TQ-Group, the SBCa335x debuted at Embedded World in late February 2015 and received instant acclaim.

The Boxer Board is based on the Sitara™ AM3352 (optional 3354) processor (800 MHz ARM Cortex™-A8 Core) from Texas Instruments. Its compact and rugged design of only 4.8” (12 cm) by 3.2” (8 cm), temperature range of -20°C to +70°C, and low-power consumption (typ. 2W), makes the Boxer Board suitable for industrial applications in the smallest of spaces. It provides pin-compatibility with the Raspberry Pi B+, so adding capes and hats is a breeze.

Interfaces for Even the Most Demanding Applications

The Boxer Board has an impressive number and variety of interfaces including:

• 2x Gigabit Ethernet, 2x USB (Host and OTG)

• CAN and WiFi (2.4 GHz b/g/n) and Bluetooth 4.0

• 1x HDMI, micro SD and access to UART, SPI, I2C, 20 GPIOs

• 6x 12-bit ADC channels, and more

This array of interfaces makes the Boxer Board applicable for a wide range of industrial and medical applications particularly for the IoT and M2M markets. Its compatible interface to Raspberry Pi B+ Capes and Hats provides added flexibility and speeds time-to-market.

Priced under $100 with WiFi and Bluetooth

Even with WiFi, Bluetooth, and a number of other interfaces not included with Raspberry Pi or BeagleBone Black, the production-ready, industrial-grade Boxer Board with the Sitara™ AM3352 will still retail for under $100.

Boxer Board Specification

The new Boxer Board SBC from TQ combines the simplicity of the BeagleBone Black with a rugged design for industrial applications.

The new Boxer Board (TQ SBCa335x) was designed from specifications and requirements for a customer who manufactures water treatment plants for emerging nations. The requirements for the development were:

• Ease of programming and low-cost

• Industry certifications for in-plant operations

• Guarantee of long-term availability

• Continuous and reliable operation at high temperatures

As a solution, engineers Dominik Mücke and Jens Linke from TQ-Systems GmbH in Munich, Germany, developed the SBCa335x—an SBC using the same processor family as the BeagleBone Black with pin-compatible headers for the BeagleBone Black Capes and Raspberry Pi B+ Capes and Hats.

Dominik Mücke and Jens Linke from TQ-Systems GmbH

WHAT’S IN A NAME?

Raspberry Pi: “A reference to a fruit naming tradition in the old days of microcomputers. A lot of computer companies were named after fruit. There’s Tangerine Computer Systems, Apricot Computers, and the old British company Acorn, which is a family of fruit. The name Pi came about because originally they were going to produce a computer that could only really run Python. So the Pi in there is for Python”.*

Beagle Board: Named for “Boris” the Beagle

Boxer Board: Named for the author’s dog “Winston,” an 85-pound Boxer.

*Techspot interview with Eben Upton, by Jose Vilches on May 22, 2012

www.TQ-Group.com

www.embeddedmodules.net

30

BSPs and Operating Systems You Can Work With

The Boxer Board runs on Linux, QNX and WEC 2013, (with VXWorks available on request) and can be ordered in two memory versions (256 MB DDR3L SDRAM and 512 MB DDR3L SDRAM).

Certification for Your Applications and Continuity of Supply Until 2025

As with all of the TQ products, quality management is of major importance (TQ stands for ‘Technology in Quality’). TQ-Group is certified in accordance with ISO 9001 (Quality Management), ISO 14001 (Environmental Management), EN 9100 (Civil Aviation), ISO 13485 and MDD (Medical Technology), as well as ISO/TS 16949 (Automotive).

BEAGLEBONE BLACK RASPBERRY PI TQ BOXER BOARD

Processor 1GHz TI Sitara AM3359 ARM Cortex-A8

700 MHz ARM1176JZFS800 MHz TI Sitara AM3352 ARM Cortex-A8

RAM 512MB DDR3L 512MB SDRAM256MB DDR3L, Optional 512MB/1GB

Storage 2GB on-board eMMC, Micro SD

SD 16MB NOR Flash, Micro SD

Peripherals1x USB Host, 1x Mini-USB Client, 1x 10/100 Mbps Ethernet

2x USB Hosts, 1x Micro-USB Power, 1x 10/100 Mbps Ethernet, RPi camera connector

2x Ethernet 10/100/1000, 2x USB (Host & OTG), 1x CAN, 1x SPI, 1x I2C, 6x 12-bit ADC

WiFi/Bluetooth No No2.4GHz 802.11 b/g/n and Bluetooth 4.0

GPIO Capability 65 Pins 8 Pins 20 pins

JTAG No No CPU JTAG debug connector

Operating SystemsAngstrom (Default), Ubuntu, Android, ArchLinux, Gentoo, Minix, RISC OS, others…

Raspbian (Recommended), Ubuntu, Android, ArchLinux, FreeBSD, Fedora, RISC OS, others…

Linux 3.14, QNX & WEC2013

Video Connections 1x Micro-HDMI 1x HDMI, 1x Composite 1x mini HDMI

Supported Resolutions1280×1024 (5:4), 1024×768 (4:3), 1280×720 (16:9), 1440×900 (16:10): all at 16-bit

Extensive from 640×350 up to 1920×1200, this includes 1080p

WXGA 1366x768

Audio Stereo over HDMIStereo over HDMI, Stereo from 3.5mm jack

Stereo over HDMI, Stereo from 3.5mm jack

Power Draw 210-460mA @ 5V under varying conditions

150-350mA @ 5V under varying conditions

3x AA/AAA, 5V Micro USB. 750mA @ 5V under varying conditions (WiFi and Bluetooth)

Environmental 0°C to +70°C temperature range

Untested -25°C to +80°C temperature range

Rugged construction for industrial use and -20°C to +70°C temperature range

Certification No No

ISO 9001, EN 9100 (Aviation), ISO 13485 (Medical technology), ISO 16949 (automotive)

Size 3.4x2.1 inches 3.4x2.2 inches 4.8x3.2 inches

Price $50 $35 Sub- $100* *Price subject to change

Summary

The legacy of Raspberry Pi and other hobby-level modules will be that it revolutionized the board industry by making low-cost and easy-to-design modules and feature-rich accessories available to millions worldwide. The Boxer Board is the next step in the evolution of these boards from hobby-level to industrial-grade solutions for the thousands of embedded engineers who started as students on the hobby platforms and have graduated to developing embedded applications for IoT, industrial, medical, automotive and other industries.

The Boxer Board will be available in May 2015 from TQ-Systems (www.TQ-Group.com) in EMEA and from Convergence Promotions (www.embeddedmodules.net) in North America.

Block Diagram SBCa335x

http://www.tq-group.com

http://www.embeddedmodules.net

COVER STORY

31

BSPs and Operating Systems You Can Work With

The Boxer Board runs on Linux, QNX and WEC 2013, (with VXWorks available on request) and can be ordered in two memory versions (256 MB DDR3L SDRAM and 512 MB DDR3L SDRAM).

Certification for Your Applications and Continuity of Supply Until 2025

As with all of the TQ products, quality management is of major importance (TQ stands for ‘Technology in Quality’). TQ-Group is certified in accordance with ISO 9001 (Quality Management), ISO 14001 (Environmental Management), EN 9100 (Civil Aviation), ISO 13485 and MDD (Medical Technology), as well as ISO/TS 16949 (Automotive).

BEAGLEBONE BLACK RASPBERRY PI TQ BOXER BOARD

Processor 1GHz TI Sitara AM3359 ARM Cortex-A8

700 MHz ARM1176JZFS800 MHz TI Sitara AM3352 ARM Cortex-A8

RAM 512MB DDR3L 512MB SDRAM256MB DDR3L, Optional 512MB/1GB

Storage 2GB on-board eMMC, Micro SD

SD 16MB NOR Flash, Micro SD

Peripherals1x USB Host, 1x Mini-USB Client, 1x 10/100 Mbps Ethernet

2x USB Hosts, 1x Micro-USB Power, 1x 10/100 Mbps Ethernet, RPi camera connector

2x Ethernet 10/100/1000, 2x USB (Host & OTG), 1x CAN, 1x SPI, 1x I2C, 6x 12-bit ADC

WiFi/Bluetooth No No2.4GHz 802.11 b/g/n and Bluetooth 4.0

GPIO Capability 65 Pins 8 Pins 20 pins

JTAG No No CPU JTAG debug connector

Operating SystemsAngstrom (Default), Ubuntu, Android, ArchLinux, Gentoo, Minix, RISC OS, others…

Raspbian (Recommended), Ubuntu, Android, ArchLinux, FreeBSD, Fedora, RISC OS, others…

Linux 3.14, QNX & WEC2013

Video Connections 1x Micro-HDMI 1x HDMI, 1x Composite 1x mini HDMI

Supported Resolutions1280×1024 (5:4), 1024×768 (4:3), 1280×720 (16:9), 1440×900 (16:10): all at 16-bit

Extensive from 640×350 up to 1920×1200, this includes 1080p

WXGA 1366x768

Audio Stereo over HDMIStereo over HDMI, Stereo from 3.5mm jack

Stereo over HDMI, Stereo from 3.5mm jack

Power Draw 210-460mA @ 5V under varying conditions

150-350mA @ 5V under varying conditions

3x AA/AAA, 5V Micro USB. 750mA @ 5V under varying conditions (WiFi and Bluetooth)

Environmental 0°C to +70°C temperature range

Untested -25°C to +80°C temperature range

Rugged construction for industrial use and -20°C to +70°C temperature range

Certification No No

ISO 9001, EN 9100 (Aviation), ISO 13485 (Medical technology), ISO 16949 (automotive)

Size 3.4x2.1 inches 3.4x2.2 inches 4.8x3.2 inches

Price $50 $35 Sub- $100* *Price subject to change

Summary

The legacy of Raspberry Pi and other hobby-level modules will be that it revolutionized the board industry by making low-cost and easy-to-design modules and feature-rich accessories available to millions worldwide. The Boxer Board is the next step in the evolution of these boards from hobby-level to industrial-grade solutions for the thousands of embedded engineers who started as students on the hobby platforms and have graduated to developing embedded applications for IoT, industrial, medical, automotive and other industries.

The Boxer Board will be available in May 2015 from TQ-Systems (www.TQ-Group.com) in EMEA and from Convergence Promotions (www.embeddedmodules.net) in North America.

Block Diagram SBCa335x

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Embedded Developer: March 2015