ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Special Education...THIRD EDITION VOLUME 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Special Education A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and

T H I R D E D I T I O N

VOLUME 1

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Special EducationA Reference for the Education

of Children, Adolescents,and Adults with Disabilities and

Other Exceptional Individuals

Edited by

Cecil R. Reynolds

Elaine Fletcher-Janzen

JOHN WILEY & SONS

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OFSpecial Education


CONTRIBUTING EDITORS

KIMBERLY F. APPLEQUISTUniversity of Colorado at Colorado SpringsColorado Springs, Colorado

RANDALL L. DE PRYUniversity of Colorado at Colorado SpringsColorado Springs, Colorado

RON DUMONTFairleigh Dickinson UniversityTeaneck, New Jersey

SAM GOLDSTEINUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

JAMES C. KAUFMANCalifornia State University, San BernardinoSan Bernardino, California

TOM OAKLANDUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

CYNTHIA RICCIOTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

RACHEL TOPLISFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

LEE SWANSONUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

JOHN O. WILLISRivier CollegeNashua, New Hampshire

RON ZELLNERTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Encyclopedia of Special Education, THIRD EDITIONCecil R. Reynolds and Elaine Fletcher-Janzen, Editors


VOLUME 1

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

Special EducationA Reference for the Education

of Children, Adolescents,and Adults with Disabilities and

Other Exceptional Individuals

Edited by

Cecil R. Reynolds

Elaine Fletcher-Janzen

JOHN WILEY & SONS

This book is printed on acid- free paper. oCopyright © 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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ISBN-13: 978-0-471-67798-7 (VOL. 1); ISBN-10: 0-471-67798-1 (VOL. 1)ISBN-13: 978-0-471-67799-4 (VOL. 2); ISBN-10: 0-471-67799-X (VOL. 2)ISBN-13: 978-0-471-67801-4 (VOL. 3); ISBN-10: 0-471-67801-5 (VOL. 3)

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Susanne Blough AbbottBedford Central School DistrictMt. Kisco, New York

Marty AbramsonUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

Patricia Ann AbramsonHudson Public SchoolsHudson, Wisconsin

Salvador Hector AchoaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Patricia A. AlexanderUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

Vincent C. AlfonsoFordham UniversityNew York, New York

Nancy AlgertTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Thomas E. AllenGallaudet CollegeWashington, DC

Marie AlmondThe University of Texas of the

Permian BasinOdessa, Texas

Geri R. AlvisMemphis State UniversityMemphis, Tennessee

Daniel G. AmenUniversity of California School of

MedicineIrvine, California

Anna M. ArenaAcademic Therapy PublicationsNovato, California

John ArenaAcademic Therapy PublicationsNovato, California

Julie A. ArmentroutUniversity of Colorado at Colorado

SpringsColorado Springs, Colorado

Patricia Ann ArramsonHudson Public SchoolsHudson, Wisconsin

Gustavo Abelardo ArrendondoMonterrey, Mexico

Bernice ArricaleHunter College, City University of

New YorkNew York, New York

H. Roberta ArrigoHunter College, City University of


Alfredo J. ArtilesUniversity of California, Los AngelesLos Angeles, California

Maria ArzolaUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Michael J. AshTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Adel E. AshawalAin Shams UniversityCairo, Egypt

v

CONTRIBUTORS

C. H. AmmonsPsychological Reports / Perceptual

and Motor SkillsMissoula, Montana

Carol AndersonTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Kari AndersonUniversity of North Carolina at

WilmingtonWilmington, North Carolina

Peggy L. AndersonUniversity of New Orleans,

LakefrontNew Orleans, Louisiana

Candace AndrewsCalifornia State University, San

BernardinoSan Bernardino, California

Jean AnnanMassey UniversityNew Zealand

J. Appelboom-FonduUniversité Libre de BruxellesBrussels, Belgium

James M. Applefi eldUniversity of North Carolina at


Pauline F. Applefi eldUniversity of North Carolina at


Kimberly F. ApplequistUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


CONTRIBUTORSvi

Shannon AtwaterBranson School OnlineBranson, Colorado

William G. AustinCape Fear Psychological ServicesWilmington, North Carolina

Anna H. AvantUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosa, Alabama

Dan G. BachorUniversity of VictoriaVictoria, British Columbia, Canada

John BaerRider UniversityWenonah, New Jersey

Rebecca BaileyTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Timothy A. BallardUniversity of North Carolina at


Melanie BallatoreUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Tanya Y. BandaTexas A&M University PressCollege Station, Texas

Deborah E. BarbourUniversity of North Carolina at


Russell A. BarkleyUniversity of Massachusetts Medical

CenterWorchester, Massachusetts

Charles P. BarnardUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

David W. BarnettUniversity of CincinnatiCincinnati, Ohio

Ellis I. BarowskyHunter College, City University of


Lyle E. BartonKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

Vicki BartosikStanford UniversityStanford, California

Paul BatesSouthern Illinois UniversityCarbondale, Illinois

Anne M. BauerUniversity of CincinnatiCincinnati, Ohio

Elizabeth R. BauerschmidtUniversity of North Carolina at


Michael BauerschmidtBrunswick HospitalWilmington, North Carolina

Monique BantersCentre d’Etude et de ReclassementBrussels, Belgium

John R. BeattieUniversity of North Carolina at

CharlotteCharlotte, North Carolina

George R. BeauchampCleveland Clinic FoundationCleveland, Ohio

Mellisa BeckhamThe CitadelCharleston, South Carolina

Ronald A. BeghettoUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Julie BellUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Ana Yeraldina BenekeUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Randy Elliot BennettEducational Testing ServicePrinceton, New Jersey

Richard A. BergWest Virginia University Medical

Center, Charleston DivisionCharleston, West Virginia

John R. BerganUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona

Dianne E. BerkellC.W. Post Campus, Long Island

UniversityGreenvale, New York

Gary BerkowitzTemple UniversityPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Shari A. BevinsTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

John BielinskiAGS PublishingSt. Paul, Minnesota

Kristan BiernathThe Hughes Spalding International

Adoption Evaluation CenterAtlanta, Georgia

Erin D. BiglerBrigham Young UniversityProvo, Utah

Tia BillyTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Roseann BisighiniThe Salk InstituteLa Jolla, California

Kendra J. BjorakerUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Jan BlacherUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Gérard BlessUniversity of FribourgFribourg, Switzerland

L. Worth BoltonCape Fear Substance Abuse CenterWilmington, North Carolina

CONTRIBUTORS vii

Gwyneth M. BoodooTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Nancy BordierHunter College, City University of


Jeannie BormansCenter for Developmental ProblemsBrussels, Belgium

Morton BotelUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Daniel J. BoudahTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Michael BourdotCentre d’Etude et de ReclassementBrussels, Belgium

Bruce A. BrackenUniversity of MemphisMemphis, Tennessee

Mary BradyPennsylvania Special Education

Assistive Device CenterElizabethtown, Pennsylvania

Janet S. BrandHunter College, City University of


Don BraswellResearch Foundation, City

University of New YorkNew York, New York

T. Berry BrazeltonChildren’s HospitalBoston, Massachusetts

Warner H. BrittonAuburn UniversityAuburn, Alabama

Debra Y. BroadbooksCalifornia School of Professional

PsychologySan Diego, California

Melanie L. BromleyCalifornia State University, San


Michael G. BrownCentral Wisconsin Center for the

Developmentally DisabledMadison, Wisconsin

Robert T. BrownUniversity of North Carolina at


Ronald T. BrownEmory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia

Tina L. BrownMemphis State UniversityMemphis, Tennessee

Robert G. BrubakerEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Catherine O. BruceHunter College, City University of


Andrew R. BrulleWheaton CollegeSycamore, Illinois

Laura Kinzie BruttingUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Donna M. BryantUniversity of North Carolina at

Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina

Milton BudoffResearch Institute for Educational

ProblemsCambridge, Massachusetts

Carolyn L. BullardLewis & Clark CollegePortland, Oregon

Thomas R. BurkeHunter College, City University of


Alois BürliSwiss Institute for Special EducationLucerne, Switzerland

Jason Burrow-SanchezUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Thomas A. BurtonUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Michelle T. BussTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

James ButtonUnited States Department of

EducationWashington, DC

Claudia Camarillo-DievendorfPitzer College, ClaremontClaremont, California

Anne CampbellPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Frances A. CampbellUniversity of North Carolina at


Steven A. CarlsonBeaverton SchoolsBeaverton, Oregon

Douglas CarnineUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Deborah Birke CaronSt. Lucie County School DistrictFt. Pierce, Florida

Janet CarpenterUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Edward G. CarrState University of New York at

Stony BrookStony Brook, New York

Tracy Calpin CastleEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

CONTRIBUTORSviii

John F. CawleyUniversity of New OrleansNew Orleans, Louisiana

Christine D. Cde BacaUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Constance Y. CelayaIrving, Texas

James C. ChalfantUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona

Elaine A. CheesmanUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Rebecca Wing-yi ChengThe University of Hong KongHong Kong, China

Chris CherringtonLycoming CollegeWilliamsport, Pennsylvania

Robert ChimedzaUniversity of ZimbabweHarare, Zimbabwe

Kathleen M. ChinnNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Elaine ClarkUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

LeRoy ClintonBoston UniversityBoston, Massachusetts

Renato CocchiPesaro, Italy

Cynthia Price CohenChild Rights International Research

InstituteNew York, New York

Shirley CohenHunter College, City University of


Ginga L. ColcoughUniversity of North Carolina at


Christine L. ColeUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Rhonda CollinsFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Jennifer CondonUniversity of North Carolina at


Jane Close ConoleyUniversity of Nebraska–LincolnLincoln, Nebraska

Clayton R. CookUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Krystal T. CookTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Vivian I. CorreaUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Barbara CorriveauLaramie County School District # 1Cheyenne, Wyoming

Lawrence S. CotePennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Kathleen CottonNorthwest Regional Educational

LaboratoryPortland, Oregon

Katherine D. CouturierPennsylvania State UniversityKing of Prussia, Pennsylvania

J. Michael CoxeUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, South Carolina

Julia CoyneLoyala University, ChicagoChicago, Illinois

Anne B. CrabbeSt. Andrews CollegeLaurinburg, North Carolina

Lindy CrawfordUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Sergio R. CrisalleMedical Horizons UnlimitedSan Antonio, Texas

Chara CrivelliVito de NegrarVerona, Italy

John CrumlinUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Jack A. CummingsIndiana UniversityBloomington, Indiana

Jacqueline CunninghamUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Susan CurtissUniversity of California, Los AngelesLos Angeles, California

Rik Carl D’AmatoUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Elizabeth DaneHunter College, City University of


Craig DarchAuburn UniversityAuburn, Alabama

Barry DavidsonEnnis, Texas

Jacqueline E. DavisBoston UniversityBoston, Massachusetts

CONTRIBUTORS ix

Raymond S. DeanBall State UniversityIndiana University School of

MedicineMuncie, Indiana

Jozi De LeonNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Bernadette M. DelgadoUniversity of Nebraska–LincolnLincoln, Nebraska

Allison G. DempseyUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Jack R. DempseyUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Randall L. De PryUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Lizanne DeStefanoUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-

ChampaignChampaign, Illinois

S. De VriendtVrije Universiteit BrusselBrussels, Belgium

Caroline D’IppolitoEastern Pennsylvania Special

Education Resources Center King of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Mary D’IppolitoMontgomery County Intermediate

UnitNorristown, Pennsylvania

Roja Dilmore-RiosCalifornia State University, San

BernadinoSan Bernadino, California

Jeffrey DitterlineUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Marilyn P. DornbushAtlanta, Georgia

Amanda Jensen DossTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Susann DowlingUniversity of HoustonHouston, Texas

Sharon DuffyUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Jengjyh DuhNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipei, Taiwan

Ron DumontFairleigh Dickinson UniversityTeaneck, New Jersey

Brooke DurbinTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Mary K. DykesUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Alan DysonUniversity of ManchesterManchester, England

Peg EagneySchool for the DeafNew York, New York

Ronald C. EavesAuburn UniversityAuburn, Alabama

Jana EchevarriaCalifornia State University, Long

BeachLong Beach, California

Danielle EdelstonUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Amita EdranCalifornia State University, Long

BeachLong Beach, California

John M. EellsSouderton Area School DistrictSouderton, Pennsylvania

Cassie EiffertUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Stephen N. ElliottUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Julie EllisUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Ingemar EmanuelssonGoteburg UniversityGoteburg, Sweden

Petra EngelbrechtUniversity of StellenboschStellenbosch, South Africa

Carol Sue EnglertMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, Michigan

Chaz EsparazaCalifornia State University, San


Christine A. EspinUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Michelle EvansCalifornia State University, San


Rand B. EvansTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Rose FairbanksTemecula, California

Sarah FairbanksUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut

Katherine FalwellUniversity of North Carolina at


Judith L. FarmerNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

CONTRIBUTORSx

Stephen S. FarmerNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Peter FarrellUniversity of ManchesterManchester, England

MaryAnn C. FarthingUniversity of North Carolina at


Lisa Fashnacht-HillChildren’s HospitalLos Angeles, California

Mary Grace FeelySchool for the DeafNew York, New York

John F. FeldhusenPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Britt-Inger FexUniversity of LundLund, Sweden

Donna FilipsSteger, Illinois

Marni R. FinbergUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Krista FinstuenTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Sally L. FlaglerUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Dawn P. FlanaganSt. John’s UniversityJamaica, New York

Dennis M. FlanaganMontgomery County Intermediate


David Fletcher-JanzenColorado Springs, Colorado

Elaine Fletcher-JanzenUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Wendy L. FlynnStaffordshire UniversityEngland

Cindi FloresCalifornia State University, San


Constance J. FournierTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Rollen C. FowlerEugene 4J School DistrictEugene, Oregon

Emily FoxUniversity of MichiganAnn Arbor, Michigan

Thomas A. FrankPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Leslie Coyle FranklinUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Mary M. FrasierUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Joseph L. FrenchPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Alice G. FriedmanUniversity of Oklahoma Health

Services CenterNorman, Oklahoma

Douglas L. FriedmanFordham UniversityBronx, New York

Douglas FuchsPeabody College, Vanderbilt

UniversityNashville, Tennessee

Lynn S. FuchsPeabody College, Vanderbilt


Gerald B. FullerCentral Michigan UniversityMt. Pleasant, Michigan

Rosemary GaffneyHunter College, City University of


Jason GallantUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Diego GallegosTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Clarissa I. GarciaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Shernaz B. GarciaUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Katherine GarnettHunter College, City University of


Melissa M. GeorgeMontgomery County Intermediate


Phil Bless GerardUniversity of FribourgFribourg, Switzerland

Verena GetahunAGS PublishingSt. Paul, Minnesota

Violeta GevorgianieneVilnius UniversityVilnius, Lithuania

Harvey R. GilbertPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

CONTRIBUTORS xi

Grazina GintilieneVilnius UniversityVilnius, Lithuania

Elizabeth GirshickMontgomery County Intermediate


Joni J. GleasonUniversity of West FloridaPensacola, Florida

Sharon L. GlennenPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Sam GoldsteinUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Rick GonzalesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Libby GoodmanPennsylvania State UniversityKing of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Carole Reiter GothelfHunter College, City University of


Steve GrahamUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

Jeffrey W. GrayBall State UniversityMuncie, Indiana

P. Allen Gray, Jr.University North Carolina at


Darielle GreenbergCalifornia School of Professional


Jacques GrégoireCatholic University of LouvainLouvain, Belgium

Laurence C. GrimmUniversity of IllinoisChicago, Illinois

Lindsay S. GrossUniversity of WisconsinMilwaukee, Wisconsin

Suzanne M. GrundyCalifornia State University, San


Nonna GuerraTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

John GuidubaldiKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

J. C. GuillemardDourdan, France

Deborah GuillenThe University of Texas of the


Steven GumermanTemple UniversityPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Thomas GumpelThe Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalem, Israel

Rumki GuptaIndian Statistical InstituteKolkata, India

Terry B. GutkinUniversity of Nebraska–LincolnLincoln, Nebraska

Patricia A. HaenslyTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

George James HagertyStonehill CollegeNorth Easton, Massachusetts

Robert HallTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Winnifred M. HallUniversity of West IndiesKingston, Jamaica

Lindsay HallidayCalifornia State University, San


Richard E. HalmstadUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

Glennelle HalpinAuburn UniversityAuburn, Alabama

Donald D. HammillPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Monika HannonColorado Springs, Colorado

Harold HansonSouthern Illinois UniversityCarbondale, Illinois

Elise Phelps HanzelCalifornia School of Professional


Jennifer HarmanUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Janice HarperNorth Carolina Central UniversityDurham, North Carolina

Gale A. HarrMaple Heights City SchoolsMaple Heights, Ohio

Karen L. HarrellUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Frances T. HarringtonRadford UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Karen R. HarrisUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

CONTRIBUTORSxii

Kathleen HarrisArizona State UniversityTempe, Arizona

Patti L. HarrisonUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosa, Alabama

Beth HarryUniversity of MiamiMiami, Florida

Stuart N. HartUniversity of VictoriaVictoria, British Columbia, Canada

Lawrence C. HartlageEvans, Georgia

Patricia HartlageMedical College of GeorgiaEvans, Georgia

Dan HattUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Anette HausotterBis Beratungsstelle Fur Die

IntergrationGermany

Leanne S. HawkenUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Krista D. HealyUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Jeff HeinzenIndianhead EnterpriseMenomonie, Wisconsin

Floyd HendersonTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Rhonda HennisUniversity of North Carolina at


Latanya HenryTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Arthur HernandezTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

E. Valerie HewittTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Julia A. HickmanBastrop Mental Health AssociationBastrop, Texas

Craig S. HigginsStonehill CollegeNorth Easton, Massachusetts

Alan HiltonSeattle UniversitySeattle, Washington

Delores J. HittingerThe University of Texas of the


Harold E. Hoff, Jr.Eastern Pennsylvania Special

Education Resources CenterKing of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Elizabeth HolcombAmerican Journal of Occupational

TherapyBethesda, Maryland

E. Wayne HoldenUniversity of Oklahoma Health

Sciences CenterNorman, Oklahoma

Ivan Z. HolowinskyRutgers UniversityNew Brunswick, New Jersey

Thomas F. HopkinsCenter for Behavioral PsychotherapyWhite Plains, New York

Robert H. HornerUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Wayne P. HreskoJournal of Learning DisabilitiesAustin, Texas

Charles A. HughesPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Jan N. HughesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Kay E. HughesThe Riverside Publishing CompanyItasca, Illinois

Aimee R. HunterUniversity of North Carolina at


Nancy L. HutchinsonSimon Fraser UniversityBuraby, British Columbia

Beverly J. IrbySam Houston State UniversityHuntsville, Texas

Paul IrvineKatonah, New York

Lee Anderson Jackson, Jr.University of North Carolina at


Elisabeth JacobsenCopenhagen, Denmark

Markku JahnukainenUniversity of HelsinkiFinland

Diane JarvisState University of New York at

BuffaloBuffalo, New York

Phillip JenkinsUniversity of KentuckyLexington, Kentucky

Jacqueline JereUniversity of ZambiaLusaka, Zambia

Olga JermanUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Brian JohnsonUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Elizabeth JonesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Gideon JonesFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Philip R. JonesVirginia Polytechnic Institute and

State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Shirley A. JonesVirginia Polytechnic Institute and

State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Diana JoyceUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Araksia KaladjianUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

James W. KalatNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North Carolina

Maya KalyanpurTowson UniversityTowson, Maryland

Randy W. KamphausUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Harrison KaneUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Stan A. KarczUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

Maribeth Montgomery KasikGovernors State UniversityUniversity Park, Illinois

Jen Katz-BuonincontroUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Alan S. KaufmanYale University School of MedicineNew Haven, Connecticut

James C. KaufmanCalifornia State University, San


Nancy J. KaufmanUniversity of Wisconsin at Stevens

PointStevens Point, Wisconsin

Scott Barry KaufmanYale UniversityNew Haven, Connecticut

Kenneth A. KavaleRegent UniversityVirginia Beach, Virginia

Hortencia KayserNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Forrest E. KeesburyLycoming CollegeWilliamsport, Pennsylvania

Barbara KeoghUniversity of California, Los AngelesLos Angeles, California

Leanne Ketterlin-GellarUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Kay E. KetzenbergerThe University of Texas of the


Eve KikasUniversity of TartuTartu, Estonia

Peggy KippingPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Gonul Kircaali-IftarAnadolu UniversityTurkey

Bob KirchnerUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Margie K. KitanoNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Howard M. KnoffUniversity of South FloridaTampa, Florida

Tim KnosterBloomsburg UniversityBloomsburg, Pennsylvania

Brandi KocianTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

F. J. Koopmans-Van BeinumAmsterdam, The Netherlands

Mark A. KoorlandFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Peter KoprivaFresno Pacifi c UniversityFresno, California

L. KoulischerInstititut de Morphologie

PathologiqueBelgium

Martin KozloffUniversity of North Carolina at


Thomas R. KratochwillUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

James P. KrouseClarion University of PennsylvaniaClarion, Pennsylvania

Louis J. KrugerTufts UniversityMedford, Pennsylvania

CONTRIBUTORSxiv

Miranda KuceraUniversity of Colorado at Colorado


Loni KuhnUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Timothy D. LackayeHunter College, City University of


Shui-fong LamThe University of Hong KongHong Kong, China

C. Sue LambUniversity of North Carolina at


Gordon D. LambTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Nadine M. LambertUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, California

Louis J. LanunziataUniversity of North Carolina at


Rafael Lara-AlecioTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Franco LaroccaThe University of VeronaVerona, Italy

Kerry S. LassiterThe CitadelCharleston, South Carolina

Jeff LaurentUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Mark M. LeachUniversity of Southern MississippiHattiesburg, Mississippi

Samuel LeBaronUniversity of Texas Health Science

CenterSan Antonio, Texas

Yvan LebrunSchool of MedicineBrussels, Belgium

Jillian N. LederhouseWheaton CollegeSycamore, Illinois

Linda LeeperNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Ronald S. LenkowskyHunter College, City University of


Mary Louise LennonEducational Testing ServicePrinceton, New Jersey

Carmen LéonAndrés Bello Catholic UniversityCaracas, Venezuela

Richard LevakCalifornia School of Professional


Allison LewisUniversity of North Carolina at


Collette LeyvaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Elizabeth O. LichtenbergerThe Salk InstituteLa Jolla, California

Ping LinElmhurst CollegeElmhurst, Illinois

Janet A. LindowUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Ken LinfootUniversity of Western SydneySydney, Australia

Daniel D. LipkaLincoln Way Special Education

Regional Resources CenterLouisville, Ohio

Cornelia LivelyUniversity of Illinois, Urbana-

ChampaignChampaign, Illinois

Lisa A. LockwoodTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Jeri LogemannNorthwestern UniversityEvanston, Illinois

Charles J. LongUniversity of MemphisMemphis, Tennessee

Linda R. LongleyUniversity of North Carolina at


Emilia C. LopezFordham UniversityNew York, New York

Esmerelda LopezTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Patricia A. LoweUniversity of KansasLawrence, Kansas

Michael T. LucasCalifornia State University, San


Marsha H. LupiHunter College, City University of


Ann E. LupkowskiTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

CONTRIBUTORS xv

Pat LynchTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Loleta Lynch-GustafsonCalifornia State University, San


Philip E. LyonCollege of St. RoseAlbany, New York

James LyonsUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

John W. MaagUniversity of Nebraska–LincolnLincoln, Nebraska

Charles A. MacArthurUniversity of MarylandCollege Park, Maryland

John MacDonaldEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Taddy MaddoxPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Danielle MaderaUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Ghislain MagerotteMons State UniversityMons, Belgium

Susan Mahanna-BodenEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Charles A. MaherRutgers UniversityPiscataway, New Jersey

Elba Maldonado-ColonSan Jose State UniversitySan Jose, California

David C. MannSt. Francis HospitalPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Douglas L. MannV. A. Medical Center, Medical

University of South CarolinaCharleston, South Carolina

Lester MannHunter College, City University of


Donald S. MarozasState University of New York at

GeneseoGeneseo, New York

Ellen B. MarriottUniversity of North Carolina at


James E. MartinUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Tamara J. MartinThe University of Texas of the


Patrick MasonThe Hughes Spalding International

Adoption Evaluation CenterAtlanta, Georgia

Margo A. MastropieriPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Deborah C. MayState University of New York at

AlbanyAlbany, New York

Joan W. Mayfi eldBaylor Pediatric Specialty ServiceDallas, Texas

Liliana MayoCentro Ann SullivanLima, Peru

James K. McAfeePennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Eileen F. McCarthyUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Elizabeth McClellanCouncil for Exceptional ChildrenReston, Virginia

Dalene M. McCloskeyUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

George McCloskeyPhiladelphia College of Osteopathic

MedicinePhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Laura S. McCorkleTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Linda McCormickUniversity of Hawaii, ManoaHonolulu, Hawaii

Paul A. McDermottUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Kevin S. McGrewSt. Joseph, Minnesota

Phillip J. McLaughlinUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

James A. McLoughlinUniversity of LouisvilleLouisville, Kentucky

James K. McMeePennsylvania State UniversityKing of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Paolo MeazziniUniversity of RomeRome, Italy

Frederic J. MedwayUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, South Carolina

Brenda MelvinNew Hanover Regional Medical

CenterWilmington, North Carolina

Marissa I. MendozaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

CONTRIBUTORSxvi

James F. MerrittUniversity of North CarolinaWilmington, North Carolina

Judith MeyersSan Diego, California

Danielle MichauxVrije Universiteit BrusselBrussels, Belgium

Jennifer MightUniversity of North CarolinaWilmington, North Carolina

Stephen E. MilesImmune Defi ciency FoundationTowson, Maryland

Susie MilesUniversity of ManchesterManchester, England

James H. MillerUniversity of New OrleansNew Orleans, Louisiana

Kevin MillerUniversity of Central FloridaOrlando, Florida

Ted L. MillerUniversity of TennesseeChattanooga, Tennessee

Norris MinickCenter for Psychosocial StudiesThe Spencer FoundationChicago, Illinois

Anjali MisraState University of New YorkPotsdam, New York

Andrew A. MogajiUniversity of Lagos Lagos, Nigeria

Lisa MondaFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Lourdes MontenegroAndrés Bello Catholic UniversityCaracas, Venezuela

Judy K. MontgomeryChapman UniversityIrvine, California

Linda MontgomeryThe University of Texas of the


Hadley MooreUniversity of MassachusettsBoston, Massachusetts

Melanie MooreUniversity of North Carolina at


Luis Benites MoralesUniversidad San Martin de PorresLima, Peru

Marianela MorenoAndrés Bello Catholic UniversityCaracas, Venzuela

Richard J. MorrisUniversity of ArizonaTucson, Arizona

Lonny W. MorrowNortheast Missouri State UniversityKirksville, Missouri

Sue Ann MorrowEDGE, Inc.Bradshaw, Michigan

Elias MpofuPennsylvania State UniversityHarrisburg, Pennsylvania

Tracy MuenzAlliant International UniversitySan Diego, California

Mary MurrayJournal of Special EducationBen Salem, Pennsylvania

Gladiola MusabelliuUniversity of TiranaTirana, Albania

Magen M. MutepfaZimbabwe Schools Special Services

and Special Education DepartmentZimbabwe

Jack NaglieriThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Sigamoney NaickerWestern Cape Educational SI

DepartmentSouth Africa

Michael NallLouisville, Kentucky

Nicole NasewiczUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Robert T. NashUniversity of Wisconsin at OshkoshOshkosh, Wisconsin

Bonnie K. NastasiKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

Cameron L. NeeceUniversity of California, Los AngelesLos Angeles, California

Thomas NeisesCalifornia State University, San


Joyce E. NessMontgomery County Intermediate


Ulrika NettelbladtUniversity of LundLund, Sweden

Robert C. NicholsState University of New York at

BuffaloBuffalo, New York

Etta Lee NurickMontgomery County Intermediate


CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Christopher OaklandNew York City, New York

Thomas OaklandUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Festus E. ObiakorEmporia State UniversityNigeria

Hector Salvia OchoaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Joy O’GradyUniversity of MemphisMemphis, Tennessee

Masataka OhtaTokyo Gakujei UniversityTokyo, Japan

John O’NeillHunter College, City University of


Robert O’NeillUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Alba OrtizUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Samuel O. OrtizSt. John’s UniversityJamaica, New York

Andrew OseroffFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Lawrence J. O’SheaUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Marika PadrikUniversity of TartuTartu, Estonia

Doris PaezNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Ellis B. PageDuke UniversityDurham, North Carolina

Kathleen D. PagetUniversity of South CarolinaColumbia, South Carolina

Douglas J. PalmerTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Hagop S. PambookianElizabeth City, North Carolina

Ernest L. PancsofarUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut

Sara PankaskieFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Linda H. ParrishTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Daniel R. PaulsonUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

Nils A. PearsonPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Mary Leon PeeryTexas A&M UniversityCol1ege Station, Texas

Kathleen Pelham-OdorCalifornia State University, San


Shelley L. F. PelletierDysart Unifi ed School DistrictEl Mirage, Arizona

Michelle PerfectUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Olivier PérierUniversité Libre de BruxellesCentre Comprendre et ParlerBrussels, Belgium

Joseph D. PerryKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

Richard G. PetersBall State UniversityMuncie, Indiana

Faith L. PhillipsUniversity of Oklahoma Health

Sciences CenterNorman, Oklahoma

Jeffry L. PhillipsUniversity of North Carolina at


Kathleen M. PhillipsUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Lindsey A. PhillipsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Yongxin PiaoBeijing Normal UniversityBeijing, China

Sip Jan PijlGion University of GroningenGroningen, The Netherlands

John J. PikulskiUniversity of DelawareNewark, Delaware

Sally E. PisarchickCuyahoga Special Education Service

CenterMaple Heights, Ohio

Brenda M. PopeNew Hanover Memorial HospitalWilmington, North Carolina

John E. PorcellaRhinebeck County SchoolRhinebeck, New York

James A. PoteetBall State UniversityMuncie, Indiana

CONTRIBUTORSxviii

Michelle W. PotterUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Shawn PowellUnited States Air Force AcademyColorado Springs, Colorado

Kristiana PowersCalifornia State University, San


David P. PrasseUniversity of WisconsinMilwaukee, Wisconsin

Jennifer Dawn PretoriusVaal University of TechnologySouth Africa

Marianne PriceMontgomery County Intermediate


Elisabeth A. PrinzPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Philip M. PrinzPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Antonio E. PuenteUniversity of North Carolina at


Krista L. PuenteUniversity of North Carolina at


Nuri PuigUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Elizabeth P. PungelloUniversity of North Carolina at


Shahid Waheed QamarLahore, Pakistan

Jennifer M. RaadUniversity of KansasLawrence, Kansas

Linda RadbillUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Paige B. RaetzWestern Michigan UniversityKalamazoo, Michigan

Katrina RaiaUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Craig T. RameyUniversity of North Carolina at


Sylvia Z. RamirezUniversity of TexasAustin, Texas

Noe RamosTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Arlene I. RattanBall State UniversityMuncie, Indiana

Gurmal RattanIndiana University of PennsylvaniaIndiana, Pennsylvania

Anne ReberTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Robert R. ReilleyTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Fredricka K. ReismanDrexel UniversityPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania

Kimberly M. RennieTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Daniel J. ReschlyPeabody College, Vanderbilt


Cecil R. ReynoldsTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Robert L. RhodesNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

William S. RholesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Cynthia A. RiccioTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

James R. RicciutiUnited States Offi ce of Management

and BudgetWashington, DC

Teresa K. RiceTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Paul C. RichardsonElwyn InstitutesElwyn, Pennsylvania

Sylvia O. RichardsonUniversity of South FloridaTampa, Florida

Pamela M. RichmanUniversity of North Carolina at


Bert O. RichmondUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Richard RiderUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Michelle RiesUniversity of MemphisMemphis, Tennessee

Catherine Hall RikhyeHunter College, City University of


CONTRIBUTORS xix

T. Chris Riley-TillmanEast Carolina UniversityGreenville, North Carolina

Selina Rivera-LongoriaTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Gary J. RobertsonAmerican Guidance ServiceCircle Pines, Minnesota

Kathleen Rodden-NordUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Olga L. Rodriguez-EscobarTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Jean A. RondalUniversity of LiegeLiege, Belgium

Sheldon RosenbergUniversity of IllinoisChicago, Illinois

Bruce P. RosenthalState University of New YorkNew York, New York

Eric RossenUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Beth RousUniversity of Kentucky Human

Development InstituteLexington, Kentucky

Amy Loomis RouxUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Kathy L. RuhlPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Joseph M. RussoHunter College, City University of


Robert B. Rutherford, Jr.Arizona State UniversityTempe, Arizona

Kim Ryan-ArredondoTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Anne SabatinoHudson, Wisconsin

David A. SabatinoWest Virginia College of Graduate

StudiesInstitute, West Virginia

Susan SageDysart Unifi ed School DistrictEl Mirage, Arizona

Monir SalehBeheshti UniversityTehran, Iran

Lisa J. SampsonEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Alfred SanderUniversitat des SaarlandesSaarbruecken, Germany

Tiffany D. SandersUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Polly E. SandersonResearch Triangle InstituteResearch Triangle Park, North

Carolina

Scott W. SautterPeabody College, Vanderbilt


Robert F. SawickiLake Erie Institute of RehabilitationLake Erie, Pennsylvania

Patrick J. SchlossPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Ronald V. SchmelzerEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Carol S. SchmittEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Sue A. SchmittUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

Lyle F. SchoenfeldtTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Jacqueline S. SchonUniversity of KansasLawrence, Kansas

Eric SchoplerUniversity of North Carolina at


Fredrick A. SchrankOlympia, Washington

Louis SchwartzFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Adam J. SchwebachUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, Utah

Krista SchwenkUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

June ScobeeUniversity of Houston, Clear LakeHouston, Texas

Thomas E. ScruggsPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette, Indiana

Denise M. SedlakUnited Way of Dunn CountyMenomonie, Wisconsin

Robert A. SedlakUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomome, Wisconsin

Katherine D. SeelmanUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, Pennsylvania

John D. SeeUniversity of Wisconsin at StoutMenomonie, Wisconsin

CONTRIBUTORSxx

Sandra B. SexsonEmory University School of MedicineAtlanta, Georgia

Susan ShandelmierEastern Pennsylvania Special

Education Regional Resources Center

King of Prussia, Pennsylvania

Alison ShanerUniversity of North Carolina at


Deborah A. ShanleyMedgar Evers College, City

University of New YorkNew York, New York

William J. ShawUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Susan M. SheridanUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Naoji ShimizuTokyo Gakujei UniversityTokyo, Japan

Ludmila ShipitsinaInternational University for Family

and ChildRussia

Edward A. ShirkeyNew Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces, New Mexico

Gerald L. ShookBehavior Analyst Certifi cation BoardTallahassee, Florida

Dakum ShownUniversity of JosJos, Nigeria

Almon ShumbaUniversity of KwaZulu-NatalSouth Africa

Lawrence J. SiegelUniversity of Texas Medical BranchGalveston, Texas

Rosanne K. SilbermanHunter College, City University of


Brandi SimonsenUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut

Lissen SimonsenUniversity of North Carolina at


Paul T. SindelarFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Jennie Kaufman SingerCalifornia Department of

Corrections, Region 1 Parole Outpatient Clinic

Sacramento, California

Jerry L. SloanWilmington Psychiatric AssociatesWilmington, North Carolina

Julie E. SmartUtah State UniversityLogan, Utah

Craig D. SmithGeorgia CollegeMilledgeville, Georgia

E. S. SmithUniversity of DundeeDundee, Scotland

Maureen A. SmithPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Judy Smith-DavisCounterpoint Communications

CompanyReno, Nevada

Latha V. SooryaBinghamton UniversityThe Institute for Child DevelopmentBinghamton, New York

Cesar Merino SotoUniversity Privada San Juan

BautistaLima, Peru

Jane SparksUniversity of North Carolina at


Barbara S. SpeerShaker Heights City School DistrictShaker Heights, Ohio

Harrison C. StantonLas Vegas, Nevada

Shari A. StantonLas Vegas, Nevada

J. Todd StephensUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Bernie SteinTel Aviv, Israel

Cecelia Steppe-JonesNorth Carolina Central UniversityDurham, North Carolina

Linda J. StevensUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Rachael J. StevensonBedford, Ohio

Mary E. StinsonUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosa, Alabama

Roberta C. StokesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Doretha McKnight StoneUniversity of North Carolina at


Eric A. StorchUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Laura M. StoughTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Michael L. StoweTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Edythe A. StrandUniversity of Wisconsin at MadisonMadison, Wisconsin

Elaine StringerUniversity of North Carolina at


Dorothy A. StromBall State UniversityIndiana University School of

MedicineMuncie, Indiana

Sheela StuartGeorgia Washington UniversityWashington, DC

Sue StubbsSave the Children FundLondon, England

George SugaiUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut

Jeremy R. SullivanUniversity of Texas at San AntonioSan Antonio, Texas

Kathryn A. SullivanBranson School OnlineBranson, Colorado

Shelley SuntupCalifornia School of Professional


Emily G. SutterUniversity of Houston, Clear LakeHouston, Texas

Lana Svien-SenneUniversity of South DakotaVermillion, South Dakota

H. Lee SwansonUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

David SweeneyTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Mark E. SwerdlikIllinois State UniversityNormal, Illinois

Thomas G. SzaboWestern Michigan UniversityKalamazoo, Michigan

Henri B. SzliwowskiHôpital Erasme, Université Libre de

BruxellesBrussels, Belgium

Pearl E. TaitFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Paula TallalUniversity of California, San DiegoSan Diego, California

Mary K. TallentTexas Tech UniversityLubbock, Texas

C. Mildred TashmanCollege of St. RoseAlbany, New York

James W. TawneyPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Joseph R. TaylorFresno Pacifi c UniversityFresno, California

Therese TchombeUniversity of Yaounde 1Cameroon

Ellen A. TeelucksinghUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Tirussew TeferraAddis Ababa UniversityEthiopia

Cathy F. TelzrowKent State UniversityKent, Ohio

Yolanda TenorioCalifornia State University, San


Carol Chase ThomasUniversity of North Carolina at


Jo ThomasonCouncil of Administrators of Special

EducationFort Valley, Georgia

Bruce ThompsonTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Spencer ThompsonThe University of Texas of the


Sage ThorntonUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Eva TidemanLund UniversityLund, Sweden

Steven R. TimmermansMary Free Bed Hospital and

Rehabilitation CenterGrand Rapids, Michigan

Gerald TindalUniversity of OregonEugene, Oregon

Francine TomkinsUniversity of CincinnatiCincinnati, Ohio

Carol Tomlinson-KeaseyUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Rachel M. ToplisFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

CONTRIBUTORSxxii

Keith. J. ToppingUniversity of DundeeDundee, Scotland

Raymond ToraillePublic EducationParis, France

Jose Luis TorresTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Stanley O. TrentUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville, Virginia

David M. TuckerAustin, Texas

Timothy L. TurcoLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, Louisiana

Lori E. UnruhEastern Kentucky UniversityRichmond, Kentucky

Susan M. UnruhUniversity of KansasWichita, Kansas

Marilyn UrquhartUniversity of South DakotaVermillion, South Dakota

Cynthia VailFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Greg ValcanteUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Hubert B. VanceEast Tennessee State UniversityJohnson City, Tennessee

Aryan Van Der LeijFree UniversityAmsterdam, The Netherlands

Heather S. VandykeFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

K. Sandra VantaCleveland Public SchoolsCleveland, Ohio

Rebeccas VaurioAustin, Texas

Don ViglioneCalifornia School of Professional


Judith K. VoressPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Emily WahlenHunter College, City University of


Christy M. WalcottEast Carolina UniversityGreenville, North Carolina

Deborah Klein WalkerHarvard UniversityCambridge, Massachusetts

Donna WallaceThe University of Texas of the


Raoul WallenbergInternational University for Family

and ChildRussia

Marjorie E. WardThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, Ohio

Nicole R. WarnygoraUniversity of Northern ColoradoGreeley, Colorado

Sue Allen WarrenBoston UniversityBoston, Massachusetts

John WassermanThe Riverside Publishing CompanyItasca, Illinois

Sharine WebberLaramie County School District #1Cheyenne, Wyoming

Lauren WebsterUniversity of North Carolina at


Danny WeddingMarshall UniversityHuntington, Virginia

Frederick F. WeinerPennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Marjorie Weintraub Montgomery County Intermediate UnitNorristown, Pennsylvania

Bahr WeissUniversity of North Carolina at


Shirley Parker WellsUniversity of North Carolina at


Louise H. WerthFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

Catherine WetzburgerHôpital Erasme, Université Libre de

BruxellesBrussels, Belgium

Jessi K. WheatleyFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

Larry J. WheelerSouthwest Texas State UniversitySan Marcos, Texas

Annika WhiteUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Susie WhitmanImmune Defi ciency FoundationTowson, Maryland

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Thomas M. WhittenFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, Florida

J. Lee WiederholtPRO-ED, Inc.Austin, Texas

Lisa WildmoBryan, Texas

Saul B. WilenMedical Horizons UnlimitedSan Antonio, Texas

Greta N. WilkeningChildren’s HospitalDenver, Colorado

C. WilliamsFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

L. WilliamsFalcon School District 49Colorado Springs, Colorado

Mary Clare WilliamsRamey, Pennsylvania

Diane J. WillisUniversity of Oklahoma Health

Sciences CenterOklahoma City, Oklahoma

John O. WillisRivier CollegeNashua, New Hampshire

Victor L. WillsonTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

John D. WilsonElwyn InstitutesElwyn, Pennsylvania

Margo E. WilsonLexington, Kentucky

Kelly WinkelsUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida

Britt L. WinterWestern Michigan UniversityKalamazoo, Michigan

Joseph C. WittLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, Louisiana

Bencie WollUniversity of BristolBristol, England

Bernice Y. L. WongSimon Fraser UniversityBuraby, British Columbia

Mary M. WoodUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, Georgia

Diane E. WoodsWorld Rehabilitation FundNew York, New York

Lee L. WoodsUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Frances F. WorchelTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Patricia WorkUniversity of South DakotaVermillion, South Dakota

Eleanor Boyd WrightUniversity of North Carolina at


Logan WrightUniversity of OklahomaNorman, Oklahoma

Karen F. WycheHunter College, City University of


Martha Ellen WynneLoyola University, ChicagoChicago, Illinois

James E. YsseldykeUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, Minnesota

Roland K. YoshidaFordham UniversityNew York, New York

Thomas ZaneJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, Maryland

Ronald ZellnerTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, Texas

Lonnie K. ZeltzerUniversity of Texas Health Sciences


Paul M. ZeltzerUniversity of Texas Health Sciences


Xinhua ZhengUniversity of California, RiversideRiverside, California

Walter A. ZilzBloomsburg UniversityBloomsburg, Pennsylvania

Kenneth A. ZychWalter Reed Army Medical CenterWashington, DC

xxv

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

It has been 20 years since we fi rst set foot on the journey that has become the third edition of the Encyclopedia of Special Education. If someone has told us then that we would end up chronicling the evolution of special education, we probably would not have believed him or her. It was enough, at that time, to have created the fi rst Encyclopedia of Special Edu-cation; nearly 2,000 pages, thousands of entries, and more than 400 authors coming together to cement this fl edgling fi eld that was full of hope and imagination.

So, here we are more than 20 years later, near the end of our guardianship of the Encyclopedia. It is our old friend, and it has been our mentor, our judge, and our inspiration. During the editing of the second and third editions, we are well aware of how life, research, and standards have changed for those of us who practice in special education. It is an interesting process to look back and see how the Encyclopedia has changed over the years and how it has really provided a mirror of the zeitgeist of the times in which we live.

The fi rst edition was full of new ideas such as profi le analysis, direct instruction, and terms such as “trainable” and “educable.” The fi eld had license to imagine and try ways to rewire the brain that was having trouble in school. Not so now! The third edition clearly marks the federal and state demands for evidence- based practices, perhaps refl ecting the end of imagination and the beginning of an era of proof or accountability. Hence, we see behavioral terms and behavioral- oriented credentials enjoying resurgence because they allow for documentation of behaviors that are easy to observe. Accountability is a force to be noticed as it infi ltrates and guides current practice.

The fi rst edition was full of laws that were still new and somewhat unexplored: We were still trying to inter-pret Public Law 94- 142! Now we have visited those laws, reauthorized (and revised) them many times, and joined them with support such as the ADA and Technology acts. Individuals with disabilities have never enjoyed the protec-tions of as many laws and regulations as we have today. There are also so many more consumer protection groups and organizations around today that fi ght for the rights of those who have disabilities. In fact, current beliefs about advocacy are also focusing on assisting full participation by the individual with the disability in planning and transi-tions. Years ago, parents got together and had to forge an

organization and eventually laws that gave their children the right to an appropriate education. Their voices were heard and their legacy has been grand indeed as we see the very same children advocating for themselves.

The advocacy network that surrounds special education students today is vast, connected, and accessible. The Inter-net has exponentially changed the individual’s abilities to learn about support organizations and to reach out to others who have similar concerns and conditions. This movement is not just on a national level, the World Health Organiza-tion is rallying the international community to connect the daily living experiences of individuals with disabilities in the International Classifi cation of Functioning, Disability, and Health. This classifi cation system was designed to describe the individual with a disability, not just to classify the dis-ability itself. Indeed, we remember that in the fi rst edition of the Encyclopedia, it was acceptable to label individuals via the disability; therefore, individuals with Schizophrenia were schizophrenics and individuals with Mental Retarda-tion were the mentally retarded. The disability came fi rst and the individual came second. In the second edition of the Encyclopedia, we remember stressing heavily with all of our editors and authors that all language referring to clinical populations would have to refl ect the individual fi rst and his or her handicapping condition second. This was a major literary turn at the time!

Many years ago, special education students were all too often relegated to isolated classrooms in secluded areas of school buildings. Not so now. The third edition (and some-what in the second edition) of the Encyclopedia fully refl ects that concepts such as “mainstreaming” are now archaic. Inclusion is the rule unless it is not in the best interests of the student. Disability and ability now live side by side. Humanness is central and our similarities outweigh our differences, even in special education.

The three editions of the Encyclopedia have also refl ected the evolution of test construction and interpretation. The level of psychometric design is outstanding right now. Con-sumers have come to enjoy new tests that have specifi city, such as tests about executive functions, trauma, study skills, and so on. The major broadband assessment batteries that measure cognitive abilities and psychological constructs are excellent, theory- based measures that have imaginative and careful design. Therefore, our ability to include well-

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITIONxxvi

designed tools in the assessment process has never been bet-ter. The third edition of the Encyclopedia catalogues many new tests and revisions of old and true instruments.

The demand for “countable” accountability of special education outcomes is upon these days. For the past 20 years, the Encyclopedia refl ected exploration, and now ex-ploration is passé and counting and demanding results is the zeitgeist of the times. Renegades as we are, we have included more and more neuropsychological principles and terms into the various editions of the Encyclopedia as we have paid homage to the vast mystery of the human brain and personality that will most likely never be reduced down to accountable facts. Herein lies the rub for those with in-terests in brain- behavior relationships, the very thing that we seek is unattainable and therein provides continuous wonder, curiosity, and frustration! We are confi dent that the most important aspect of future research that seeks to improve the daily lives of children with disabilities lies in the study of the brain and its relationship to learning and daily living skills. This process will always be a study of one, and not given to group statistics. Therefore, regardless of the political zeitgeist, we have expressed our desire to support clinical excellence throughout the third edition of the En-cyclopedia and minimize old ideas that have been parceled out as new and redesigned to fi t ends that are not apolitical. The original Encyclopedia was bursting with curiosity and wonder about a new fi eld. We wish to maintain this tribute in the current edition and support the continued innocence of true scientifi c exploration.

So, what is new in the third edition of the Encyclopedia? Very little information these days is entirely new; however, there are some entries that refl ect a resurgence or future di-rections, such as Response to Intervention, Highly Qualifi ed Teachers, Diffusion Tensor Imaging, and Positive Behavior Supports. Tom Oakland, our “International Special Educa-tion entries” Contributing Editor provided us with many en-tries from new areas of the world such as Estonia, Albania, sub- Saharan Africa, and other exciting places refl ecting his expertise in international special education and the trend of professionals to think more globally these days.

All of the laws and legal entries were completely and competently updated by our Contributing Editor, Kimberly Applequist, JD. The fi nal regulations for the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 are not out at this time and so the exact nature of the guide-lines is not known, but we look forward to seeing how they take shape. Randall DePry updated many entries related to teaching and behavioral supports and provided new en-tries on the exacting process of applied behavior analysis. Lee Swanson focused on entries pertaining to the latest developments in reading and reading remediation. These entries will provide the reader with the most up-to-date information on a topic that is being urgently stressed all over the United States at this time. His expertise is very evident in these entries.

Rachel Toplis spent many hours updating information on organizations and journals so the readers will be able to get current information that they can apply immediately. She also wrote to all of the biographees and asked what they had been up to for the past few years. It was nice to have contact with them again.

Ron Zellner and Cynthia Riccio were Contributing Edi-tors hailing from Texas A&M University who provided us with current information on technology, assistive, devices, and current trends in special education guidelines. Contrib-uting Editor Sam Goldstein brought us up to date on the latest imaging devices that are assisting in the investigation of autism spectrum disorders, reading interventions, and learning in general. In addition, James Kaufman had a very creative time refreshing entries on theories of creativity and intelligence; the reader will enjoy his unique perspectives on these topics. Last but not least, the Drs. Ron Dumont and John Willis provided a completely new thread of reviews of standardized assessments throughout the Encyclopedia; their expertise in assessment reviews are legendary and we are please to have them as part of our effort.

Please allow us to apologize to our authors if their affi li-ations or names have changed over the past 20 years and the most recent changes are not incorporated into the third edition. We have tried to keep up with the changes but are sure that we have missed a few and promise to remediate in future editions! We also had to make editorial decisions about giving credit where credit was due for updates of en-tries. Therefore, the reader will notice that we have taken painstaking efforts to list the authors and to which editions they contributed. In some cases, an entry needed some tiny editing and in that case, Cecil and Elaine took tiny liberties and corrected dates or added a current reference here and there. We, again, apologize if our tiny contributions were bigger than the author would wish. In most of these cases, the article was so well written it would have been a waste of time to try to rewrite.

There are, as usual, many individuals to thank for as-sisting with the creating and preparation of this volume of work. First, let us thank the contributing editors to the previous and current editions. These individuals took on the responsibilities of looking at where the fi eld has been and where it is going in their respective areas of expertise. They then shepherded many authors into taking on smaller parts to refl ect important aspects of the basics and document-ing growth. Without their commitment and dedication, we would be bereft of hope for a renovation of this size of work! We would also like to thank the individual authors for their cheerful attitude and dedication to their contributions: They are representatives of the best the fi eld has to offer and we are very grateful for their efforts.

Cecil would like to thank Julia, as he does so untiringly, for her support in so many ways, and his long- deceased Dad, who gave him the gift of a model of service. Elaine would like to take this opportunity to thank David, Emma,

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION xxvii

and Leif for putting up with her being obsessed one more time; and her father, Peter C. Fletcher, who has modeled insatiable curiosity and a love of life’s work that will stay with her always.

Lastly, we would like to thank the editors at John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Tracey Belmont and Lisa Gebo for their supervi-

sion of the work, and publisher Peggy Alexander for making a lifetime commitment to this endeavor. What started as a description of the fi eld of special education became a history of special education and a chronicle of its life and times. We have been honored to witness this process and, as always, look forward to future growth.

Documents

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Special Education...THIRD EDITION VOLUME 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Special Education A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and