English Historical Linguistics · 2017. 6. 2. · English and structure of modern English). She has (co-)edited three col-lections of papers as well as a two-volume handbook of historical

Cambridge University Press978-1-107-11364-0 — English Historical LinguisticsEdited by Laurel J. Brinton FrontmatterMore Information

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English Historical Linguistics

Approaches and Perspectives

Written by an international team of leading scholars, this engaging text-

book on the study of English historical linguistics is uniquely organized in

terms of theoretical approaches and perspectives. Each chapter features

textboxes, case studies, suggestions for further reading, and exercises,

enabling students to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each

approach and guiding them on undertaking further research. The case

studies and exercises guide students in approaching and manipulating

empirical data, providing them with hands-on experience of conducting

linguistic research. An extensive variety of approaches, from traditional to

contemporary, is treated, including generative approaches, historical

sociolinguistic and pragmatic approaches, psycholinguistic perspectives,

grammaticalization theory, and discourse-based approaches, as well as

perspectives on standardization and language variation. Each chapter

applies the concepts discussed to data from the history of English, and a

glossary of key terms enables easy navigation and quick cross-referencing.

An essential resource for advanced undergraduate and graduate students of

the history of English linguistics.

laurel j. brinton is the (co-)author of four scholarly books (and one

forthcoming) and the (co-)author of two textbooks (in the history of

English and structure of modern English). She has (co-)edited three col-

lections of papers as well as a two-volume handbook of historical linguis-

tics (2,312 pages, 70+ authors). She was co-editor of the Journal of

Historical Pragmatics and is currently co-editor of English Language

and Linguistics. She is a recipient of a Killam Research Prize and

a Killam Research Fellowship.

www.cambridge.org/9781107113640

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English HistoricalLinguisticsApproaches and perspectives

Edited by

LAUREL J . BRINTON

University of British Columbia,

Vancouver


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© Laurel J. Brinton 2017

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Contents

List of Figures page ix

List of Tables xi

List of Case Studies xiii

List of Contributors xv

List of Abbreviations xx

1 The Study of English Historical Linguistics 1

laurel j. brinton

Introduction 1

A Short History of English Historical Linguistics 2

Overview of Chapters 3

Excursus on Periodization 9

2 The Scope of English Historical Linguistics 12

raymond hickey

Introduction 12

Language Change: Models and Processes 13

The Techniques of Historical Linguistics 24

Transmission and Propagation of Change 30

Change and the Sound System of English 33

Concluding Remarks 38

Suggestions for Further Study 38

Exercises 39

3 Generative Approaches 42

cynthia l. allen

Introduction 42

The Development of the Generative Approach 43

Generative Approaches to Linguistic Change 45

Generative Approaches to Variation 58

Optimality Theory in Generative Historical

Linguistics 62



Exercises 66

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4 Psycholinguistic Perspectives 70

martin hilpert

Introduction 70

Psychological Processes in Language Change 72

How do Linguistic Theories Incorporate These

Processes? 91



Exercises 94

5 Corpus-based Approaches: Watching English Change 96

marianne hundt and anne-christine gardner

Introduction 96

Overview of Historical Corpora of English 98

Corpus Methodology 102

Case Studies 104



Exercises 126

Appendix 128

6 Approaches to Grammaticalization and Lexicalization 131

lieselotte brems and sebastian hoffmann

Introduction 131

Data and Methodology 137

Case Studies 139



Exercises 155

7 Inferential-based Approaches 158

marıa jose lopez-couso

Introduction 158

The Role of Pragmatic Inferencing in Semantic Change 159

Subjectification and Intersubjectification 163

Case Studies 171



Exercises 182

8 Discourse-based Approaches 185

claudia claridge

Introduction 185

The Roles of Discourse in Language History and Change 187

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Researching Historical Discourse: Approaches 192

Researching Historical Discourse: Challenges 193

Case Studies 195



Exercises 213

9 Sociohistorical Approaches 218

peter j. grund

Introduction 218

Definitions and Concepts 219

Source Material and “Bad Data” 223

Social Factors 225

Case Studies 230



Exercises 240

10 Historical Pragmatic Approaches 245

laurel j. brinton

Introduction 245

The Field of Historical Pragmatics 246

Data and Methods in Historical Pragmatics 253

Case Studies 258



Exercises 270

11 Perspectives on Standardization: From Codification to

Prescriptivism 276

ingrid tieken-boon van ostade

Introduction 276

Tracing the Roots of Prescriptivism 279

The Birth of the Usage Guide 288



Exercises 301

12 Perspectives on Geographical Variation 303

merja stenroos

Studying Variation 303

The Evidence of Variation in Historical English 306

Approaches to Variation in the History of English 312

Case Studies 318

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Concluding Remarks: Why Study Variation in the Past? 327


Exercises 329

13 Perspectives on Language Contact 332

edgar w. schneider

Introduction: “Purity” versus Contact in the History of

English 332

Language Contact and English: a Survey 334

Case Studies 338

Concluding Remarks: Contact Englishes in the Future 357


Exercises 358

References 360

Glossary of Terms 393

Index 405

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Figures

2.1 Linked development of features over time page 30

2.2 S-curve as model of language change 31

2.3 Movement of long vowels in the early Great Vowel Shift 34

4.1a Child receiving drink 76

4.1b Child watering flower 76

5.1 The Brown family of corpora 101

5.2 Proportion of indicative was and subjunctive were in the protasis

of conditional clauses with third person singular subjects

in Late Modern English 107

5.3 Proportion of indicative was and subjunctive were (following

first- and third-person singular subjects) in the protasis

of conditional clauses in the Brown family of corpora 108

5.4 Proportion of periphrastic constructions and mandative subjunctives

in the Brown family of corpora 109

5.5 Proportion of periphrastic constructions and mandative subjunctives

following forms of require in COHA 111

5.6 Relative frequency of subjunctives and alternative verb patterns

following (up)on (the) condition (that) in Late Modern BrE and

AmE 114


following (up)on (the) condition that in the last three decades of

COHA 115


following (up)on (the) condition (that) in twentieth-century BrE

and AmE 115

5.9 Token frequency of deadjectival formations in -ity in Middle

English by subperiod 118

5.10 Total type count and new types of deadjectival formations in -ity

in Middle English by subperiod 119

5.11 Token frequency of deadjectival -hood in Middle English by

subperiod 121

5.12 Total type count and new types of deadjectival -hood in Middle

English by subperiod 121

5.13 Normalized frequencies of deadjectival -hood and -ness during

the most productive phase of -hood 122

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5.14 New types in deadjectival -hood and -ness during the most

productive phase of -hood 122

6.1 Frequency of methinks/methought written as one or two

orthographic words in EEBO 143

6.2 Two possible syntactic representations of the complex

preposition in front of 145

6.3 The number of occurrences of in terms of in the OED quotations 149

7.1 Like-parentheticals in COCA 175

8.1 Languages used in discourse 188

9.1 Thou and you in Middle English 231

9.2 Percentage of thou (in relation to you) in each genre

in forty-year periods, 1560–1760 233

10.1a Text excerpt from The Old Bailey Proceedings Online 257

10.1b Page image from The Old Bailey Proceedings Online 257

10.2 Occurrences of you see constructions 265

11.1 Grammar production (new titles and reprints) from the earliest

English grammar down to the end of the eighteenth century 282

11.2 A copy of an early London edition of Fenn’s Child’s Grammar

(8x12 cms) 284

11.3 Title pages of (a) Hurd (1847) and (b) the anonymous Five Hundred

Mistakes of Daily Occurrence (1856) 292

12.1 Forms of “them” in Staffordshire, 1375–1450 314

12.2 Forms of “them” in Staffordshire, 1375–1450: a simplified

version of Figure 12.1 315

12.3 Forms of the third-person plural pronoun in the LALME material

for Kent 320

12.4 Forms of the third-person plural pronoun in the fifteenth-century

LALME material for Kent 321

12.5 The chronological development by royal dynasty of four northern

features 325

13.1 Viking raiders 340

13.2 Harold’s death at the battle of Hastings (as depicted in the Bayeux

Tapestry) 343

13.3 The Treaty of Waitangi, on display in the National Archive

in Wellington 348

13.4 Singapore’s new Marina Bay area 350

13.5 AWest African urban market 354

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Tables

2.1 The Germanic Sound Shift/ Grimm’s Law page 14

2.2 Effects of regularization (analogical leveling) of s ~ r variation

in English and German 20

2.3 Process of grammaticalization 21

2.4 Palatalization and i-umlaut in Old English 28

2.5 Vowel shortenings in the history of English 29

2.6 Great Vowel Shift and French loans 29

2.7 Latin /w/ and /v/ 29

2.8 Unraveling sound changes to arrive at original forms 33

2.9 Overview of the Great Vowel Shift 34

2.10 Realization of interdental fricatives in varieties

of English 36

3.1 Negation in the history of English 56

3.2 Optimality in Language B 63

3.3 Optimality in Language A 63

4.1 Characteristics of the modal auxiliaries 74

4.2 Mapping in a conceptual metaphor 84

4.3 Examples of metonymic mappings 84

5.1 Variant complement patterns of start and begin 103

5.2 Proportion of periphrastic constructions with should versus mandative

subjunctives in ARCHER 111

5.3 Mandative subjunctives and should-periphrasis

in COHA (1901±3) 112

5.4 Productive periods of three deadjectival suffixes

in Middle English 117

5.5 Regional distribution of new derivatives in -hood and -ness

in the late thirteenth century and first half of the fourteenth century

(EMidE IV–V) 123

6.1 Stages of development of instead of 147

6.2 Stages of development of in place of 147

7.1 Semantic development of while from Old English to Present-day

English 177

8.1 The development of it-clefts 197

8.2 Three dimensions of style 200

8.3 Lexicon and style 205

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9.1 Models of social stratification 227

10.1 The subfields of historical pragmatics 247

10.2 A partial listing of genre-specific corpora 255

10.3 Sample search result for well from The Old Bailey Corpus 256

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Case Studies

Case studies of change and the sound system of English

The Great Vowel Shift 33

H in the History of English 35

Interdental Fricatives 35

L- and R-sounds 36

Dialectal Forms in Standard English 37

Case studies of generative approaches

Case Study: Modal verbs 49

Case Study: Clausal Negation 55

Case Study: The Story of Do 60

Case studies of corpus-based approaches

Morphosyntactic Change: The Subjunctive from Early Modern to

Present-Day English 104

Lexical Change: The Development of Suffixation in Middle English 116

Case studies of grammaticalization and lexicalization

A Prototypical Grammaticalized Construction: While 139

Methinks – Lexicalization or Grammaticalization? 142

Complex Prepositions 144

Case studies of inferential-based approaches

Modal Verbs: From Deontic to Epistemic 171

Epistemic/Evidential Like-Parentheticals 173

Clause Connectives: From time to the ccc Domain 176

The Development of Expletives: Jesus! and Gee! 179

Case studies of discourse-based approaches

Discourse-oriented Diachronic Approach: Information Packaging

and Syntactic Options 195

Diachronic(ally oriented) Discourse Analysis: Style Shifts and

Tendencies 199

Historical (and Diachronic) Discourse Analysis: Focus on the

Genre of Letters 205

Case studies of sociohistorical approaches

Pronominal Usage: Thou and You 230

H-dropping 236

Case studies of historical pragmatic approaches

Performative Verbs and Speech Acts 258

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Comment Clauses 263

Case studies of geographical variation

Dealing with Data: They and Hy in Kent 318

The Study of Local Documents 323

Studying Sound and Spelling: Wh- 325

Case studies of language contact

Early Vernacular Contact and Grammar 338

Borrowing Ornate Vocabulary: French and Latin Loans 341

The Birth of a New Extraterritorial Variety – New Zealand English 346

Singlish – The Birth of a New Vernacular 349

Nigerian Pidgin English 352

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Contributors

Cynthia L. Allen is a Fellow Emerita at the Australian National University, where

she taught courses in Linguistics and History of English until her retirement in 2015.

She is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities in recognition of her

work in the history of English morphosyntax. She has authored two monographs

examining the loss of case marking in English and its relationship with syntactic

changes. She has recently contributed chapters to English Historical Linguistics:

An International Handbook (2012) and The Cambridge Handbook of English

Historical Linguistics (2016) and contributed the entry on Middle English to the

Online Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. She is a co-founder and current

editorial board member of the series Studies in Language Change and serves on the

editorial board of the series Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics. For

more information, see https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/allen-cl

Lieselotte Brems is Associate Professor of English language and linguistics at the

University of Liège and Research Fellow at the KU Leuven. Her research interests

include grammaticalization and (inter)subjectification, specifically within the

English noun phrase. She has published a monograph on size and type noun con-

structions, e.g., a bunch of lies and a quirky type of love song, which discusses the

synchronic functional variation of these constructions and argues for this being

the result of grammaticalization processes (Layering of Size and Type Noun

Constructions in English, 2011). Recent research looks at nominal complementation

constructions in which negation markers interact with a set of nouns that synchroni-

cally layer lexical and (epistemic, deontic, and mirative) modal meanings, e.g., no

doubt/question/fear/wonder that/of. For further information, see www.arts.kuleuven

.be/ling/func/members/lieselotte-brems

Laurel J. Brinton is a Professor of English Language in the Department of English

at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Her research interests include

grammaticalization and lexicalization, historical pragmatics, phrasal verbs and com-

posite predicates, and verbal aspect. In addition to two textbooks (on the structure of

Modern English [co-authored with Donna M. Brinton] and on the History of English

[co-authored with Leslie K. Arnovick]), she has authored four monographs: on

comment clauses, on pragmatic markers, on verbal aspect, and on lexicalization (co-

authored with Elizabeth Closs Traugott). Most recently she co-edited Studies in the

History of the English Language IV with Michael Adams and R. D. Fulk (2014) and

the two-volume English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook with

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Alexander Bergs (2012). She is co-editor of the journal English Language and

Linguistics (Cambridge University Press). For further information, see faculty.arts

.ubc.ca/lbrinton/

Claudia Claridge is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Augsburg,

Germany. Her research interests include Early Modern English, (historical) prag-

matics, figurative language, text linguistics, subordinate clauses, intensifiers, and

verb and adjective usage. She is one of the compilers of the Lampeter Corpus of Early

Modern English (1640–1740). She has authored two monographs (Multi-word Verbs

in Early Modern English, 2000, and Hyperbole in English, Cambridge University

Press, 2011) and co-edited two volumes (Developments in English: Expanding

Electronic Evidence, 2014, with Irma Taavitsainen, Merja Kytö, and Jeremy Smith,

and Fiasko: Scheitern in der frühen Neuzeit, 2015, with S. Brakensiek). She has

contributed articles on historical corpora, historical registers and genres, pragmati-

calization, news discourse, and lying vs. hyperbole/metaphor to various recent hand-

books. For further information, see philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/anglistik/

sprachwissenschaft/1-staff/claridge

Anne-Christine Gardner is currently a research and teaching assistant in the

English Department at the University of Zurich. After studying at the Ruprecht-

Karls-Universität Heidelberg and Newcastle University, she received her PhD in

2013 from the University of Zurich with a corpus-based investigation of regional and

text type variation in Middle English word formation. Her postdoctoral research

project aims at conducting a linguistic analysis of selected diaries written by Lady

Mary Hamilton (1756–1816) between 1776 and 1797, contextualizing her linguistic

profile through social network analysis and corpus-linguistic case studies.

The project also involves preparing transliterations of selected diary entries for

a digital edition working with TEI-conformant XML mark-up. Her wider research

interests also include the development of the English lexicon, and language contact

and pragmatics.

Peter J. Grund is Associate Professor of English Language Studies at the University

of Kansas. He is the author of Misticall Wordes and Names Infinite: An Edition and

Study of Humfrey Lock’s Treatise on Alchemy (2011). Together with Merja Kytö and

TerryWalker, he is the co-author of Testifying to Language and Life in Early Modern

England, including a CD containing An Electronic Text Edition of Depositions

1560–1760 (ETED) (2011), and, as part of a twelve-member team, he co-edited

Records of the Salem Witch-hunt (Cambridge University Press, 2009, 2014). He also

serves as the co-editor of the Journal of English Linguistics. His interests include

English historical sociolinguistics and sociopragmatics, stance, evidentiality, and

speech representation in historical periods, and he has published extensively on

these topics. For further information, see english.ku.edu/peter-j-grund

Raymond Hickey is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Duisburg

and Essen, Germany. His main research interests are varieties of English (especially

Irish English and Dublin English), sociolinguistics, and general questions of

xvi List of Contributors


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language contact, variation, and change. Among his recent book publications are

Motives for Language Change (Cambridge University Press, 2003), Legacies of

Colonial English (Cambridge University Press, 2004), Dublin English: Evolution

and Change (2005), Irish English: History and Present-day Forms (Cambridge

University Press, 2007), The Handbook of Language Contact (2010), Eighteenth-

century English (Cambridge University Press, 2010), Areal Features of the

Anglophone World (2012), The Sound Structure of Modern Irish (2014),

Researching Northern English (2015), Sociolinguistics in Ireland (2016), and

Listening to the Past: Audio Records of Accents of English (Cambridge University

Press, 2016) For further information, see www.uni-due.de/~lan300/HICKEY.htm

Martin Hilpert is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Neuchâtel.

He holds a PhD in Linguistics from Rice University (2007). He conducted post-

doctoral research at the International Computer Science Institute in Berkeley and the

FRIAS (Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies). In 2012, he completed his

Habilitation Thesis in English Philology at the University of Freiburg. His research

interests include Construction Grammar, cognitive linguistics, language change, and

corpus linguistics. He is the author of Germanic Future Constructions (2008),

Constructional Change in English (Cambridge University Press, 2013), and

Construction Grammar and its Application to English (2014). He is one of the

editors of the journal Functions of Language. For further information, see members.

unine.ch/martin.hilpert/

Sebastian Hoffmann is Professor of English Linguistics at Trier University. He

received his doctoral degree from the University of Zurich, where he also worked for

several years as a postdoctoral researcher. Before moving to Trier, he spent three

years at Lancaster University (UK) as Lecturer in English Linguistics (2006–2009).

His research predominantly focuses on the application of usage-based approaches to

the study of language; recent research topics include: syntactic change (e.g.,

Grammaticalization and English Complex Prepositions: A Corpus-based Study,

2005), tag questions, the lexico-grammar of New Englishes, and corpus linguistic

methodology involving internet-derived data. He is a co-author of BNCweb, a user-

friendly web interface to the British National Corpus, which also forms the basis for

his textbook publication Corpus Linguistics with BNCweb: A Practical Guide (2008;

with S. Evert, N. Smith, D. Lee, and Y. Berglund-Prytz) For further information, see

www.uni-trier.de/index.php?id=29525

Marianne Hundt is Professor of English Linguistics at Zurich University. Her

research interests range from grammatical change in contemporary and late

Modern English to varieties of English as a first and second language (New

Zealand, British and American English; English in Fiji and South Asia) and language

in the Indian diaspora. She has been involved in the compilation of various electronic

corpora: the extension of the Brown family corpora and ARCHER, A Representative

Corpus of Historical English Registers (completed), and the Fiji component of the

International Corpus of English (ongoing). She has also explored the use of the

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World Wide Web as a corpus and for corpus building. She is the author of English

Mediopassive Constructions (2007) and New Zealand English Grammar – Fact or

Fiction? (1998) and co-author of Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical

Study (Cambridge University Press, 2009). She has edited various monographs, and

since 2013 has been co-editor of English World-Wide. For further information, see

www.es.uzh.ch/en/subsite/personal/mhundt.html

María José López-Couso is an Associate Professor at the University of Santiago de

Compostela and a member of the Research Unit for Variation, Linguistic Change and

Grammaticalization. Her research interests include morphosyntactic change and

grammaticalization and (inter)subjectification processes in the history of English.

She has published extensively on these topics and co-edited the following volumes:

English Historical Syntax and Morphology (2002; with Teresa Fanego and Javier

Pérez-Guerra), Rethinking Grammaticalization: New Perspectives (2008; with Elena

Seoane), Theoretical and Empirical Issues in Grammaticalization (2008; with Elena

Seoane), Information Structure and Syntactic Change in the History of English (2012;

with Anneli Meurman-Solin and Bettelou Los), and Corpus Linguistics on the Move:

Exploring and Understanding English through Corpora (2016; with Belén Méndez-

Naya, PalomaNúñez-Pertejo, and IgnacioM. Palacios-Martínez). She is also amember

of the Executive Board of ICAME (International Computer Archive of Modern and

Medieval English). For further information, see www.usc-vlcg.es/MXLC.htm

Edgar W. Schneider holds the Chair of English Linguistics at the University of

Regensburg, Germany. He is an internationally renowned sociolinguist and World

Englishes scholar, known widely for his “Dynamic Model” of the evolution of

Postcolonial Englishes. He has lectured on all continents, given many keynote lectures

at international conferences, and published many articles and books on the dialectol-

ogy, sociolinguistics, history, semantics, and varieties of English, including American

Earlier Black English (1989), Introduction to Quantitative Analysis of Linguistic

Survey Data (1996), Focus on the USA (1996), Englishes around the World (2 vols.,

1997),Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages (2000),Handbook of Varieties of

English (2 vols., 2004), and the Cambridge University Press books Postcolonial

English (2007) and English around the World (2011). For many years he edited the

journal EnglishWorld-Wide and its associated book series, Varieties of English Around

the World. For further information, see www.uni-regensburg.de/language-literature-

culture/english-linguistics/staff/schneider/index.html

Merja Stenroos is Professor of English Linguistics in the Department of Cultural

Studies and Languages at the University of Stavanger, Norway. She leads the Middle

English Scribal Texts Programme at Stavanger and is the main compiler of two

corpora of Middle English: the Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) and the

Middle English Local Documents Corpus (MELD). Her research interests include

historical sociolinguistics and pragmatics, historical dialect geography, medieval

literacy and text production as well as writing systems. Together with Inge

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Særheim and Martti Mäkinen, she edited the volume Language Contact and

Variation Around the North Sea (2012).

Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade has a chair in English Sociohistorical Linguistics

at the Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (Leiden, the Netherlands). She

specializes in the English standardization process (particularly in codification and

prescription), and is interested in the relationship between grammar rules and actual

usage. Her most recent books are An Introduction to Late Modern English (2009),

The Bishop’s Grammar: Robert Lowth and the Rise of Prescriptivism (2011) and

In Search of Jane Austen: The Language of the Letters (2014). She is the director of

the research project “Bridging the Unbridgeable: Linguists, Prescriptivists and the

General Public,” which studies English usage guides and usage problems, and is

writing a monograph on the English usage guide. A recent book is Prescription and

Tradition in Language: Establishing Standards across Time and Space, which she

co-edited with Carol Percy (2017).

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Abbreviations

General terms

AdvP adverb phrase

AmE American English

Aux auxiliary, auxiliary node

BrE British English

DAT dative

Det determiner

E-Language external language

EModE Early Modern English

FLB faculty of language in a broad sense

FLN faculty of language in a narrow sense

HUGE Hyper Usage Guide of English database

I inflection

IITSC Invited Inferencing Theory of Semantic Change

I-Language internal language

IP inflection phrase

LModE Late Modern English

M modal auxiliary

ME Middle English

MED Middle English Dictionary

N noun

Neg negative

NegP negative phrase

NOM nominative

NP noun phrase

OBJ object

ODNB The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

OE Old English

OED Oxford English Dictionary

OV object-verb word order

PDE Present-day English

PP prepositional phrase

SBJ subject

SV subject-verb word order

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SVO subject-verb-object word order

V (main) verb

V2 verb-second word order

VO verb-object word order

VP verb phrase

Corpora (for full information, see the Referencesat the end of the book)

AE06 American English 2006

ANC American National Corpus

ARCHER A Representative Corpus of Historical English

Registers 3.2

B-Brown The 1930s Brown Corpus

BE06 British English 2006

B-LOB The BLOB-1931 Corpus

BNC British National Corpus

Brown A Standard Corpus of Present-day Edited American

English

CED A Corpus of English Dialogues 1560–1760

CEEC Corpus of Early English Correspondence

CEECS Corpus of Early English Correspondence Sampler

(1418–1680)

CEEM Corpus of Early English Medical Writing (1375–1800)

CLMET Corpus of Late Modern English Texts

COCA The Corpus of Contemporary American English:

520 million words, 1990–present

COERP Corpus of English Religious Prose

COHA The Corpus of Historical American English:

400 million words, 1810–2009

COOEE Corpus of Oz Early English

DCPSE Diachronic Corpus of Present-day Spoken English

DOEWC Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus

EAF Early American Fiction Collection (1789–1875)

ECCO Eighteenth Century Collections Online

ED English Drama

EEBO Early English Books Online

EMEMT Early Modern English Medical Text

ETED An Electronic Text Edition of Depositions 1560–1760

FLOB Freiburg–LOB Corpus

Frown Freiburg–Brown Corpus

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HC The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts: Diachronic and

Dialectal

LAEME A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English, 1150–1325

LALME A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English

LC The Lampeter Corpus of Early Modern English Tracts

LOB Lancaster–Oslo–Bergen Corpus

MEG-C The Middle English Grammar Corpus

MELD Middle English Local Documents Corpus

NCF Nineteenth-century Fiction, 1782–1903

OBC The Old Bailey Corpus 2.0

PCEEC Parsed Corpus of Early English Correspondence

PPCEME2 The Penn–Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern

English

PPCME2 The Penn–Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Middle English

YCOE The York–Toronto–Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old

English Prose

York Poetry corpus The York–Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English

Poetry

xxii List of Abbreviations


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