ENHANCING Business Writing Skills

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Enhancing Business

Writing Skills


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Table of Contents

Module 1................................................ ......................................... ............................... ....... .... 5 1 Planning and constructing documents.................................................................................................5

1.1 The importance of written communication.........................................................5

Methods of communicating........................................................................................................5Value of the written word..........................................................................................................7Resistance to writing..................................................................................................................7Cultivate your writing skills.......................................................................................................7

1.2 Set the objective(s)..............................................................................................81.3 Purpose and Scope.............................................................. ....................... ...... ....... ....... 10 1.3.1 Purpose........................................................................................................................10 1.3.2 Scope............................................................................................................................10

1.4 Planning the document..............................................................................................................111.4.1 When following the planning process, you need to:...................................................11

1.4.2 State the purpose............................................................................................................ ........111.4.4 Gather required information ..................................................................................................14

Notes on drafting a questionnaire ........................................................................ .......... .....15

1.4.5 Analyse your information ............................................................................................ .........151.4.6 Determine the solution ....................................................................................................... ...161.4.7 Organise your document................................................................................................ ........17

Module 2................................................ ......................................... .............................. ...... .... 18 2.1 Mind Maps.........................................................................................................................................18

2.1.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................182.1.2 Drawing Basic Mind Maps........................................................................................ ....192.1.3 Improving your Mind Maps...........................................................................................20

2.2.1 Terms of Reference ...............................................................................................................212.2.4 Preliminary findings................................................................................................................232.2.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................242.2.6 Financial implications....................................................................................................... .....25

2.3 Tactics to get rid of writers block......................................................................................26

Module 3..................................................................................................................293.1. The foundations of your writing skills..............................................................29

The system focuses on four rules.............................................................................................29Its foundations are....................................................................................................................30

English a complex language.............................................................................................................30What you are up against learning English:......................................................... ..................... 30 H. Schultz v The New York Cleaning Department..................................................................313.2 Grammar...........................................................................................................................................33Education is when you read the fine print. Experience is what you get if you dont..............................343.2.3.2 Word use......................................................................................................................................36

Be precise, avoid jargon and clichs........................................................................................363.2.3.3 Useless words...............................................................................................................................37

3.2.3.4 Nice words...................................................................................................38 Nice man........................................................................................................... .......38 Nice food..................................................................................................................38 Nice flowers............................................................................................................ .38

3.2.3.5 Positive and negative words.........................................................................................................383.2.3.6 Dont use big words.....................................................................................................................413.2.3.7 When to use a BIG word..........................................................................................................413.2.4 Pomposity........................................................................................................................................42Creative pomposity...............................................................................................................................433.2.5 Verbs...............................................................................................................................................443.2.5.1 Active and Passive.......................................................................................................................44

Active voice.............................................................................................................................45Passive voice............................................................................................................................45Example....................................................................................................................................453.2.5.2 When to use the passive voice.....................................................................................45

3.2.6 Sentences.........................................................................................................................................47Major punctuation marks are . ? ! : ; -......................................................................................47Minor punctuation marks are , ( ) ........................................................................ .......47Sentence length........................................................................................................................47

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Sentence structure................................................................................................................473.2.7 Paragraphs.......................................................................................................................................48

3.2.7.1 Signposts......................................................................................................................483.2.8 Punctuation......................................................................................................................................50Option 1......................................... ......................................... ............................... ....... ....... ... 56 Option 2......................................... ......................................... ............................... ....... ....... ... 56 4 Producing documents which are clear, effective and professional................................................ ......574.1 Ambiguity..........................................................................................................................................57

4.2 Choosing the correct tone.................................................................................................58 4.3.6 Ten principles for effective writing.................................................................................................63..................................................................................................................................................................645.1 Inter-office memos.............................................................................................................................655.2 Letters.................................................................................................................................................675.2.1 Structure of a letter.........................................................................................................................675.2.2 Business letter examples.................................................................................................................71Example:..................................................................................................................................................735.2.2.3 Responding to an enquiry/request for information......................................................................74

5.2.5 Exercise...................................................................................................................................83Decide what type of complaint the following complaints are and choose one that you are going torespond to in writing........................................................................................................................831.Your customer complained that another customer received a reduced rate, but he paid the full

price. He insists to also pay the reduced rate............................................................................. ......834.A very rude customer complains about a rude staff member........................................................835.A customer complains that one staff member made a promise and another now says that the

promise cant be fulfilled as its against the policy..........................................................................83The closest to perfection a person ever comes is when he fills out a job application form.....................90Leads to action.......................................................................................................................91Gets to the point...................................................... ..................................... ....... ...... ....... ...... 91Is user friendly........................................................................................................................915.4.2 Informal reports...............................................................................................................................92

5.4.2.1 Layout of an informal report: example...................................................................... .........935.4.2.2 Language and tone of informal reports................................................................................93

5.4.3 Proposed structure of final report...................................................................................................98Report writing - example of an executive summary................................................................................99

Purpose.....................................................................................................................................................99Methodology................................................................................................................................99Findings........................................................................................................................................99Conclusion &...............................................................................................................................99Recommendations........................................................................................................................99

5.4.5 Example of a structure of a business plan ..................................................................100 Executive summary........................................................................ ............... ....... ....... ...... ... 100 Introduction and background................................................................................................100 Business outline....................................................................................................................100 Data gathering......................................................................................................................100 Operations............................................... ......................................... .................... ....... ....... .. 101Financial..................................... ......................................... ........................... ....... ...... ....... .. 101Risk / reward assessment.....................................................................................................101

5.4.6 Financial and statistical reports ............................................................................................1015.4.6.1 Numbers.............................................................................................................................102

Comparison the key to understanding.............................................................................102Columns.............................................................................................................................102Decimals.............................................................................................................................102Consistency........................................................................................................................102Diagrams............................................................................................................................103Colours...............................................................................................................................103...........................................................................................................................................104

5.4.7.2 Guidelines for writing an effective prcis..........................................................................104Original document..............................................................................................................105Action: underline key words or ideas.................................................................................105

Action: write note-form summary .....................................................................................1055.4.8 Persuasive report writing ......................................................................................................106

5.5.1 Definition of a meeting.................................................................................................................1095.5.2 Cycle of a Meeting........................................................................................................................109This cycle is for a monthly meeting assuming it is held on the 1st of each month. Numbers inbrackets are target dates for each action..............................................................................109



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For less frequent meetings, the principle of an agenda sent out a week before, minutes sent out within the week after, should still be applied...................................................................109For weekly meetings, the dates change from a week to a couple of days. This cycle may seem to set very tight deadlines, but:...................................................................................109If you dont enjoy typing up your minutes, they only get worse with procrastination .. .... .... ..109If you have to phone a participant and ask for clarification on content, it is better to do it whiles/he can still remember what was said.................................................................................109................................................................................................................................................................110

5.5.3 The Stages in the cycle..................................................................................................................1115.5.4 Preparing the Notice......................................................................................................................1125.5.5 Specimen of notice of board meeting............................................................................113

BATAVIER ENGINEERING SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED...................................... ..1135.5.7 A specimen agenda of a routine board meeting...........................................................115

For meeting of directors to be held in the Board Room on................................................1155.5.8 Note-taking skills..........................................................................................................................1165.5.8.1 Get the complete picture.......................................................... ......................... ...... .116

First Step PREPARATION.............................................................................................116Second Step - DURING THE MEETING................................................................. ........116Third Step - AFTER THE MEETING........................................................................... ....116Suggestions........................................................................................................................116

5.5.8.2 Ways to streamline notes.......................................................... ............................. .. 118

5.5.9 The minutes of a meeting..............................................................................................................1195.5.10 Necessity of minutes..................................................................................................120 5.5.11 Minutes of narration...................................................................................................121

Chairperson ......................................... ........................................ ................ ....... ....... ... 122 BATAVIER ENGINEERING SOUTH AFRICA LIMITED.......................................................123

Present: Mr L King (Chairman).................................................................................. ...123Vote No Description Amount............ ....124

Module 6................................................ ......................................... ............................ ....... ... 125 6.1 Proof reading ...........................................................................................................................1256.2 Editing......................................................................................................................................1266.3 Presentation..............................................................................................................................1276.4 Document polishing check-list.................................................................................................1316.6 Where do you go from here?....................................................................................................134

6.7 Can you raed tihs? Olny srmat poelpe can..................................... .................... ....... .... 135

To learn is to change. Education is a process that changes thelearner.

George B Leonard



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Module 1

1 Planning and constructing documents

After attending this module delegates will be able to

Understand the need and importance of written communications in their business environment

State the objectives and characteristics of different types of written communications

State the purpose and scope of the proposed document Compile a plan for the process of conceiving and writing the document

Consider the information needs of their audiences

Follow the required steps to gather information

Analyse and process information

Submit a potential solution.

1.1 The importance of written communication

Methods of communicating

The most practical ways to communicate with other persons in business are

Face to face

By telephone

In writing



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Most of us prefer talking face to face or on the telephone because we are more practised at it.

Feedback is also quicker and more effective we can make certain that the listener understands the

message.

Writing has the benefit of forcing us to think the matter through. Writing encourages us to gather the

facts before we communicate an idea, instruction or message. It prompts us to present the facts in alogical fashion.



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Value of the written word

The written word is vitally important in business: it provides a permanent record of the communication

it can be shared among many people

it is readily accessible when stored on paper or magnetic media (memory stick, hard disk) it can be re-used and be expanded upon for new ideas.

However, time spent thinking, writing, typing, reading and clarifying is expensive. We must therefore

use time effectively to prevent miscommunication which forces the reader to refer back to the writer.

Resistance to writing

Writing requires

a disciplined mind taking responsibility; an attitude of do it now

being creative

an understanding of the needs of the reader

proper planning

a good command of language

Cultivate your writing skills

discover your brain power:

Both the left and right side of the brain are engaged in writing. Left brainers tend to produce

precise, structured, procedural writing (non-fiction). Right brainers tend to produce imagery,

fantasy, drama, comedy (fiction). Whether left or right orientated YOU CAN WRITE.

initially force yourself and practise

critically analyse the writing of others

sharpen your language skills through extensive reading, particularly books, magazines and articleson websites and blogs related to your field of expertise

witness the power of your writing: people act upon your ideas, requests, commands, expression ofappreciation, etc

discover your own creativity (even if it is producing a dry procedure manual). Soon you will

produce valuable new ideas from your own think-tank

the written word is mightier than the sword

the most brilliant ideas cannot be implemented if they are not reduced to writing.



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1.2 Set the objective(s)

In the finance related professions a host of documents require to be compiled; e.g. letters, e-mails,

contracts, proposals, reports, minutes. While each one has its own format and structure, the essence of

communication is the same: providing information on which decisions can be based.

Get the purpose clear to make sure that you communicate most effectively and efficiently with the

reader. Always get the IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE WHAT? quite clear in your mind. This forces you

to focus on the result rather than being content with the reason.

Formulate the what, who, how, when, why, where.

Here are some questions to ask:

WHY WRITE?

Would speaking not be more effective than writing?

WHO AM I WRITING TO?

How skilled is the reader in the subject matter?

Who else will read it?

Why will they want to read it?

What do they know already?

WHAT DO I WANT TO ACHIEVE?

Is it to inform? To persuade? Or to record?

What does the reader need to know?

What does the reader need to do?

What answers do I need from the reader?

HOW WILL THE READER REACT?Are they senior of junior?

What sort of tone should I use?

How can I make it clearer?

WHEN WILL IT BE READ?

By when must it be completed?

Might it be read in years to come?



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WHERE WILL IT BE READ?

Home or abroad?

In the office or at home?

At a meeting?

In court?

Internal or external to the organisation?All these points concern the Reader rather than the Writer.Think of the reader

Exercise: Write a report on why you believe tax should be paid by all.

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1.3 Purpose and Scope

1.3.1 Purpose

There is always (or should always be) a reason for asking someone to spend time and effort in

compiling a document, and this needs to be clear. The purpose is the criterion against which theagreement, report, proposal; etc. will be judged and must be stated specifically. If this is not done,

when the naming, shaming and blaming begin, who is wrong? Take a report as an example

the manager/client who requested the report without defining the purpose properly and/or

communicating it clearly, and

the staff member/service/provider who agreed to write it without a clear idea of what s/he was

supposed to achieve, and did not ask!

Often a report is requested because there is a "bit of a problem" showing. The report aims to find out

how big the problem is - like an iceberg there may be a huge amount of hidden material or very little.

Under these circumstances, the report would need to begin with a reference to the "tip of the iceberg" -

the reason that a problem has been noticed, or an investigation requested.

1.3.2 ScopeIt is also necessary, when requesting or undertaking a report, to be clear about how wide an area needs

to be covered. If the brief is "What are the implications for medical aid fund administrators of the

governments intention to introduce a national health insurance scheme", the brief is wide, and the

report is a huge undertaking. If the brief is "Jane, find out why Mary Lekabe is again absent from work",

Jane simply needs to find out what the story is with Mary and get it onto a single sheet of paper. She

does not have to investigate the organisations sick leave policy and recent Labour Court judgements on

that topic.

The scope of a report to be written in terms of an act or regulation is usually well defined and needs to

be strictly complied with. It is essential that the author of such a report makes a careful study of the

topics specified and the nature of the texts to be produced.



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1.4 Planning the document

Before you start to write, you need to be clear about what you want to achieve and what you want to

say. This will involve proper planning. If you plan a letter, agreement, proposal, report; etc well, it will

save time - and will save much drafting and redrafting.

1.4.1 When following the planning process, you need to:

Understand why the document is required (the purpose, objective), and the terms of the brief

Know the due date and undertake that you will have the document complete and ready on that date

Plan how you will proceed to gather information

Plan how you will meet the deadline - estimating how long each part of the process will take.

Allocate a time to each section, and get on with it without procrastination

Proceed with your information gathering

Record the results of your information gathering

Consider the information. This requires time for you to "mull it over", chat to someone about it

(make sure that you do not chat about confidential information to an unsuitable partner), let it

simmer in your head etc. You need to plan some time to evaluate your conclusions

Consider what can be done about the problem or to meet the objective - this usually involves goinginto "creative mode" where you generate as many alternative solutions as you can think of

Draft the document - and let it sit a while (you must make provision for this time interval!). If it is a

complex or very important report, for instance, you might ask someone to read it and discuss it with

you. Check that you have findings in Findings, conclusions in Conclusions etc.

Redraft the document (professional documents are not written - they are re-written.)

Proof-read it and check the presentation.

1.4.2 State the purpose

Get the purpose clear to make sure that you communicate most effectively and efficiently with the

reader. Always get the IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE WHAT? quite clear in your mind. This forces you

to focus on the result rather than being content with the reason.

Ask the objectives questions given in paragraph 1.2 above.



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What are the objectives for your document?

1.4.3 Consider the audience

Even before starting to gather information it is imperative that you consider your readers. Unlike letters

and memos, reports and proposals usually have a far wider distribution. Many people may be involved

in a decision-making process and need to read the information in the document.

Your job is to make it easy for the reader. In order to make reading your document easier, think in terms

of the reader.

Each audience has unique needs. Some audience considerations include:

Need (for the information)

Education level

Position in the organisation

Knowledge of your topic or area

Responsibility to act

Age

Biases

Preferences

Attitudes



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Some false assumptions commonly made regarding audiences are:

1. That the person who will first read or edit the document is the audience

2. That the audience is a group of specialists in their field

3. That the audience is familiar with the subject of the document

4. That the audience has time to read the entire document

5. That the audience has a strong interest in the subject of the document

6. That the author will always be available to discuss the document

To avoid making these false assumptions, writers should identify everyone who might read the

document; characterise those readers according to their professional training, position in the

organisation, and personal traits; and determine how and when the reader might use the document.

Audiences are basically of three kinds:

Primary People who have to act or make decisions on the basis of

the document

Secondary People who will be affected by actions the primary

audiences are going to take in response to the document

Intermediate People responsible for evaluating the document and

passing it on the right people

For the document you intend to write, who are your audiences?

Primary

Secondary

Intermediate



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1.4.4 Gather required information

Once you have a clear understanding of the purpose and scope of your document and

who you are writing for, you are ready to gather information.

It is necessary to identify the information sources and to determine the organisational procedures for

obtaining and distributing information.

What type of information do you need for your document?

Who/what are your information sources?

The information you gather can be of two types: Secondary and Primary. Secondary refers to

information gathered and recorded by others. Primary refers to information you gather and record

yourself.

Type Sources Caution

Secondary Books, internet, reports, newspapers,magazines, pamphlets, and journals

Information may be inaccurate,out of date, or biased

Primary Meetings, interviews, questionnaires,

surveys, observation, experiments,

historical information, and raw data

Information must be gathered

carefully to ensure it is accurate

and bias free.



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At this point you should be doing your research. Think where you are going to find your information. If

the purpose of your report requires market research, you will have to consult professional researchers.

For certain types of information you can consult your own professional institutes. Magazines, journals or

newspapers and institutions such as the BER of the University of Stellenbosch, Statistics SA and the

BMR of UNISA may offer just the information you are looking for. A vital resource is the Internet.

Conduct a search using keywords to find information that will be useful to you in search engines such asGoogle, Yahoo, etc. Subscribe to RSS feeds such as those offered by Google Alerts.

Notes on drafting a questionnaire

Ask yourself:

How am I going to get people to answer my questions?

How many questions will my target group be prepared to answer? How am I going to record their answers or get back their questionnaires?

Do my questions relate directly to what I want to know?

Do I want closed questions? Open-ended questions? Opinions? Facts? Ideas?

Are my questions appropriate - courteous, not personally offensive or invasive?

Are they clear, unambiguous and easily understandable?

Are my questions in the correct sequence to get people thinking?

It is always best to test a questionnaire on a small pilot group before using it to investigate. You may

think it is clear, polite etc, but two or more heads are better than one in this respect.

1.4.5 Analyse your information

Now that you have information, you need to analyse it.

The purpose of the analysis is to make sense, objectively, out of the information you have gathered.

You will not want personal bias of any kind to enter into the analysis.

Information is compared and contrasted in an effort to find new ideas or select the best ideas. Separate

facts and figures need to be interpreted by explaining what they mean --what significance they have.



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At what conclusions have you arrived?

It is essential, before you start an investigation, to have the willingness to learn from what you discover,

and the courage to act on the new information.

1.4.6 Determine the solution

Based on your analysis, you will be ready to offer a solution (or solutions) to the problem you have been

studying.

Your conclusions have to reflect your findings. Personal integrity demands that you put aside your

favourite opinions and leave behind your pride and your prejudices. Let your conclusions reflect exactly

what you found - even if you don't like them.

Therefore the gathered information should be the basis for making this decision. There is also a

tendency in business report writing to "slant" information to lead the reader to the decision the writer

wants. Make sure you report all pertinent information--good and bad. The credibility of the document

(and your credibility) is at stake.

Generate as many possible solutions or courses of action as you can think of to deal with any

problems you have uncovered

Go back and work out which of the solutions you thought of are possible.

Of the possible courses of action, which do you think would be best? This could be a single action

or a number of actions. These are your recommendations.



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What are the solutions you hope to offer your management/client?

1.4.7 Organise your document

You've got your topic, your information, and your proposal/recommendation. Now you're ready to

determine how to present your information.

Before actually writing, organise your information into an outline form. You can formulate an outline for

your document by choosing the major and supporting ideas, developing the details, and eliminating the

unnecessary ideas you've gathered. This outline becomes the basic "structure" of your document.



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Module 2

2 Writing with increased confidence in a structuredand disciplined manner

At the end of this module delegates will be able to:

Apply mind mapping skills

Introduce the content with terms of reference, purpose and background

Achieve flow by means of simple language, short sentences, good paragraphing and

descriptive headings Structure contents in a logical sequence

Select relevant information in line with the objective of the document Uphold the integrity of the facts in conclusions and recommendations

Overcome writers block

2.1 Mind Maps

A Powerful Approach to brainstormingand drafting your document

2.1.1 Introduction

How to use the tool:

Mind Maps are very important techniques for improving the way you brainstorm content and drafting

your document. By using Mind Maps you show the structure of the subject and linkages between points,

as well as the raw facts contained in normal notes. Mind Maps hold information in a format that your

mind will find easy to remember and quick to review.

Mind Maps abandon the list format of conventional brainstorming. They do this in favour of a two-

dimensional structure. A good Mind Map shows the 'shape' of the subject, the relative importance of

individual points and the way in which one fact relates to the other.

Mind Maps are more compact than conventional notes, often taking up one side of the paper. This helps

you to make associations easily. If you find out more information after you have drawn the main Mind

Map, then you can easily integrate it with little disruption.



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Mind Maps are useful for:

summarising information

consolidating information from different research sources

thinking through complex problems, and

presenting information that shows the overall structure of your subject

Mind Maps are also very quick to review, as it is easy to refresh information in your mind just by

glancing at one.

Mind Maps can also be effective mnemonics (a word intending to help your memory). Remembering the

shape and structure of a Mind Map can provide the cues necessary to remember the information within

it. They engage much more of the brain in the process of assimilating and connecting facts than

conventional notes.

2.1.2 Drawing Basic Mind Maps

To make notes on a subject or preparing your draft document using a Mind Map, draw it in the following

way: Write the title of the subject in the centre of the page, and draw a circle around it.

For the major subject subheadings, draw lines out from this circle. Label these lines with the

subheadings. If you have another level of information belonging to the subheadings above, draw these and

link them to the subheading lines. Finally, for individual facts or ideas, draw lines out from the appropriate heading line and label

them. As you come across new information, link it in to the Mind Map appropriately.

A complete Mind Map may have main topic lines radiating in all directions from the centre. Sub-topics

and facts will branch off these, like branches and twigs from the trunk of a tree. You do not need to

worry about the structure produced, as this will evolve of its own accord.



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2.1.3 Improving your Mind Maps

Your Mind Maps are your own property: once you understand how to make notes in the Mind Map

format, you can develop your own conventions to take them further. The following suggestions may helpto increase the effectiveness of your Mind Maps:

:

Use single words or simple phrases for information

Most words in normal writing are padding, as they ensure that facts are conveyed in the correct context,

and in a format that is pleasant to read. In your own Mind Maps, single strong words and meaningful

phrases can convey the same meaning more potently. Excess words just clutter the Mind Map.

Print words:

Joined up or indistinct writing can be more difficult to read.

Use colour to separate different ideas:

This will help you to separate ideas where necessary. It also helps you to visualise the Mind Map for

recall. Colour also helps to show the organisation of the subject.

Use symbols and images:

Where a symbol or picture means something to you, use it. Pictures can help you to remember

information more effectively than words.

Using cross-linkages:

Information in one part of the Mind Map may relate to another part. Here you can draw in lines to show

the cross-linkages. This helps you to see how one part of the subject affects another.

Key points:

Mind Maps provide an extremely effective method of taking notes and preparing the main points for

writing your report.

They show not only facts, but also the overall structure of a subject and the relative importance of

individual parts of it. Mind Maps help you to associate ideas and make connections that you might not

otherwise make.

Acknowledgement : "Mind Map" is a trade mark of the Buzan Organisation

2.2 Content structureEnhancing your Business Writing SkillsSeptember to October 2009 20


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Once you have compiled a mind map you are ready to draft your document. The example below is that

of an investigative report. You can borrow from this approach to compile other documents such as

proposals and agreements.

2.2.1 Terms of Reference

This section sets the scene for your report. It should define the scope and limitations of the investigation

and the purpose of the report. It should say who the report is for, any constraints (for example your

deadline, permitted length) - in other words, your aims and objectives - the overall purpose of your

report and more specifically what you want to achieve.

Write down the answer to the following questions:

to whom is the report to be addressed?

why are you writing the report (What is the "tip of the iceberg"?)

what is the objective of the report?

how wide is your brief?

when must the report be ready?

2.2.2 Introduction/backgroundThis will help to tune your readers in to the background of your report. It is not another name for a

summary and should not be confused with this. They can be two separate sections or combined:

background detail could include details of the topic you are writing about. You could take the opportunity

to expand on your Terms of Reference within the introduction and give more detail as to the background

of the report.



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2.2.3 Procedures

This section outlines how you investigated the area. How you gathered information, where from and

how much (e.g. if you used a survey, how the survey was carried out, how did you decide on the target

group, how many were surveyed, how were they surveyed - by interviews or questionnaire?)

What do you need to do to investigate the problem?

call a meeting, visit information sources or arrange interviews?

speak to people who have already expressed views on the problem areas or on possible

solutions? send out questionnaires or set up a telephone "hot-line"?

search the web for topics published internationally?

research business custom, regulations, industry standards?

consult other offices that have undertaken similar projects?

2.2.4 Preliminary findings

It reflects the current situation - it describes the size, shape and nature of the "iceberg below the water

line".

This is the main body of the report, where you develop your ideas. The nature of this section will depend

on the brief and scope of the report. The sections should deal with the main topics being discussed -

there should be a logical sequence, moving from the descriptive to the analytical. It should contain

sufficient information to justify the conclusions and recommendations that follow. Selection of

appropriate information is crucial here: if information is important to help understanding, then it should

be included; irrelevant information should be omitted.



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What are your findings?

2.2.5 Conclusions

These are drawn from the analysis in the previous section and should be clear and concise. Theyshould also link back to the Terms of Reference. At this stage in the report, no new information can be

included. The conclusions should cover what you have deduced about the situation - bullet points will be

satisfactory.

Report writing - example of a conclusion



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Online learning has become an important aspect of the way education is

delivered. Initially, in tertiary education this push came about as a way of

reducing course delivery costs, but as Gelonesi (2002) points out, online

delivery is not necessarily a cheaper way of doing things. Some in the

education sector also argue that online education is second-rate

because education is fundamentally interpersonal, and technologyinterferes with and reduces this interaction.

However, it is becoming evident that students are seeking greater

flexibility in their engagement with universities. For tertiary institutions like

Beacon University, online delivery is an important way of providing this

flexibility. As a major provider of tertiary education, Beacon has begun to

introduce an online component into many of its courses. Most of

Beacons course materials are online, as are some administrativeprocesses. A significant move is now being undertaken to put student

support services online.

So, while the concerns about online education cannot be ignored,

universities need to embrace this development, not as a replacement for

face-to-face teaching, but as an alternative delivery mode. In some

situations it may well be a more flexible alternative that better suits the

needs of students. As Professor Anne Martin, Deputy Vice-Chancellor at

Deakin University notes, [online learning is] a developing field and its

very exciting but its important its offered only where its going to be

better, more effective and more efficient (in Gelonesi, 2002, p.3).

Restatement of

questions/problems that

led to the preparation of

the report

Summary of key points

Link back to the purpose of

the report

What are the conclusions you have come to?

2.2.6 Financial implications

What are the benefits vs. costs and risks from the suggested solution?



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2.2.7 Recommendations

Write down your recommendation with emphasis on how the project/solution will be implemented

Recommendations always look forward, to the future, and each point which you make under

Recommendations is a "should". Once again, your recommendations must arise logically from your

conclusions. Summarise the key strengths and weaknesses of the resources. Discuss strategies that

can be implemented to minimise the risk factors. Suggest starting off with a test market

2.3 Tactics to get rid of writers block

Start brainstorming

Jot down all the possible ideas you can think of. At first, these will be fairly logical. Then, as you run out

of options, you'll find that you start to come up with more innovative ideas. These might be just what you

need to get you going again.

Ease into your writing

Start your writing session with something that's 'easy' - a routine letter, e-mail or even a 'to do' list. Then

go back to your difficult assignment. You may find, as others have in the past, that a half-hour session

of processing simple correspondence is a good warm-up for a writing session.

Take some time out



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Only you know how much time this should be. It might be a few minutes, an hour or even a day.

Sometimes the subconscious simply needs time to work its magic.

Revisit the last few pages

If you have already written some content go back a few pages and revise. You could even retype the

last page completely, and see if that releases new ideas.

Use the tried and true 'carrot' trick. Reward yourself!

Think of something you'd really, really like. A chocolate? See a movie that night? Dinner out? New

clothes? Give yourself a reward that is commensurate with the size of the task - and DO IT.

Pressure Cooker Tactics

Some of us work well only under pressure. You'll probably know if this applies to you by thinking back to

how you handled the previous assignments. If you can produce when the pressure's on, then set

yourself a deadline. Don't make that deadline too unrealistic, though, or you may find that you're setting

yourself up for failure - again.

Change the time and venue

J.K. Rowling wrote the first Harry Potter book in extended stints in a cafe (or so the story goes). Roald

Dahl (children books author) worked in a battered garden shed. Try changing the venue or the time of

your writing - from the office to a coffee shop (if you have a laptop); from late afternoon to early morning;

perhaps even at a table in the corner of your bedroom.

Meditate or go walking

Sometimes it helps to get out in the fresh air, or to sit quietly and move into a meditative state and just

let the ideas flow. Or not flow. Perhaps what you need is to dissociate yourself from the world for a

while.

The dictionary is the only place where success comes beforework.

Mark Twain



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Module 3

3 Avoiding common errors and grammar mistakes

At the end of this module delegates will be able to:

Resort to accuracy, brevity, clarity: the ABC of business writing

Explain the need for applying a simple vocabulary

Modify useless, negative, big, redundant, words

Solve ambiguity and pomposity

Distinguish between active and passive verbs

Compile sentence and paragraph structures

Apply appropriate punctuation

3.1. The foundations of your writing skills

In writing your major task is to create a message which is clearly understood and will induce the reader

to take the desired action. Readers should not be left with questions or irritations in their mind.

Writing, to be professional, requires working to a system.

The system focuses on four rules

A clear objective

Correct grammar

Proper structure Attractive layout



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Its foundations are

1. Accuracy

2. Brevity

3. Clarity

- the ABC of good writing

English a complex language

For many people who will be reading your documents, English will be their second or third language. If

you do not know your reader, assume always that her/his home language is different from yours.

We are living in a country with 11 official languages. Co-workers may speak Sotho, Afrikaans, Venda,

Zulu, Tswana, or Xhosa.

If you assume that the person receiving your letter, memo, e-mail, report or minutes is not a first

language English speaker, you will probably be right.

It is therefore vital that you keep vocabulary and sentence structure simple in all the documents you

produce.

What you are up against learning English:

IfGHstands for P as in hiccoughIfOUGHstands for O as in doughIfPHTHstands for T as in phthisisIfEIGHstands for A as in neighbourIfTTEstands for T as in gazette

IfEAUstands for O as in beau

The POTATOwould be speltGHOUGHPHTHEIGHTTEEAU

(FROM James Clark, Stoep Talk, The Star, Thursday 25 November 1993)



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H. Schultz v The New York Cleaning Department

A saga in three acts!

Act 1

Dear Sir.

I find Hydrochloric Acid fine for cleaning pipes. Is this OK?

Signed. H Schultz Plumber

Dear Mr Schultz

In response to your enquiry regarding the use of Hydrochloric Acid for cleaning pipes should be clearly

recognised that this is not efficacious. The Hydrochloric Acid interacts with a variety of metals to

produce salts of various natures, depending on the composition of the metals involved, which would be

more than mildly toxic to any person or persons (or animals) who might ingest the substance in

question. The precise result which would stem from such ingestion would depend, amongst other less

crucial matters, on the proportion of Hydrochloric Acid and metallic radical to other dilutory substancesin the original combination of substances that induces the salt producing reaction initially.

Signed. B Pearson, New York Cleaning Department

Act 2

Dear Mr Pearson

Thank you for your interesting letter. Can you please now tell me if it is OK to use Hydrochloric Acid to

clean out pipes?


Dear Mr Schultz



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As was explained in our previous letter to you it is the opinion of this Department that the use of

Hydrochloric Acid for cleaning would increase the susceptibility of the population at large to varying

degrees of virulence. The precise degree of virulence in any specific case would depend, of course, on

the total amount, and percentage of toxic content in that total amount, of debilitating solution imbibed,

and naturally the frequency of such reflections by the person or persons in question.

We trust the position is now clear to you.

Signed. B Pearson, New York Cleaning Department

Act 3

Dear Mr Pearson

Its real nice of you to trust me. I am now cleaning many more pipes with Hydrochloric Acid.


Dear Mr Schultz

Dont use Hydrochloric Acid for cleaning pipes. It poisons the water.

Signed. B Pearson

The moral of this story is .?



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3.2 Grammar

3.2.1 Introduction

The rule is to be natural and human, not pompous and unnatural. If in doubt, ask: What would I say tothis person face to face? Writing should be more like speaking.

Letters and documents become difficult to read if they contain:

LONG WORDS

LONG SENTENCES

LONG PARAGRAPHS

3.2.2 Getting tenses right

Present

SIMPLE

he works

CONTINUOUS

he is working

PERFECT

he has worked

PERFECTCONTINUOUS

he has been working

Past

SIMPLE

he worked

CONTINUOUS

he was working

PERFECT

he had worked

PERFECTCONTINUOUS

he had been working



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Future

SIMPLE

he will work

CONTINUOUS

he will be working

PERFECT

he will have worked

PERFECT

CONTINUOUS

he will have beenworking

Conditional

SIMPLE

he would work

CONTINUOUS

he would be working

PERFECT

he would have worked

PERFECTCONTINUOUS

he would have beenworking

Education is when you read the fine print. Experience is what youget if you dont.

Pete Seeger

Yesterday is historyTomorrow is a mysteryToday is a gift That is

Why it is called a present!



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3.2.3 Words

3.2.3.1 Introduction

Short words are easier to read than long words because they are easier to recognise and interpret. We

get more practice in using the words we speak;

so when we see a word which we do not use in conversation, it is harder for us to understand.

Never try to impress the reader by deliberately using long words

Always try to use words whose meanings are precise, and not open to doubt

Use a short word (or even two or three) instead of one long one. However, at times we mayneed to use some long word for variety and precision. Try to keep long words below 10% of

the total by cutting out the unnecessary ones. Write to express not impress!

What does hot mean? List the possible meanings of the word hot

One factory has this accident recorded: An electrician put a sign hot on a bare and protruding piece of

metal. A workman was careful to equip himself with metal tongs before trying to pick it up. He got the

shock of his life.

To an electrical engineer hot means alive with electric current.

To a metallurgist it may mean simply high in temperature.

To some physicists the first meaning would be radioactive.

To some of the men around the office the first meaning of hot is sexy.



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3.2.3.2 Word use

Keep it short and simple!

Rather than: Use:

discontinue stop

submit for consideration propose

proceed go

commence start

occurrence event

dispatch send

in respect of of, about

make modifications to modify, change

demonstrate show

is in a position to can

we would be grateful if you would please

facilitate help

Be precise, avoid jargon and clichs

correspondence i.e. letter

communication e.g. report, memo, telephone call

illustration graph or diagram

a large proportion of many

concerning about

at the present time now

currently now

despite the fact that although

furnish particulars give details

in conjunction with with

in the course of during

on account of the fact that because

assuring you of our best attention NOTHING. Leave it out!

Enclosed please find I enclose

Trust this meets with your approval NOTHING. Leave it out!

Perhaps use: I hope this is what you wanted

But remember ultimately, Accuracy and Clarity are more important than Brevity.



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3.2.3.3 Useless words

There are several weasel words in the English language. These are words which do not add anything

to your writing.

It appears that Customer Service willIt should be noted that we will

There are some departments that will

You will be left with:

Customer Service will.

We will

Some department will ..

Other weasel words that should be edited out of writing

Actually Definitely

Hopefully Fortunately

Carefully Pretty sure

Quite sure Rather

Real Really

Somewhat Very

Slightly Extremely

For example: He is rather intelligent. It is very large, very high, very clear.



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3.2.3.4 Nice words

Find a more descriptive adjective as a substitute of nice

Nice man Nice woman

Nice food Nice house

Nice flowers Nice holiday

3.2.3.5 Positive and negative words



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Analyse words for positive and negative emotional meanings. For example, efficient is positive, so is

punctual; you must is negative, so is impossible or incorrect.

A positive tone encourages a favourable, desirable association with a product or service. A negative

tone is a red flag word. It plants seeds of doubt, or conveys an image that is unfavourable,

undesirable, unattractive, or even frightening. However, too positive a tone will lead to accusations ofpushy.

Positive words

EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE WORDS

Appreciate Satisfaction

Assurance ResponsibleCommitted Quality

Confidence Honest

Dependable Service

Established Willingness

Negative words

EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE WORDS

Blame Fault

Sorry Inconvenience

Failure Regret

Never Complaint

Cant Disagree

Unfortunate Difficult

Prejudiced Unable

Wrong Neglect



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3.2.3.6 Dont use big words

In promulgating your esoteric cogitation, or articulating your superficial sentimentalities and amicable,

philosophical or psychological observations, beware of platitudinous ponderosity. Let your

conversational communications possess a clarified conciseness, compact comprehensiveness,coalescent consistency and a concatenated cogency. Eschew all conglomerate of flatulent garrulity,

jejune, babblement and asinine affectations. Let your extemporaneous descanting, and unpremeditated

expatiation have intelligibility and veracious vivacity without rodomontade or thrasonical bombast.

Sedulously avoid all polysyllabic profundity, pompous prolixity, psillacious vacuity, ventriloquil verbosity

and vaniliquent vapidity. Shun double entendres, prurient jocosity and pestidiferous profanity,

obscurant or apparent.

In other words, write plainly, briefly, naturally, sensibly, truthfully, purely. Keep from slang. Dont put on

airs. Say what your mean, mean what you say, and dont use big words!

3.2.3.7 When to use a BIG word

There are four legitimate reasons for using a big word. Ask yourself if your big word fits one or more of

these four reasons.

S 1. Its SIMPLER or more familiar than the short word equivalent. Average is

more familiar than mean, and sponsorship, more familiar than aegis.

U 2. Its UNIQUE. It cant be said in small words. Most technical vocabulary is

included here (amortise, inventory, appreciation), as well as such non-

technical words as communicate, civilisation, democratic.

R 3. Its RICH. It conveys precision. Examples are: implement, document,

designate, develop, introduce. For instance, calling a marriage license a

document is more precise than paper.

E. 4. Its ECONOMICAL. It saves a lot of small words. Unemployment is more

economical than the fact that a lot of people are without jobs; and

destination more economical than the place to which (someone) is going.



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3.2.4 Pomposity

Avoid these phrases:

Herewith attached please find the document as requested by yourselves

You are cordially invited

The above refers, your letter refers

Hope you find the above in order

Your attendance will be highly appreciated

Ensuring you of our best attention at all times

It would be highly appreciated if you

Suggest an alternative for the business terms and phrases:

I would like to give confirmation _____________________________

It is apparent that _____________________________

We are in receipt of _____________________________

Re your enquiry concerning _____________________________

It will be our endeavour _____________________________

Assuring you of our best attention at all times _____________________________

For the purpose of _____________________________

Trusting this meets with your approval _____________________________

I refer to previous correspondence regarding _____________________________

It would be greatly appreciated if you would

advise us _____________________________

I would be pleased if you could arrange _____________________________

After some discussion within the Department

a decision was reached _____________________________

I hope this information will be sufficient in

resolving your problem area _____________________________

The Committee gave further consideration to a

memorandum containing proposals with regard

to _____________________________

The necessary enquiries have been instituted with a view to ascertaining the causes _____________________________

It is desired to bring to the attention of all

employees that _____________________________



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Eliminate the redundant words from the following sentences:

1. You will see what I mean if you refer back to the introduction

2. We will be able to meet the deadline if we combine together the sections wehave prepared

3. There are too many redundant phrases which add nothing

4. The consensus of opinion favours a June election

5. The new desks are oval in shape

6. Will you please repeat the sentence before I continue on with my typing

7. Come on Monday together with your assistant

8. We are now currently employing two thousand staff

9. I have received your letter along with enclosures

10. The two departments will be amalgamated together in May

Creative pomposity

Judy Wallman, a professional genealogical researcher, discovered thatHillary Clintons great-great

uncle, Remus Rodham, was hanged for horse stealing and train robbery in Montana in 1889. The only

known photograph of Remus shows him standing on the gallows. On the back of the picture is this

inscription: Remus Rodham; horse thief, sent to Montana Territorial Prison 1885, escaped 1887,

robbed the Montana Flyer six times.

Caught by Pinkerton detectives, convicted and hanged in 1889.

Judy allegedly e-mailed Hillary Clinton for comments. Hillarys staff sent back the following biographical

sketch:

Remus Rodham was a famous cowboy in the Montana Territory. His business empire grew to include

valuable equestrian assets and intimate dealings with Montana railroad. Beginning in 1883, he devoted

several years of his life to service at a government facility, finally taking leave to resume his dealings

with the railroad. In 1887 he was a key player in a vital investigation run by the renowned Pinkerton

Detective Agency. In 1889 Remus passed away during a function held in his honour, when the platformon which he was standing collapsed.

Thats how history is rewritten. (Source: Space, Barry. Untitled. Sunday Times Magazine: p3).Enhancing your Business Writing SkillsSeptember to October 2009 43


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3.2.5 Verbs

3.2.5.1 Active and Passive

The verb is the most important part of the sentence. It generally conveys action. There are three types

of verb:

1. the ACTIVE VERB (this is direct and concise: 4 words)

Thabo writes a lease

2. the PASSIVE verb (this has less impact: the same message in

6 words)

A lease is written by Thabo

It is easy to recognise the passive voice it always has some form of the verb to be in front of the

verb: was, will be, must be

To convert it to the active, the reader has to answer the question by whom?, e.g. The lease is written

by whom? by Thabo.

In the above example the writer has answered the by whom? question. But often the writer forgets to

answer it and this leads to confusion. E.g. In the event of a rail strike, road transport will be supplied.

By whom? No answer!

In this case the readers do not know who is going to take the action, so they will probably have to spend

time finding out.

3. the VERBAL NOUN (this is dull, verbose and is used as

padding, as in school essays. Total of 10

The writing of the contact was words)

carried out by Thabo

So WRITE in the ACTIVE VOICE unless there is a good reason for using the PASSIVE.



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Active voice

Leads to writing which is clear and generally more emphatic. The active voice forces us to say exactly

what we mean. We have to clarify whotook, or should take the action. The active leaves the reader with complete understanding and steers clear of ambiguity and vagueness, and we have to accept full

responsibility for our statements.

Passive voice

Use of the passive avoids being specific; leaving room to manoeuvre, or as a safeguard against being

tied down too closely. Inappropriate use of the passive is the most common fault in writing and leads to

lack of directness, more words, and confused and heavy reading. It is particularly risky to use thepassive where actions and procedures are involved they may never get done by anyone.

Example

Passive

The problem of the need for revision of stock taking procedures was discussed last year. It was

pointed out that no responsibility could be accepted for the inadequacy of the system at that time.

Active

We discussed the need to revise your stock taking procedures with Mr Brian Dawes last year. We

believed the system was inadequate then and we could not accept responsibility for it.

3.2.5.2 When to use the passive voice

Sometimes the passive may be appropriate

To avoid the impression of being critical of people.

e.g.: The accounts have not been completed.

To emphasise the object of the sentence rather than the subject. e.g.: Standards of safety have been allowedto deteriorate .



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To soften a passage which is predominantly active, particularly in scientific reports where by

whom will be self-evident. e.g.: The computer was installed tomechanise the accounts .

3.2.5.3 Long word and passive verbs

Effective writing is clear, simple and direct.

To surround your ideas in a web of passive verbs, verbal nouns and abstractions only confuses the

reader.

Please rewrite the following sentences in the active form:

1. Your letter was received by us.

________________________________________________________________

2. The following action is to be taken when processing an insurance claim

________________________________________________________________

3. A cheque for R1 987,00 was sent to the customer by me.

________________________________________________________________ 4. The audit was accomplished by us in under two days.

________________________________________________________________

5. Forty seven people were interviewed by the research team.

________________________________________________________________

6. The firm is being advised on this matter by legal experts.

________________________________________________________________

7. This will require the consideration of several factors on our part.

________________________________________________________________



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3.2.6 Sentences

A sentence is a unit of thought. It should be able to stand on its own. Sentences are separated by

major punctuation marks.

Major punctuation marks are . ? ! : ; -

However, we must not overlook the use of minor punctuation marks.

Minor punctuation marks are , ( )

The golden rule is to always use punctuation marks toclarify the meaning of the passage.

Sentence length

Sentences should on average be about 14 20 words long more than this, and ideas can become

clouded.

But it is best to vary the length of sentences; it is often dull and tiring if all sentences are of the same

length. In contrast, if the sentences are too short it is difficult to make the piece flow.

We can keep sentences short by:

- Keeping to one unit of thought per sentence

- Using active verbs

- Avoiding unnecessary words or phrases which add nothing to the meaning

Sentence structure

Sentence structure is just as important as length

- The more difficult a text is, the simpler its structure should be.

The best order for a sentence is: subject, verb, direct object, e.g. The company secretary

writes the minutes.

- The essence of the message should be in the first part of the sentence, as the reader

always retains this part better.



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3.2.7 Paragraphs

3.2.7.1 Signposts

Every paragraph should begin with a brief statement of theme. This topic sentence acts as a signpost

to help the reader. The first sentence should not be more than 14 - 15 words.

Efficient readers use the signposts when they skim a document to decide how closely they need to read

it.

3.2.7.2 A new idea or development needs a new paragraph

Paragraphs are there for yourreader - to show him/her that you are beginning a new point.

There should be one, clear idea per paragraph.

Every paragraph has a controlling idea. This is called the topic sentence and is the thought or vital

piece of information from which the rest of the paragraph flows.

3.2.7.3 Introduce a paragraph with the topic sentence. It should be quite short.

In the following example, please underline the topic sentence, and then work out how you could restructure

the passage so that it comes first.

After our discussions, I thought about the matter and felt that I needed advice. I have always felt that our

Personnel Officer is a competent woman, and she has often shown integrity in staff matters so I decided to

make an appointment and to discuss the matter with her. She was very helpful and I finally decided to

accept the transfer to Cape Town, partly because of the educational opportunities for my children and partlybecause of the promotional prospects the transfer will offer me.



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When people write long, unstructured sentences, and the ideas in them ramble on and merge into the next

idea, this usually means that they did not plan what they wanted to say in the first place. If a writer decides

on the central ideal of a paragraph before writing it, he or she will usually put the topic sentence first. This

will make it easier for the reader to understand immediately what the paragraph is about.

3.2.7.4 Use the order of your paragraphs properly

Paragraph 1 should refer back to any previous communication, action etc., and should set your letter in

context.

The middle paragraph(s) should deal clearly with the matter(s) you are writing about.

The closing paragraph should look to the future, explaining exactly what action you are taking now, or what

you want the receiver to do.Be specific . Do not write "Please let me know" - rather say "Please let me

know by return of post", or "Please send me the cheque by close of business on Friday, 4 August 2000"

3.2.7.5 A paragraph is a theme a cluster of related sentences .

Separate the themes into paragraphs and the reader will be able to get an understanding of the

central message. Do not include more than one theme per paragraph.

Good paragraphing helps to make reading easy and clear.

If the paragraphs are short, the reader can concentrate easily on each aspect of the report. If, on

the other hand, the paragraphs are long and heavy, the reader will very soon get confused and give

up. Short paragraphs make reports look easier to read.

A good rule of thumb is that paragraphs should on average be 6 sentences or fewer. Sometimes

a one-sentence paragraph is very effective to grab the readers attention or to make a key point.



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3.2.8 Punctuation

3.2.8.1 Meaning

(1) The use of various signs or marks for dividing words, or groups of words, from one another.

(2) It is an artificial means of indicating the various stops, pauses and stresses which would occur if

the sentences were spoken instead of written.

3.2.8.2 Purpose

Its object is to help in making the sense and grammatical relationships easier to understand and thus to

avoid ambiguity.

Punctuation marks may be divided into two groups.

(1) "True" punctuation marks which differ from each other only in a time sense. In order of length of

pause these are: -

(a) Comma (,)

(b) Semicolon (;)

(c) Colon (:)

(d) Full stop or period (.)

(2) Other marks, which are used more or less in an explanatory manner, to bring out the full sense of

the words that are affected by them. These are:-

(a) Question mark (?)

(b) Exclamation mark (!)

(c) Inverted Commas - double and single (" " ' ')

(d) Parenthesis or brackets ( )(e) The dash (-)

(f) Apostrophe ()

(g) Hyphen (-)

(h) Asterisks (*)

(i) The caret or mark of omission

(j) Capitals.



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A. USES OF THE COMMA

(1) To separate words or groups of words in a list; e.g. The chief exports

are gold, diamonds, wool, feathers and hides.

(2) To mark off the nominative address:-e.g. Dear Sirs,.......... Ladies and gentlemen, .......... John, come here!

(3) At the beginning and end of participial phrases; e.g. The Prime Minister, speaking in Afrikaans,

(4) said .....

(4) To separate words used in apposition; e.g. London, the capital of England, stands on the

Thames.

(5) Gerundial infinitives should be marked off by commas; e.g. To tell the truth, I am in difficulties.

(6) To mark off the absolute construction:

e.g. Considering the state of affairs, it is what I expected. Do not, however, write: "The lecturer,

having finished the lesson, the students left the room". (N.B.) The comma after lecturer should be

omitted).

(7) Interjections are marked off by commas, preceding and following them: e.g. however, indeed,

therefore, thus, unfortunately, etc.

(8) To separate phrases or clauses which interrupt the connection between other parts of the

sentence; e.g. (1) If you will permit it, I shall leave now.

(2) The man, whose money was stolen, was very wealthy.

(N.B.) NOTE that a first noun clause is not separated from the principal clause, though a succession of

noun clauses are separated from each other by commas; e.g. The speaker said (1) that he had seen

the district, (2) that he had questioned the people, and (3) that he was convinced that they had a

grievance.

(9) When "and" is used between a series of words, the comma is omitted, though it is generally

included when the conjunction is used between clauses.

B. USES OF THE SEMI-COLON

This mark indicates a longer pause than that required by the comma.

(1) To mark off co-ordinate clauses in compound sentences; e.g. Johannesburg is an interesting

place; Durban is a pretty town; but Pretoria is the most attractive of them all.Enhancing your Business Writing SkillsSeptember to October 2009 51


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(2) It is often used for effect, since the comparatively long pause that it allows gives the reader time

to grasp the significance of preceding words; e.g. To be or not to be; that is the question.

C. USES OF THE COLON

(1) To introduce a quotation; e.g. Most people know the proverb: "Time is money".

(2) To introduce a series of names explaining a previous statement; e.g. The chief towns in South

Africa are: Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban; etc.

(3) Between two statements in opposition to each other; e.g. To err is human: to forgive divine.

D. USES OF THE FULL STOP

(1) To mark the end of a complete sentence.

(2) At the end of every abbreviation.

There is a tendency for beginners to over-punctuate their work, but this may be counteracted by reading

the work aloud, giving each stop its due pause.

E. THE DASH

(1) Used to give the reader a sense of strong, deliberate continuation; to introduce an unexpected

ending to a sentence; e.g. He was always ready to spend money - on himself.

(2) Used before i.e. to indicate a p

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