DRAFT

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SANITARYENGINEERING PROJECTKANPUR- MIRZAPURUNDER GANGA ACTION PLAN

TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

AN APPROACHPAPERON

AND HEALTH PROMOTION

JANUARY 1991

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATIONASPECTS

~N1E~NATV)NAL R~FERENCECENTRE~OR COMMj~’ITYWA~E~SUPPL’I~ANDSAN~TATIQ~N(~R~

HASKONINGNIJMEGENTHE NETHERLANDS

E U R0 CONSU LTARNHEMTHE NETHERLANDS

AICB 0 MBAYINDIA

IAAM CO N S U LTNEW DELHIINDIA

82 2—9 1—10 8 98

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND HEALTH PROMOTION ASPECTS

1. INTRODUCTION

The programme on community participation and health promotion is beingcarried out by the two municipalities of Kanpur and Mirzapur withsupport of Indo—Dutch project staff. The activities have beenformulated in the respective detailed project reports, DPRs, arid theirsubsequent modifications.

Three entries can be distinguished in the programme. The first set ofactivities are related to aspects of health, water and sanitation andprovide support to sanitary interventions in the living environment.The focus is on environmental sanitation aspects in especially the slumareas. The second component is concerned with skill training and aimsat the entry of women in the more skilled jobs available throughsanitary construction work. The third component is focussed onimprovements in the work environment. During its first stage,occupational health programmes for tannery workers in Jajmau and carpetweavers in Mirzapur were taken up. The second stage is concerned withan intervention programme for these two industries. For the tanneriesit has evolved into an industrial counselling programme, while for thecarpet industry it has taken the direction of a development programmefor the weaver communities. The focus remains however on improvedenvironmental and sanitary conditions. The first steps have been takento expand the programme to the sweepers, a professional categorydirectly involved in sanitary work.

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2. ENVIRONMENTALSANITATION

2.1 Approach and Methodology

The overall objectives of environmental sanitation improvements can beformulated as

a. to achieve sustained improvements in environmental healthconditions,

b. to ensure effective utilization of the facilities being provided,c. replicability of the approach and methodology being followed*.

The latter aspect refers to the cost effectiveness of the interventionsand its supporting infrastructure. Since the project is concerned withenvironmental protection and improvement of the living conditions, thefollowing specific objectives have been formulated:

To ensure that improvement activities carried out by the projectwill receive priority attention in residential areas which arepoverty stricken and have the lowest level access to sanitaryfacilities.

To facilitate community participation and involvement in planning,implementation, operation and maintenance of the differenttechnical project components with a special focus on the role arid

position of women.

To ensure that the sanitary interventions, as well as the alreadyexisting and remaining facilities in this field are beneficial topublic health.

To ensure that the implementation of the improvement programmereflects the identified needs, perceptions and attitudes ofdifferent categories of the population (e.g. income levels, caste,class, community and gender).

As mentioned above, community participation and health promotion aremost prominent in aspects related to the improvement of livingconditions in the low income residential areas.

In the project therefore the main focus in community participation andhealth promotion is on water supply improvements, solid wastecollection and disposal and sanitation. Especially for these componentsan active involvement and support of the communities is required tomake the interventions successful and its impact sustainable.

At this point it should be noted that the relation between technicaldistribution systems and the community always implies a mutualinfluence and adjustment. Although inter—relationships are obvious wecan formulate a number of practical examples which are summarizedbelow:

Water Supply: affordability; willingness to pay; operation and

maintenance of community standposts or handpurnpa;water spillage; location; drainage; hygienic

practices.Sanitation: awareness; affordability; willingness to pay;

operation and maintenance (private and public);location; health related knowledge, attitudes andpractices.

Solid Waste: awareness; dumping practices;Collection and location of facilities; health relatedDisposal knowledge, attitude and practices;

affordability.

For the operationalization of the concept of community participation,

an approach has been developed which aims at the involvement of

different categories of “health agents” or “facilitators” at communitylevel in realizing above mentioned objectives. The health agentsidentified, comprise both the formal and informal sectors and consistof the following categories:

1. Traditional birth attendants2. Private medical practitioners3. Primary school teachers4. Anganwadi workers5. community volunteers6. Handpurnp users representatives.

The process adopted in facilitating their participation and throughthem, to seek the active involvement of the concerned communities, isdescribed below:

2.2 Establishment of an Interface and Conmiunity Networking

For sustained improvements of environmental health conditions, aninterface is required between on one hand the communities arid

especially the slum population and on the other hand, the differentgovernment agencies which have to provide the services and facilities.

For Jajmau, Kanpur and Mirzapur a system is being followed of communityworkers from the respective municipalities who interact with thedifferent facilitators at community level. Through a process ofselecting facilitators, conducting orientation programmes for each

specific category and organising refresher/follow—up programmes,networks have been established which comprise more than 500 personseach in Jajmau and Mirzapur. They are being mobilized to ensuresustained improvements in the project areas. The community centre actsas interface between the different layers and fulfills the followingfu~i~tibn 5:

— to monitor the performance of the “facilitators” at communitylevel.

— to assess the effective utilization of services and facilities

being provided by different government agencies

- to establish interlinkages arid provide the feedback between thetarget groups and the responsible government officers through asystem of follow—up programmes in which all concerned partiesparticipate and exchange their views and experiences.

In itself, the scope of work of this interface needs not to be confinedonly to the promotion of better environmental and sanitary conditions.With the addition of health extension workers it could play a role aswell in improving the basic health services adopting the same approachand methodology.

To facilitate an effective communication with the target population,the establishment of community level organizations is being promoted.The community level organizations or Mandals are slum basedorganizations which do bring together the different facilitators. Theofficer responsible within the Municipality for community developmentworks is the ex—offjcio member of each mandal.

The organogram presented below gives an overview of the differentinterrelationships.

SLui~ popuLation

MANDALS

MMs IBAs PMPs FACILITATORS Camunity Har~~JIp PrimaryJ voluiteers users repr. schooL

teachers

2.3. Coamiunity Level Training

L

~1

SoLid waste Other—~ disposal sanitary

faciLities

As a first opening towards “facilitators” at community level,orientation courses were planned for each category. The process was asfollows:

2.3.1 The Preliminary Surveys and Inventories

Cc%1uT.Jnity deveLopi~nt work —

Water si~pLy/Sanitation

C~*IJNITYCENTRE — HeaLth pranotion

GOVERNMENTSERVICES Govt.

heaLth

referral

‘1

/

/

/

In order to make the training courses as appropriate as possible,questionnaires were developed for interviewing TBAs, Primary SchoolTeachers and Private Medical Practitioners and Community Volunteers,including handpump users representatives. To find out who they were andwhat they were doing.

Private Medical Practitioners:

The importance of Private Medical Practitioners was confirmed by thediarrhoea survey, during which parents reported that these peoplealways treat their children. The surveys of PMPs in Kanpur and Mirzapurshowed the wide variety of training and background which they had, andthe number with no relevant qualifications at all. It also picked upproblems which had not been anticipated in the initial course outlines,such as the over-use/mis—use of I.V. drips and antibiotics for childrenwith diarrhoea.

Traditional Birth Attendants:

The two surveys of THAs revealed a great deal about their practices,which allowed the training programme to be modified and made moreappropriate.

Inventories were also made of possible referral points for the TBAs whofind problems with a pregnant or delivering mother. In Jajmau this ledto a good link being made with the ESI Hospital which acted as host forthe second batch of training and other referral institutes. InMirzapur, links were established with the District Hospital and theAyurvedic Nurse Midwife Training Centre (ANMTC).

School Teachers:

The survey of Primary Schools confirmed what had been suspected, that

there were many very small schools in each project area with very fewsanitary facilities.

Community Volunteers:

The inventory of community volunteers was confined to areas weresubstantive inputs from the project do or will take place soon. Itincludes the sanitation areas (private and public), the solid wastedemonstration areas, basties with substantial handpump installation andthe areas selected for the diarrhoea study. In most of these areasimmunization campaigns were held as well. Above mentioned areas are notexclusive but often combine one or more interventions.

The inventory of community volunteers was directed towards individualswith whom contacts were established before and showed interest tosupport the different activities that took place ( local informalleadership, organizers of immunization camps, etc.). Data werecollected on their background, past involvements in community work andfuture willingness to contribute. Separate inventories were made formen and women.

5-

The inventory served as the basis for the design of the course modulesfor the separate orientation programmes for male and female volunteers.

£

Handpump users representatives:

A separate category of community volunteers is formed by the handpumpusers representatives. They are persons, mostly couples of husband andwife, who are willing and motivated to take responsibility foroperation and maintenance of the handpump in the vicinity of theirhouse.

With expansion of the handpump installation programme to all waterscarcity areas, they form a substantive proportion of the network offacilitators.

Anganwadi Workers:

The project was involved in initiating the ICDS at Jajmau, Kanpur.Since the structure and objectives of this programme is known noinventory or survey was required. Presently 35 centres have beenestablished. Mirzapur has not been covered yet under this scheme.

Survey of institutes to provide training support:

The project has a policy of working with and strengthening localinstitutions, so the Departments of PSM in Kanpur Medical college andBanaras Hindu University were involved in finalizing course outlinesand lesson plans. All programmes were executed by the municipalitiesitself with support of project staff. Course coordinators andfacilitators were drawn from the municipalities and differentinstitutes and agencies.

2.3.2 The Training Courses

Traditional Birth Attendants:

About 60 TEAs each were trained in Kanpur and Mirzapur. Good resourcepeople were found in both places and the teaching methodology includeda lot of role-plays and songs, which worked well. All groups were ableto visit the referral facilities. There was positive feedback fromTBAs, resource people, and observers about the course.

The TEA course has been designed following a two-pronged approach. Toimprove their MCH practices and to motivate them to conduct healthpromotion activities in their respective areas.

Anganwadi Workers:

Anganwadi. Workers are a part of the Integrated Child DevelopmentScheme. They are supposed to run a creche in their respective slumareas in the mornings for under—fives, with nutritional supplements formalnourished toddlers and pregnant women. In the afternoon they shouldmake home visits and provide health education to mothers.Their task isbig and their training and experience inadequate. In Jajmau, Anganwadiworkers were given two days of training. The course discussed theinterlinkages between project objectives and tasks of the Anganwadiworkers. They were briefed about the technical interventions being

planned and the possible support that could be provided by theanganwadi workers towards the aim of better environmental and sanitaryconditions.

The first course went well, but afterwards it was felt that there wasinsufficient translation into action. The Angariwadi workers arehandicapped by all kinds of fundamental problems (poor accommodation,insufficient supervision) and are somewhat daunted by the size of thetask they are supposed to tackle. During the follow-up course it wasagreed with them that they would participate in project activities,starting with the diarrhoea survey and the organization of communityvolunteers. This would get them out of the Ariganwadi Centres and intotouch with mothers, giving them the experience they need to undertaketheir other tasks.

Private Medical Practitioners:

PMPs welcomed the opportunity of having their skills updated and beingaccepted as colleagues by important members of the city’s medicalprofession. However some did not attend the first day for fear thattheir qualifications would be checked. Attendance on the second day wasmuch better. The course focussed on diarrhoea management for itsrelevance to project objectives and outcome of the inventories.Several requests were made by PMPs to provide courses as well ontopics as skin diseases and TB.

About 70 PMPs in Kanpur and Mirzapur did participate in theorientation courses as per date.

Primary School Teachers:

Four groups of Primary School Teachers , totalling about 80 teachers,were trained in both Kanpur and Mirzapur. The course content and theUNICEF educational materials were well taken, and some schools say theyhave used them in their teaching to the children. Some constraints haveaffected the extent to which the course content has been used:

— Almost all schools, particularly the municipality schools, have nolatrines, hand washing facilities and rubbish bins for use by thechildren. Thus the most obvious way of teaching, through thesupervision of good practices, is denied to them.

- School timetables and curricula are very tight and do not allowfor much introduction of new subjects: teachers were notenthusiastic about activities which would involve much extra work,such as melas or competitions. What they said was that Saturdayafternoons were flexible and usually the whole school thengathered together. This was one of few occasions when they couldintroduce the subject—matter.

Community Volunteers:

Four training programmes for community volunteers (women and men) wereorganized in Kanpur and Mirzapur. In total about 80 volunteers did

participate in both the two project areas.

The objectives of the programmes are that the community volunteersshould be able to discuss, promote and organize within theircommunities the following:

— Improved environmental sanitation— Better water—use and sanitation practices— The need for proper care and maintenance of facilities- Preparation of ORS arid better diarrhoea managementpractices— Immunization— Establishment of community level organizations ()4andals)

The course aimed at community volunteers to be the channels ofcommunication with the basti people.The training programme wasconducted by staff of the municipalities with support of project staffand for Kanpur by the College of Nursing at KMC. concerned technicalofficers of the executing agencies participated in the discussions onspecific interventions, which resulted in lively discussions andexchange of opinions.

In Kanpur, role plays were prepared by the Anganwadi workers (ICDS) onfocal themes such as water use/water storage, proper excreta disposal,sanitary use of latrines, personal hygiene, proper use of handpurnp, andproper solid waste disposal.For Mirzapur a lacal group of musiciansprepared songs on these aspects, while municipality staff conductedrole plays.

Handpump users representatives:

More than 300 persons each in Kanpur and Mirzapur have been involved inthe courses conducted for handpump users representatives. Towardscourse contents and conduction of courses, support has been provided byUnicef Office, Luckriow. Resource persons are drawn from the waterworks departments.

The objectives of the course are that after its completion theparticipants are able and motivated to do the following:

1. To fill in and submit the complaint card to the water worksdepartment in case of breakdown or other defaults.

2. To keep the platform and its surroundings clean.3. To promote better environmental and sanitary conditions in

their respective areas.

2.3.3 Follow-up Programmes

A change in knowledge, attitudes and practices is not an overnightaffair which can be achieved through one single orientation course. Onregular intervals therefore, an assessment is made to what extent theobjectives are being achieved, what the bottlenecks and constraints areand in what ways their performance can be improved. Based on thefindings, follow—up programmes/refresher courses are being organizedwhich address these issues. Examples of the regular assessments being

made are the status reports which are being prepared for the handpump—and private latrine construction programmes.

The aim of the follow-up programmes is to establish a framework forinstitutional development. The networking with community level changeagents is an important aspect thereby, but of equal importance is theprocess of institutional strengthening of community level organisationsarid to create the conditions at local government level to provide theservices they are supposed to give. For the t.b.a.’s it was observedthat although their practices did improve, the referral support beingprovided by different health agencies was weak. Since it tends to befrustrating for trainees when they try to do what they have learnt andare being faced with this constraint, it was decided to pay attentionto this aspect as well. As part of the follow—up programmes thet.b.a.’s have been motivated to form societies to ensure betterreferral support.

For the primary schools involved in the programme a school sanitationprogramme was initiated. On a demonstration basis, basic sanitaryfacilities are being provided to municipality schools in the twoproject areas. At the same time, promotion activities such as postermaking competitions on water—and sanitation aspects continued.

For operation and maintenance of handpumps, the network of handpump /\users representatives has become too extensive to maintain a regularcontact. A stratification was established of sub—zonal and zonalrepresentatives to streamline the communication lines. Through aprocess of training of trainers the direct involvement of communityworkers of the municipalities has been reduced. To facilitate thetimely and adequate repair of haridpwnp the performance of themaintenance crew was assessed as well and additional training provided.For providing adequate back—up services registers are maintained of thespared parts required and the costs involved in regular operation andmaintenance of handpurnps.

A later addition to the programme has been to make the handpump usersrepresentatives responsible as well for regular chlorination of thewells in their vicinity.

A water testing laboratory is being set up at the water worksdepartment for regular water quality control.

2.4 Supporting Services

The interface being established in the two project areas is notconfined to aspects like providing a building, nomination of permanentstaff and office equipment. The community centre has to be providedwith the financial scope as well, to make its contribution tosustainable improvements. It has to carry out its programme of regularfollow—up to and interaction with community level organizations andchange agents. In addition, experiments are being conducted to provideother supporting services through this interface.

The entries being explored are the distribution of different types of

slum specific promotion materials, the establishment of a water qualitytesting laboratory and the production of Primary Health Care Packets.

2.4.1 Slum Specific Promotion Materials

An extensive inventory of existing promotion materials on health, waterand sanitation aspects was made at an early stage of the project.Although valuable materials are available on different topics, theoverall conclusion was that most of the materials have been developedfor use in rural areas. This conclusion was shared with Unicef and it

was decided to make a joint effort to develop urban and slum specificpromotion materials. Priority was given to the development of thefollowing promotion materials.

1. Flip cards2. Leaflets3. Promotion video’s

ad 1. FLip cards

The flip cards contain the key messages on health, water andsanitation. They cover the following aspects.

— River pollution- Solid waste— Sanitation— Safe water practices— Personal hygiene and diarrhoeal management— Preparation of home made oral rehydratiori solution (ORS)

The flip cards are being distributed to facilitators at community level(community volunteers, anganwadi teachers, etc.) for dissemination ofthe messages. Monitoring of their use and impact is provided by themunicipalities and the project.

ad 2. Leaflets

Leaflets were developed on:~ Ca”~

— Sanitation— Solid waste- Handpumps— Piped water supply

The leaflets have been designed for wider distribution and provideinformation on planned sanitary improvements and what communities cancontribute to improve their own living conditions.

ad 3. Video films

Video films were prepared on:

— skill training (masonary) for female construction workers- traditional birth attendants.

ti

The purpose of the video films is to promote the idea of upgradingskills at decision making levels. The first video promotes the conceptof involving women in sanitary works at higher skill levels throughproviding training to them. The video on the traditional birthattendants addresses the issue of better mother and child care to beprovided by them, as well as involving them in the promotion ofenvironmental sanitation. It starts from the premises that they form

the first line of MCH care in especially slum areas. Rather than toignore this fact, it has to be accepted it is the prevailing situationand that much can be done to improve their practices.

Other Promotion Materials

For specific project interventions, such as the installation ofhandpumps and the construction of private latrines, brochures have beenprepared which contain construction specifications. It enables the

facilitators at community level, to closely monitor the quality ofwork. At individual handpump sites, sign boards have been placed which-contain the main promotion messages regarding water practices andproper O&M of the handpump.

For promotion activities, in addition and depending on the subject,materials are being used form other sources.

2.4.2 Establishment of a Laboratory for Water Quality Testing

At Mirzapur no adequate facilities were found to be available for waterquality testing. Therefore, through the water works department of themunicipality a laboratory has been established to provide thisservice.

Handpump users representatives have been trained in the collection ofwater samples from sources as wells and handpumps and bringing them tothe laboratory for testing. The system implies that the laboratory is

integrated with the effort to establish a safe drinking water supplysystem and provides the back-up support to the network of water usersrepresentatives.

2.4.3 Production of Primary Health Care Packets

The deptt. of preventive and social medicine at Banares HinduUniversity has developed a range of low—cost primary health carepackets. The programme carried out in Kanpur and Mirzapur has createdan increasing demand with traditional birth attendants for deliverykits. the demand for ORS packets has sharply increased as well. Sincethe supply lines are too long to meet this increased demand, productionhas been taken up at Jajmau itself a the community centre. Preparationof the packets is done by local volunteers who receive a smallremuneration through distribution of the packets

2.4.4 Additional Activities

During the inception phase of the project, a community survey was

conducted to assess the priorities in the project areas. It was found

that although sanitary improvements and especially water supply, dorank amongst the highest priorities with communities, otherinterventions were considered to be essential as well. The outcome ofthe priority assessment varies per case but it was clear that th~thè

lowest income rac s employment and income eneratio wereconsidered to be the only priori y. uring group discussion this

that sanitary interventions anda change in water and sanitation practices, could only be discussed in

relation to their poverty. No specific category can be singled out, butit was found that especially female headed households do need specialattention in this respect. ~

that in order to arrive ~at more permanentimprovement .*in living conditions, additional income generatingactivities especially for female headed households are prerequisite. Inaddition, the sanitary interventions would affect the employmentposition of scavengers and ragpickers. The replacement of dry latrinesby flush latrines would abolish the practice of collection of nigh-soilby scavengers, while the introduction of hygienic solid wastecollection practices, if correct, will certainly affect the position ofthe ragpickers. For above mentioned reasons, support was thereforeprovided in formulation of a separate scheme on income generatingactivities for women.

The scheme will be executed by the Self Employed Womens Association(SEWA). The second priority was identified during the course ofpromoting better health care related to water and sanitationpractices. The project is for its scope not in the position to providereferral support to the health agents in the two project areas (PMPsand TEAS). The project is not mt he position either to establish aneffective urban health care system mt eh two project areas. Therefore,support was provided mt eh formulation of an Urban Health Care Scheme

in the two project areas. The project has ~~i~taken up by MemisaMedicus Mundi, a Dutch n.g.o. which specializes in funding health careprojects in third world countries. The project holder is Benaras HinduUniversity which executes the pro~ect in collaboration with te KanpurMedical College and the Voluntary Health Association of India (VHAI).

3. Women’s Involvement in Improving Environmental and Sanitary

Conditions

3.1 Outline

It is widely accepted that environmental and sanitary improvementsrequire a gender specific approach. Women are more affected by poorsanitary facilities than men, either directly. or indirectly throughtheir children. When children have no option other than to play in slumareas with polluted and stagnant drains and waste lying around, themothers are to be mobilized first when sanitary interventions arepossible and community support towards a change in knowledge, attitudesand practices (KAP) is required. When no latrine facilities areavailable, women have to go into the open field before dawn or aftersunset for defeacation. They will be generally more motivated than mento opt for sanitary latrines, especially under congested urbanconditions. When water collection and storage practices need to beimproved, women play a major role since they collect the water most ofthe time. In our case it was found that women collect the water in 74

percent of the cases.

For effective interventions the active involvement and support of womenis required. In summarizing the experiences gained with the UN Waterand Sanitation Decade, it was concluded that only through activeinvolvement of women sustainable improvements in sanitary conditionscould be realized.

Although women’s involvement is accepted as a concept, less clarityexists on the approach arid methodology to be followed in ensuringtheir involvement. For the wide divergency in socio—economic andcultural factors, it is not possible to reach a consensus on onesingle and uniform approach. At the same line, the literature availableon this topic, suggests that a better and more profound exchange ofviews and experiences on operationalization of the concept is needed.At least, we found it difficult to find concrete suggestions on howwomen’s involvement should be concretized. We went through a processof trial and error and thought it relevant to share our experienceswith others who are to face similar processes questions. We discuss thedifferent aspects of their involvement below.

3.2 Women for women

The heading indicates that in order to involve women, the mosteffective entry is to approach them through women. It sounds logicaland simple but in many development areas in which women’s involvementis crucial, it is not applied. In U.P, for instance marginal farmhouseholds supplement their income often by off farm employment inwhich men migrate to other places to find work. The result is thatmost of the agricultural work is being done by women. Still theagricultural extension workers are almost exclusively male.

confidence of women for their access to for men confined enclosures.The first step therefore in starting a water and sanitation project isto employ female staff at all levels. Not only as field workers but ofsenior staff levels as well. We opted for mixed teams of men and womenat all levels. Not all activities are gender specific, while it isimportant as well to mobilize men for change.

Through involving women at all staff levels, it was possible toestablish good contacts with active women at slum level and to mobilize

them for initiating change.

3.3 Mobilization for Environmental Sanitation

The project has a mandate for supporting the local governments inimproving environmental and sanitary conditions in the urban areas ofKanpur and Mirzapur. The change in sanitary practices is related totechnical interventions which are community based. Under communitybased are understood those schemes which have a direct impact onsanitary conditions in the living envirorixnent and which would require asimultaneous change in sanitary practices. It concerns the improvementof the water supply system, solid waste collection and disposal andsanitation.

To ensure community involvement in the planning, execution and O&M ofthese schemes, as well as a change in water and sanitation practices,an indirect approach has been adopted by the project. Use is being madeof intermediate levels of change agents at community level. It concernsthe following categories.

1. handpump users representatives2. community volunteers3. traditional birth attendants4. Anganwadi workers (Kanpur only)5. Primary School Teachers6. Private medical practitioners

of these-different categories, the traditional birth attendant and theanganwadi wprkers are exclusively female. The handpump usersrepresentatives, community volunteers and primary school teachers areeach for about 50 percent female. The private medical practitioners onthe other hand are almost exclusively male.

Through these intermediate change agents, women are mobilized.Involvement of women covers the following aspects.

— Site selection of sanitary facilities (especially the roadsidebins and handpumps)

- quality control during execution— community management of facilities— improved water and sanitation practices— promotion and acceptance of better sanitary facilities

Although women’s involvement at community level has been ensured, alimiting factor remains their involvement in activities beyond theirown community. A large network of (semi—) volunteers which contributesto the programmes, needs coordinating levels. Especially for muslimwomen it remains a constraint to seek an active involvement outsidetheir own areas. It is not only culturally determined but relates to

the time factor as well. They can only devote part of their time to

voluntary work.

The result is a situation in which men have a more dominating role incoordination of community action. The possibilities to overcome it areinvestment in women in terms of human resources development and toexplore the scope for (semi—) paid voluntary work. Paid worklegitimizes women to operate in a wider environment. Anganwadi workers,traditional birth’ attendants and teachers are typical examples.

3.4 Skill Training -

In construction work it is common that women are involved in low paidand unskilled work. At each construction site women can be seen atwork. In the building industry it concerns often gangs of migrantlabourers which build their temporary accommodation at the site itselfby making use of available materials. Since women play an importantrole in improving environmental and sanitary conditions, it was feltthat efforts should be made to increase their share in constructionwork being taken up under the Ganga Action Plan. When the firstconstruction activities started under the project, the common patternwas confirmed that the involvement of women was confined to theunskilled, lower paid and more tiring work such as earthwork, carryingof materials and breaking of stones. As soon as more skilled work was

taken up like masonary work, no women could be found on the siteanymore.

As per date we found two suitable entries to upgrade their skills. Itconcerns the training of women as masons and fitters. The main focus inmasonarytraining has been on the construction of sanitary latrines. Itwould make it possible to involve them in this component being taken up

under the Ganga Action Plan, while after the completion of the schemesufficient possibilities would exist to continue as masons. Not only by

installation of latrines in other areas, but through diversification ofskills in other types of masonary work as well. Two batches of womenconsisting of 15 women each have been trained at Kanpur and Mirzapur.In Kanpur recently the training as female fitters was started for a

group of 15 trainees. Their sustained employment is guaranteed throughinvolving them as maintenance crew for the piped water supply systemand handpumps. Training takes place on the rehabilitation works for thepiped water supply system being taken up under the Ganga Action Plan,while through installation of water tax meters and the subsequentrevenue collection, enough financial scope exists for theircontinuation as maintenance crew for the local water works department.

Without entering into the specifics of the training programmes, wewould like to discuss the special features and the wider implicationsof this programme below. The quotations are from interviews conductedfor a video film which has been made in collaboration with Unicef onthe masonary training programme for women.

Empowerment

Identification and selection of women for the first batch of trainingas masons, was difficult. It was overcome by approaching femaleconstruction workers who were found to be receptive to the idea ofskill upgrading. The selection had to be confined to those areas

showing a concentration of construction workers and in which throughother project interventions, a good rapport was established. Being fromthe same area, it enabled the women to extent each other support. After

the group of trainees had been selected a series of group meetingstook place to build up their confidence and to prepare them for thetraining. An important element thereby was that the illiterates amongthem, had to acquire basic literacy skills first.

Meetirigs were held many times arid it was felt that if a man can be a raj mistry

then why can’t women too become raj mistry. So we alt decided to undergo the

training’.

‘I knew how to read and write. But there were many women who did not know how to

read and write. Sane Learnt to read from their children arid some fran their

husbands and those who did not know at a I L used to cane to their fri ends during

the meetings. There they were given states and their colleagues taught them how toread and write so niich so that they started reading an inch tape. Now all of them

know how to read and write and measure a tape too’. (extract from an interview fora video film)

It is not so that the selected female construction workers never had

the ambition to become a mason (raj mistry). It would be a natural

development within the context of the informal sector that on a youngage a person starts as labourer and gradually upgrades his/her skillsto become a skilled worker. The sheer fact however of being a woman

results in a situation that they remain what they are.

‘Earlier on, the raj mlstry never used to give us a chance to become a raj niistry.We used to give either brick and martar to them. If by chance we handLed theirtools, we were scolded and were told that we couLd not become raj mistry. Thisattiti.ide of theirs used to hurt us. Moreover, we aLso did not have any masons

tools’. (Extract from an interview for a video film).

Although involving women as masons in construction work met withinitial reservations with the local male population, these were easilyovercome by the demonstration of their skills. By showing that womencan do an equal good job or do even better in sectors which aretraditionally reserved for men, is the most convincing factor whichfacilitates their acceptance.

‘In the begirning people used to have reservations about our doing this sort of a job. But

now, since they have cane to know what all this training is about and that we can aLsocapabLy handle this job they now keep silent. Earlier they used to Laugh at us and say how

can a woman become a meson? Now those very people say with respect-Look the raj mistry is

coming, where once only sen were mistries now women too have become mistries. The

construction site at which we are working presently there also, people come arid watch us

do masons job. They tell us that what we are doing is a novel thing and that we have

secured for ourselves a golden opaortunity that mast women cannot get’. (extract from aninterview for a video film)

After the first hurdle of the first batch of skill training was taken,it was found to be much easier to select women for successive batches.

The demonstration effect of the first batch resulted in a situation in

which women themselves started to apply for opportunities to undergo

I-I.

training.

Another positive development was that especially in Kanpur the localgovernment took interest in this type of trainl.ng programmes. For the

first batch of training of masons Sulabh International was partiallyinvolved as resource agency. For the successive batches use could bemade of local expertise available with the concerned local agencies.

The training of fitters at Kanpur was taken up on initiative of thelocal agencies as well.

Acceptance of women as skilled workers

After completion of the training, the masons formed societies in orderto receive independent assignments from the local agencies responsiblefor the sanitation component of the project.

In Kanpur, after overcoming the initial administrative bottlenecks, asystem was established in which the two societies of masons started toreceive regular assignments. Mirzapur shows a different picturealtogether. The authority responsible for sanitation work was found to

be reluctant to provide regular assignments and issued work orderspiecemeal wise only. It is difficult to identify the reasons for itsince the arguments given for not providing work vary over the time.

When one bottleneck is removed then the next objection is raised. Letsdiscuss them as per the time sequence.

The first objection raised was that the masons did not answer thequality standards of skilled (male) masons. By completing their firstassignment successfully and by showing they did on an average a betterjob than their male colleagues, this argument was no longer valid. Thenext objection was that the local agency could only involve societiesthat were approved and had received a government order from the StateGovernment. A government order implies that the concerned society isentitled to a fifty percent advance on construction work. For newentries to this construction field, especially a local society such asthe ones formed at Kanpur and Mirzapur, it is impossible to get asimilar sanction of the State Government. The procedure is tooelaborate for them. With support of the Ganga Project Directorate thishurdle was overcome as well. Even the question of having sufficientworking capital to take up work independently was finally solved, whenthe agency took the decision to start the work departmentally. Theprogress and quality of work shown by contractors and approvedsocieties was that dismal, that the agency decided to take up the workdirectly through involving petty masons on daily wages. When thisdecision was taken it was thought that the problems would be over, butnot so. Only two female masons were enrolled.

For the other female masons it was thought that the speed of work didnot justify the payment of Rs.50/- per day. There is some justificationfor this argument since through prolonged periods of unemployment,most women lost their routine. The suggestion offered that initially atleast they could receive a lower wage till the time they would havebuilt up their routine again was not accepted either since it would be

against administrative rules.

It is not so that for the full, period after completion of the trainingthe female masons have been unemployed. They were involved in otherconstruction works (platforms for handpumps, construction of a drain,

etc) but with prolonged gaps in between. Besides, it is still expectedthat they will be employed gainfully finally on the sanitation scheme.The bottlenecks described above, indicate however what possibleconstraints may be expected.

It is an intriguing question why similar constraints did riot occur, atleast to that extent at Kanpur. There are two possible explanations.First of all at Kanpur the municipality is responsible for execution ofthe sanitation programme. Having been responsible as well forconducting the training programme, more responsibility is felt for thetrained female masons. The positive experience has resulted in a desirewith the municipality to take up more skill training programmes forwomen of a similar nature. Although an important aspect, the decisivefactor in Kanpur has been a work culture with the local governmentwhich reflects its status as a metropolitan city. The municipality ofKanpur is more open and receptive to new and innovative ideas than thatof a small town as Mirzapur. Getting things done prevails over redtape.

Sustainability

The Mirzapur experience shows that sustainability of the programme isnot guaranteed beforehand. We do not take lightly therefore the scopefor sustained employment after completion of the project. For masonarywork diversification of skills is required. The best option availablethereto is the link up with the building centre programme of Hudco. It

provides support to local units (n.g.o’s, societies, municipalities) totake up construction work by using low cost construction materials.The support consists of both financial support and training of workers.The societies formed out of female masons are going to submit anapplication to Hudco for the establishment of building centres atKanpur and Mirzapur.

The sustained employment of the female fitters undergoing training atKanpur presently, is guaranteed beforehand by involving them asmaintenance crew of the water supply system after completion of therehabilitation scheme. The difficulty here is that in order to appointthem as regular maintenance staff, they need a recognized diploma asfitter. The possibility thereto would be to follow a one year courseat ITI, Kanpur. A vocational training institute which follows adifferent training methodology with a heavy emphasis on classroomtraining. We are not very enthusiastic about this type of training forseveral reasons. Learning by doing is a more effective training methodyielding better results, has a shorter duration and fits better in thetraditional system of training within the informal sector. We try toconvince ITI now to endorse the training programme, which would make itpossible to give the trainees a diploma. It would make the differencebetween employment on a daily wage and becoming regular staff andwidens the scope at the same time to take up work independently.

Other options for skill training

Skill training is not necessarily confined to masonary training andtraining as fitters. Investments in improving environmental and~anitary conditions, or any other development work for that matter,generates additional employment. Not only in construction andestablishment but through operation and maintenance as well. In Kanpur

women are responsible now for the production of low cost primary healthcare packets (ORS and TBA kits). From the network of intermediatechange agents, community health workers have been selected which willundergo training in providing basic health care in their respecz~veslum areas. Skill upgrading (sweepers, male masons) takes place as wellbut does not result in additional employment and is not confined towomen only.

Whatever field is chosen, the consideration remains providing gainfuland sustained employment while through this investment a contribut~onis made to improving the quality of life. Whenever possible preferencecan be given to women, but not exclusively.

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4. OCCUPATIONALHEALTH PROGRAI4ME

A significant proportion of the population in Jajmau, Kanpur isemployed as tannery workers. In Mirzapur, the brassware and carpetindustry are the main sources of employment. Therefore, any developmentprogramme in Kanpur and Mirzapur aimed at improving the livingconditions, should address the needs of these professional categories

as well. An occupational health programme was therefore formulated for

the tannery workers in Jajmau and the carpet weavers in Mirzapur. Aprogramme for the brass ware industry is planned to be taken up at a

later stage.

It was felt that in the promotion of better environmental and sanitary

conditions, the work environment is equally important as the living

environment.

The long term objective of the programme is to improve the work andenvironmental health conditions in tanneries and looms and throughthese improvements would contribute as well towards a better livingenvironment.

Short term objectives are:

1. To make a situational analysis of occupational health conditionsof tannery workers and carpet weavers.

2. To formulate and execute interventions with the aim to diminish

the risk of occupational health hazards.

Methodology being adopted includes the following:

1. Situational analysis, including a health and sociological surveyof tannery workers and carpet weavers.

2. Formulation and implementation of interventions, based on theresults of the situational analysis

3. Follow up and monitoring of the interventions.

4. Dissemination of results to various agencies active in the fieldof occupational health, including a workshop in collaboration withthe International Labour Organization (ILO)

5. Ongoing research and publication

4.1 The Occupational Realth Progra~e for Tannery Workers in Kanpur

The baseline survey conducted in April 1988 on community and publichealth aspects revealed certain important features. Firstly, the

largest occupational category (42%) of heads of households in

industrial slum areas were tannery workers. Thus any public health

approach in the area would have to account for the environmentalconditions and attitudes of these workers. Secondly, in the in—depthstudy on public health aspects (1987) which formed part of the baseline

studies, it was found that 12% of the heads of households weresuffering from categories of skin, respiratory and musculoskeletal.ailments with likely occupational association. And last but not least,

even casual inspection within the tanneries revealed a profusion of

U

environmental hazards affecting the health of workers adversely. T~ith

tanneries being the main focus of environmental pollution controlmeasures, it was logically unavoidable to focus attention on theenvironment within the industry also and its linkage with health andgeneral environmental issues.The interrelation of environment at thesource of pollution, and its effects on its surroundings outside thesource is a growingly interesting area of investigation withconsiderable practical implications.

Based on the first short term objective,the first stage in theprogramme consisted of a situational analysis of the occupationalhealth situation. The situational analysis contained the followingelements:

1. Occupational health survey : A detailed medical and sociologicalsurvey was conducted in 20 tanneries, selected randomly, andinvolved the study of 605 tannery workers and controls. This

consisted of administration of medical arid socialquestionnaires,system—wise physical examination, lung functiontests and relevant investigations for all the subjects.

2. Statistical analysis arid compilation of results : Data generatedby the occupational health survey was subjected to detailedstatistical analysis with the help of SPSS including statisticalcomparison of workers and controls and multiple regression toderive an appropriate PEFR prediction equation.

3. Working conditions survey : In each of the tanneries studied, acomprehensive survey Of working conditions was performed on thebasis of a tannery questionnaire containing questions on workhazards and environmental conditions in each tannery.

4. Preliminary hazard analysis : A team of occupational health andsafety experts along with specialists in tannery process andtechnology sequentially visited selected tanneries,representativeof major categories, with an environment/work hazard proforrna.Subsequently the team conducted a work—station wise analysis ofsources and effects of hazards, hazard index, recommended actionsand the likely effects of action for the 17 significantlyhazardous work—stations in the tanneries.

5. Environmental contaminant measurements : In collaboration withR.L.I.,Kanpur measurement of airborne contaminants(dusts andvapours) was performed at workstations like grinding,buffing andspray painting sections where levels of contamination weresignificantly affecting workers health.

The situational analysis yielded a wealth of information,essential for identification and planning of interventions. Themajor outcomes may be summarised as —

a. A comprehensive morbidity profile of tannery workers,revealing a significantly high proportion (28.17 %) ofworkers suffering from occupational morbidity, involvingskin, eyes, respiratory tract and musculoskeletalsystem.Comparison of workers and controls also revealed arange of illnesses with undefined or partial correlation withoccupation. The workstation—wise morbidity profile forms a

baseline to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions.

b. . A complete socio—economic profile of tannery workers withdetails of education, income, employment particulars,migrational background, workstation distribution, personalsanitary habits and information on utilization of medicalservices.

c. A workstation—wise cross—section of frequency and type ofaccidents, usage of protective devices and availability offacilities at the workplace.

d. A detailed identification of health and safety hazards in thework environment at each workstation with data on levels ofenvironmental contaminants and technical recommendations onmethods of improvement.

Subsequent to the situational analysis, the multifaceted interventionprogramme was initiated with the following components:

A. Involvement and Support of the Entrepreneurs

From the commencement of the programme, establishing rapport andmotivating the tannery owners to take initiative with respect toimprovement of the work environment was of utmost importance. In anindustry as traditional and insulative as the tanneries of Jajmau, anykind of intrusion into the tannery domain was viewed with skepticism,at best, and often with considerable suspicion.A multifaceted approach, with an emphasis on positive example andsupport, rather than negative observations or criticism, was adopted ateach stage.

a) Meetings with tannery owners and coordination with Tannersassociations:

In the initial phase of the programme, it was essential to establishthe Thona fides of the programme and establish a working relationshipwith individual tanners. Meetings with individual tanners wereorganized through the two major associations of tanners in Jajmau—Hindustan Chamber of Commerce and Small Tanners Association. Meetingsconvened by the associations were initially a forum for considerabledebate yet also provided a platform for the tanners to voice theirdoubts, suspicions and ideas about not only the occupational healthprogramme but also the pollution control measures planned for thisindustry. An open and supportive approach, clearly stating the mandate,and clarification on the limited sphere of responsibility of theproject ensured that initial misgivings gave way to confidencebuilding.

What finally brought about the support of tannery owners towardsimprovement of the work condition, was the linkage being establishedwith the concept of industrial counselling. It includes aspects asbetter and more efficient production processes and a higherproductivity through an improved industrial environment.

U

b) Involvement in the occupational health survey:

The entire approach and methodology of the survey ensured a basicconfidence in the aims and outlook of the programme. The simultaneousadministration of treatment to all those affected by illness, whetherof occupational origin or not, established that the emphasis was onpositive action, rather than ~academicstudy or collection of punitiveevidence(susoicions generated by previous experiences). Personallytalking to every third person in the tannery(the study sample),including those from the staff and supervisory sections, and proviBionof medication, generated considerable goodwill in the entire communityof the tannery — with the tannery owner often assuming the role ofTheriefactor’!

C) Awareness camp for tannery owners:

After the completion of the situational analysis, introduction ofmodifications in the workplace was the next stage of activity. This wasto be. carried out by the tannery owners with support from the Projectand other agencies and thus necessitated suggestions and acceptance ofthe owners on the need for change. The first major thrust with thisobjective was the awareness camp in which experts from Regional LabourInstitute, Directorate of Factories, Central Leather Research Instituteand the Project interacted with about 40 tannery owners. While theowners were acquainted with the findings about working conditions, theywere also exposed to the idea that improvement of the work environmentis linked with increased productivity and a higher motivation of theworkforce. A range of information about modifications which couldimprove the environment both within and outside the tannery waspresented and discussed. The awareness camp also proved a motivatingfactor for the tannery owners to participate in the subsequentworkshop.

d) Workshop on ‘~Higher productivity & a better place to woric:

This workshop, organised in collaboration with I.L.O. and otheragencies, proved a turning point’in the involvement of tannery ownersin the process of industrial change. The five day workshop involved achecklist exercise, faculty presentations, individual enterprise visitsand preparation and presentation of action plans by the entrepreneurs.With presentations and discussions on diverse areas such as~productivity principles in the tanning industry’, tannery solid wastemanagement’, control of hazardous substances’ and welfarefacilities’, a wide ranging interaction on the interlinked issues ofproductivity, working environment and waste management ensued, withactive participation by the owners. This convergence of experts andalso of issues proved a catalyst for the industrial counsellingconcept.

B. Involvement of workers

The attitudinal modification of tannery owners was paralleled by theactive involvement of workers in the process of workplaceimprovement.The sensitization of workers began during the occupationalhealth survey with sharing of information about hazards and workrelated diseases. With a change—oriented approach, the workers were

convinced that this was a programme for their improvement.Simultaneously with the intervention programme, a set of activities was

developed which would ensure the active involvement of workers inensuring better occupational and environmental health conditions in thetanneries. The specific programmes developed for the workers can besummarized as follows:

i) Training and follow—up of first aid and safety volunteers:

Two workers each from every one of the 20 tanneries studied wereselected for training in basic first aid relevant to tanneries,environmental effects of chemicals and substances in the tanneryand safety & health related practices relevant to tanneries. Afterbasic training of these volunteer workers, follow—up programmeswere also conducted to gain feedback, resolve problems related tothe use of first-aid kits and reinforce knowledge alreadyimparted.

ii) Installation of First aid and health kits:

Specially designed first aid and health kits were supplied to eachof the tanneries from which health and safety volunteers had beentrained. These contain equipment appropriate to the first aid andhealth problems commonly found in the tanneries. While thecontents are administered by the trained volunteers, theresponsibility of replenishment of these kits is of the tanneryowner.

iii) Health and Safety councils:

With the implementation of interventions in the tanneries,participative forums to ensure long—term continuation of theprocess of workplace improvement are being introduced in the formof health and safety councils. These are statutorily mandatorybodies to be present in any hazardous factory, consisting of equalnumber of representatives of management and workers, responsiblefor monitoring the existing environmental conditions andsuggesting and supervising improvements in environmentalconditions. These councils can also act as forums for raisingenvironmental issues and nuclei initiating activities forenvironmental improvement within and beyond the tannery workplace.

C. Formation of Institutional Framework of Agencies:

The process of introducing industrial modifications to improve thework environment is a multifaceted activity with legal, technical,medical arid social aspects. This has required establishing coordinationbetween various concerned agencies and establishing an institutionalframework to ensure continuity of the process of change. The workshopon Higher productivity and a better place to work provided an initialforum for the coordination of efforts by various agencies. Theprincipal agencies involved at the local level included Regional LabourInstitute,Kanpur, Directorate of Factories(U.P.), Central LeatherResearch Institute, Kanpur Medical College and Kanpur NagarMahapalika. Keeping in mind the need for coordination, a task force forimprovement of environmental conditions in tanneries at Jajmau, Kanpur

has been formed with the specific purpose of maintaining an active

coordination of activities by the agencies mentioned above, with

participation of heads of these institutions along with representatives

of the Project. This institutional framework would provide long—term

support to the implementation of interventions in the workplace.

D. Industrial Modification

Based on the hazard analysis and other findings of the situationalanalysis, and drawing upon suggestions generated during the Workshop,certain priority industrial modifications have been identified and arein the process of implementation.

While technical support is being provided by the project, the basicfinancial responsibility lies with the tannery owner to carry out theseinterventions -

a. Vapour reduction/air pollution prevention system in spraypainting sections : Spray painting with the usage of a complexmixture of organic solvents is one of the most hazardous sectionsin the tannery. Firstly , the worker is constantly exposed to highlevels of organic solvents which build up in the ambientatmosphere and cause lung and central nervous system ailments.Additionally, there is a significant fire hazard due to heatedinefficient exhaust fans in presence of high vapourconcentrations. Finally, there is significant air pollution due todischarge of solvents and paint particles into the atmosphere. Aunified exhaust system with ducts centrally connected with ablower has been installed to efficiently exhaust air from bothabove and below the spray horse, thus markedly reducing exposureto the worker. This system also keeps the mechanical blower andvapour separate from the motor thus eliminating the fire hazard.And installation of a filter before the exhaust is discharged intothe atmosphere reduces air pollution.

b. Guard operation and automation of hydraulic press machine:

One of the most accident prone machines in the tannery is theunguarded hydraulic press operated by two persons which regularlycauses severe hand injuries and amputations to the helper to theoperator. Tannery owners are also dissatisfied with its manualoperation without pressure/timing control. A redesigned press has beenbrought into operation which is guard operated and also has art

emergency stop mechanism and pressure cutoff system. This totallyeliminates the possibility of accident. Further, with pressure andtiming control, the quality of production goes up markedly which is amajor advantage for the tannery owner. Now the principal Indianmanufacturer of presses based at Jajrnau, Kanpur has been involved inchanging the design of his press along these lines thereby making itboth safer and more productive.

c. Exhaust and dust collection system in buffing section:

The buffing section where the surface of leather is exposed to anabrasive roller generates considerable leather dust causing seriouslung problems. The fine particles also tend to settle on freshlypainted leather and spoil its surface. To prevent this, a centrallyconnected exhausting system for several machines connected to a dustcollector has been installed which results in marked reduction in dustlevels and better work efficiency.

d. Dust suppression system in grinding section:

Vegetable tanning involves the pulverising of bark and nuts used fortanning. The grinding of bark/nuts, removal of ground material anddumping this in leaching pits are all extremely dusty operationscausing occupational asthma and conjunctival irritation. The dust alsosettles on freshly spray painted leather and spoils its finish. Costeffective mechanism is being implemented which involves a speciallydesigned chute to collect the ground material leading to a fillingmechanism to pack the material into large bags. Further transfer ofti-ieee bags would be comparatively dust—free and local exhaustion atfilling and grinding sites would reduce duet levels there.

e. Introduction of breathing apparatus for confined space operations:

Confined space operations involved in cleaning of pits, tanks andsewage lines within the tannery have caused innumerable fatal accidentsdue to exposure to Hydrogen suiphide gas which is generated by theputrefying organic matter. A relatively low—cost and appropriatesolution to this problem has been designed by using the air compressorscurrently being used in the tanneries. These are to be connected withsmall storage tanks with valves which would supply air under positivepressure to masks to be worn by all operatives entering confined spacesfor cleaning or maintenance operations. Thus existing resources withinthe tannery would be utilised to evolve a system which could be madeuniversally applicable.

E. Development of Promotional Materials

Based on the experiences being gained in the process of situationalanalysis and interventions, promotional materials are being developedfor the following categories

Tannery workers - besides safety posters which have been preparedand convey messages related to specific health and safetyprecautions to be observed in the tannery, manuals and leafletson first aid, detection and action in relation to occupationaldiseases, specific safety measures to be taken at different stagesin the tanning process and awareness of general environmentalissues are also to be prepared.

Tannery owners — based on the experiences of the Workshop andsubsequent industrial modifications, a manual dealing with thepossible improvements in tanneries with the combined objectives ofensuring health and safety, improving productivity and improvingenvironmental conditions is to be prepared.

Health professionals — manual containing details of occupationaldiseases prevalent in this branch of industry, their diagnosis,management and prevention, to assist health professionals indealing with commonly occurring occupational health problems.

Reflection

It is interesting to observe how commencing from an emphasis on purelyhealth related issues in the workplace, the programme has assumedincreasingly broader dimensions. Today the working philosophy andapproach is that of industrial counselling, aiming at providing the

‘4

entrepreneur and the workers with a package of technical assistance andsupport on issues ranging from better health and safety conditions inthe workplace, improving productivity and better management of theenvironment within the enterprise. Given the inherent linkages betweenthese various areas, a coordinated approach could result in a much moreactive involvement of both employer and employees in the management andcontrol of the environmental hazards generated by their industry.Environment within the workplace and environment beyond the workplaceform a dialectical unity, and neither can be adequately dealt withwithout appropriate attention to its converse.

For initiating the process of industrial counselling, the baselineestablished through a situational analysis has proven its worth. Notonly for the direction it gives to the intervention programme, butequally important is the rapport arid confidence it establishes withworkers and employers.

4.2 The Occupational Health Programme for Carpet Weavers in l4irzapur

The objective of the Occupational Health Programme in Mirzapur is toimprove the safety and health conditions of workers engaged in thecarpet industry. Initially, efforts were directed towards theimprovement of health and safety conditions within the looms. Thesituational analysis and the in depth survey directed the attention toa broader concept, including functional literacy of child and adultworkers, improvement of the health situation of the population andcontribution to the organization of the labour force. The main reasonsfor this reformulation are as follows:

- In Mirzapur, the main industries are the carpet weaving and thebrass ware industry. Both industries are categorized under theinformal sector. Their employees are not registered under theEmployees State Insurance Scheme (ESI scheme) and have no accessto ESI health facilities. The laws aiming at the protection of thelabour force do not include the informal sector.Another salient feature of the labour force in Mirzapur is therelative high proportion of child labour, in the carpet industryup to 15%.

In the initial phase, the carpet industry, being the mainindustry in Mirzapur, was included in the study. However thebrass ware industry is more hazardous to the environment thancarpet weaving: contamination of the soil and water by heavymetals and detergents, chemicals and polishing materials.

In view of the results of the situational analysis theOccupational Health Programme was restricted to the followingactivities:

1. Simple interventions for carpet weavers

a Improvement of lighting in the working sheds/looms by placement offiber glass tiles

Tiles have been installed in 30 looms. The original fiber glasstile arranged through UNICEF proved to be of bad quality and fiberglass of the local market was purchased and installed. However,the cost (81 Rs) proved to be a hindrance for total acceptance in

the project area. Nevertheless, some owners of looms accepted theidea and installed tiles themselves at own cost. A positivedevelopment in itself since the aim of the project is to makeinterventions sustainable and replicable.

b. Provision of spectacles

32 spectacles have been provided to carpet weavers in the firststage. This stage proved that bifocal lenses are not useful forweaving purposes.

c Ergonomic improvements in the looms

Ergonomic improvements in the looms have not yet been taken up.These kind of interventions should form part of an overall houseand loom improvement programme. It is suggested to the project toorganize this part of the programme in cooperation with theInstitute of Housing Studies in Rotterdam to formulate a low costhouse improvement programme in the project region.

2. Training of safety and first aid volunteers

9 safety and first aid volunteers have been trained in thetreatment of simple diseases and accidents and received a firstaid box. They are the key persona in the three hamlets andfunction as interlinkage between project staff and the community.They inform the community about the awareness camps and otheractivities which are executed by the project. They have also afunction in referring people to the Tuberculosis center and toother health services available like private practitioners andgovernment health services.

3. Awareness camps

5 awareness camps have been organized. In the first camp, theresults of the situational analysis have been presented anddiscussed. Measures to prevent diseases were discussed. Anoutline of further activities of the Occupational HealthProgramme was presented. Other subjects in the awarness campswere: eye diseases and their prevention, backache and postures inthe pits, its causes, prevention and remedies. Excercises weredemonstrated during the camp, which can be done at home as selfremedy. A physiotherapist will support the community and he willorganize backache prevention excercises for one week. A personwill be trained for further promotion of the excercjses.

During the last awareness camp, the pilot area was affected by acholera epidemy. It was decided on the urge of the community, totake action on a priority basis immediately. First aid volunteersand community leaders visited the water storage and informed theauthorities that the water should immediately be protected. Theuse of Oral Rehydration Solution was taught during the first aidcourses, was promoted and taught to all families in the affectedarea. A smooth referral to the Infectional Diseases Hospital (IDH)was ascertained. This cholera epidemy, although tragical initself, had a positive effect on community organization, the useof Oral Rehydration Packages and the collaboration between thecommunity, municipality and the project staff with regard to

health issues.

4. Literacy programme

In view of the low overall literacy, a literacy programme forchild— and adult weavers was started. In the three hamletseducational committees, with seven members, mostly informalleaders of the communities, have been organized who work asinterlinkage between the community and the project staff. Theprogramme is running at 7 places in rooms provided by thecommunity as well in open air. There are 2 courses for femaleadults, 2 for male adults, 2 for male children, and one coursefor mixed female and male children. The courses are given 6 daysa week. Times differ: 3 courses are organized from 2 — 4 p.m., 2courses are given from 6 — 8 p.m. and 2 courses are Organizedbetween 8 and 10 pm. The mean attendance is 30 people per place.The overall goal of the literacy programme is to improvefunctional literacy, eg. how literacy contributes to an effectivecommunication between the community and the outside world. It is

more than learning the skills of reading, writing and arithmetic,it should contain a direct relationship with their daily life andproblems. The community should know the channels to themunicipality, to the post office and they should know the meaningof signing agreemtnts and contracts.The curriculum for the children consist of basic reading, writingand arithmetic, which is conducted during three months. Subjectsfor the future consist of water— and sanitation aspects. personalhygiene, working conditions and the improvement of theirprofessional efficiency and social life. Other subjects coverhealth education and human rights.

The course for adults follow the same pattern. During the adultliteracy programme, community members asked for other teacningand training programmes in the field of income generationactivities. Sewing has been proposed as a first priority forwomen. These new training activities may serve as a startingpoint for activities of the SEWA income generating project.

5. Health care, including referral support

The Occupational Health Programme trained the first aid volunteersto refer patients to health facilities. It also opened anOccupational Health Centre which aims at simple Mother and ChildCare services, treatment of simple diseases and referral. At thisCentre, made available by the community, consultancy services arebeing provided by local private medical practitioners.

Reflections

The Occupational Health Programme for the carpet industry inMirzapur provides an example of the approach and methodologywhich might be followed for the small scale/cottage industries.The nature of the interventions takeing place has been determinednot only by the outcome of the occupational health hazardsencountered in this industry, but by an assessment of the generalmorbidity as well. For the carpet industry the scope forindustrial ‘modifications was found to be limited and has beenconfined to simple and low—cost interventions. It includes the

improvement of light conditions. It was realized that theprevailing health conditions in the concerned pilot area weremore determined by the overall sanitary— and environmentalconditions prevailing in the area typical for slum areas than bythe working conditions in the looms as such. An exception has tobe made for the ergonomic design of the looms which often resultin backache problems. It was felt however that this specificaspect was beyond the purview of the project. Fot the same reasonthe formation of carpet weavers cooperatives was not taken upalthough it could certainly have contributed towards improvementof their living condition and thereby the health of carpet weaversand their families. On an experimental basis a literacy programmeand health services support system have been introduced in orderto assess if through these entries a contribution could be madetowards better environmental and sanitary conditions. Although itis too early to draw conclusions on the effectiveness of thisapproach, it is felt that the interlinkage established betweeninterventions in the wotk environment and the living environment,a climate conducive to change is created.

A wider concern is the sustainablity and replicability of thedifferent programme components covered under the OccupationalHealth Programme. In the case of Mirzapur the health servicessupport system at the pilot area will be integrated with theUrban Health Care Programme, being established at Mirzapurthrough other channels. It could serve as a model community basedhealth care with decentralized health services providing directentries into the slum areas.

The literacy programme is executed in close collaboration withthe local office of the Adult Education Programme. If found to besuccesful, literacy programmes can be utilized as well forpromoting better environmental— and sanitary conditions andimprovement at the work environment.

5. COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN THE PROVISION OF LOW COST SANITATION

UNDER URBAN SLUM CONDITIONS

5.1 Outline of the Low Cost Sanitation Programme

The low—cost sanitation programme consists of two components; private—

and public latrines. The public latrines are perceived to address theneeds of commuters and those who cannot afford, are not able or havenot enough. ~space to have a private Latrine constructed. Both in Kanpurand Mirzapur about 12 public latrines are being constructed. They arefrom the common Sulabh Shauchalaya type and will not be furtherdiscussed in this context.

The private latrine construction programme covers about 5000latrines/conversions at Kanpur and about 9000 latrines/conversions atMirzapur. On—site sanitation is provided in areas which cannot besewered. Connection to the existing sewers turned out to be onlypossible when the existing network is rehabilitated. The third phaseconcerns the connection to new sewers.

A first assignment for construction of latrines was given to a largecontractor with a good reputation in this field. Even although attemptswere made towards mid—term corrections, it was found that even after aone—year period the physical progress made was extremely slow. Besides,field visits indicated a poor quality of work while a growingdisenchantment was noticed among the beneficiaries with the sanitationprogramme. The latter not only for its quality aspects, but for theprocedures followed as well.

Therefore, the two municipalities together with project staff, decidedto review the progress made. Status reports were prepared which reflecton the experience gained over a period of more than a year. Wesummarize the findings below.

5.2 Bottlenecks and Constraints observed in Private Latrine

Construction

Identification/selection of beneficiaries

The procedure adopted was that the contractor was made responsible forcollecting and submission of the names of the beneficiaries. Interestedhouseholds had to fill in an application form, pay the registration feeafter which the names were to be entered into the registers of themunicipality.

The status review learnt that along the way, certain lapses occurred.The major observation was that the list of beneficiaries providedinsufficient information to locate all the listed households again. Inaddition, only partially adherencewas made to a phased implementationof the programme. On—site sanitation was proposed as well for areas notcovered by sewers.

A more serious matter was that reports were received form differentslum areas with complaints that although registration fees werecollected, no latrine was constructed. On investigation it was foundthat the names of the concerned households were not registered with themunicipality.

Slow Progress of Work

The normal expectation is that a contractor shows keen interest intaking up a maximum amount of work. Not so in this case, because thecontractor concerned, although certainly having the capacity to take uplarge scale construction work, was only able to construct a few hundredlatrines in Kanpur and Mirzapur each, over a period of more than ayear.

The only possible explanation can be found in the financial procedureadopted. The contractor was provided with an advance which nears thetotal cost of construction. The advance was given based on the list ofbeneficiaries submitted to the executive agency. This constructionmakes it attractive for a contractor not to take implementation tooserious. Since the money is already paid, no incentive remains to dothe actual construction in a timely manner with adherence to thequality standards.

Quality Aspects

Notwithstanding a fairly strict monitoring of the constructionprogramme by project staff and staff of the executive agencies, a highpercentage of about 40 percent of latrines constructed, showedtechnical defects. The major defect observed were undersized leach pitswhich indicates that latrines were constructed in places withinsufficient space. Other defects were relatively minor, but indicate alack of concern and insufficient skills to adhere to the qualitystandards.

What was found frequently as well were latrines constructed on the edgeof vacant plots, latrines installed right in the living room, seatsfacing west for muslim families or east for Hindu families which isobjectionable for religious reasons. Inappropriate positioning of thelatrines can only be explained out of a lack of assertiveness with thebeneficiaries towards staff of the contractor agency. Construction oflatrines at vacant plots is related to a desire for markation of theplot and its authorization.

Use of the Latrines

A strong relationship was found between the availability of asuperstructure and actual use of the latrine, condition. At the time ofthe survey 30 to 40 percent of the latrines constructed, were not usedfor this reason.

The explanation is found in the provision of latrines upto plinth levelonly. The construction of a superstructure is left to thebeneficiaries. It has an in—built contradiction in the sense that forconstruction upto plinth level an attractive financial arrangementexists. Fifty percent subsidy with the loan to be recovered over aperiod of 5 years against an interest rate of 6 percent. On the otherhand, the construction of a superstructure of brick walls, wooden doorand a roof top of galvanized iron is costing between Ra. 600 to Re. 700and has to be paid in one go.

Misconceptions

The limiting factors were not exclusively confined to the mode ofimplementation of this programme. Certain misconceptions prevailed aswell with the target population. The popular belief is that inconstruction a cement sand ratio of 1:3 should be used, while thedesign specifies a ratio of 1:6. Questions were raised as well aboutfrequency and method of emptying the pit after it has been filled. Itwas considered to be unhygienic and costly to have it emptied. The factthat after digestion over a period of one year, compost would remainwhich does not pose any health hazard in removal, was not widely known.

Another common misunderstanding encountered was that through thedigging of pits the walls of the house would collapse. It will only beso if a certain minimum distance is not adhered to.

5.3 Measures towards Improve~nent

Based on the outcome of the status review, an agreement was reachedbetween all parties concerned, to modify the programme. Its mainfeatures are discussed below.

Preparation of the beneficiary lists

Instead of identifying beneficiaries only, it was decided to conduct ahouse—to—housesurvey area—wise in order to derive at a comprehensiveoverview of the sanitary conditions. At the same time the beneficiarylists were prepared. For the house—to—house survey, a pre—establishedquestionnaire was used which do provides sufficient details for properplanning and execution of the programme. A survey format is enclosedfor reference, Subsequently, a phased planning was prepared andestablished on maps.

The survey was conducted directly by the executive agencies, for whichadditional staff was assigned the responsibility exclusively for thispurpose.

The engineering staff assigned to this task was supported by communityworkers from the municipalities stationed in the project areas and weresupported in their field work by community volunteers from therespective pockets. The latter category forms part and parcel of thenetwork of change agents established by the Canga Action Plan in Kanpurand Mirzapur and does comprise more than 500 persons each at present.

The volunteers assisted the survey team in investigating theavailability of space for leach pits, whether on—site or off-sitesanitation has to be provided, which size and type of design of leachpits was required, etc. Simultaneously they promoted in their areas theadoption of sanitary latrines and explained the modalities foracceptance and construction of latrines.

Promotion activities during construction

Along similar lines, community volunteers are being involved duringconstruction activities, to motivate the households which werepreviously not yet ready to accept sanitary latrines, to do so. Toconvince them is facilitated by an area—wiseapproach in which a betterquality of work and acceptance by neighbours are important factors

thereby. Certain misconceptions are addressed by providing informationabout the technicalities involved to the community volunteers andthrough them, to the target population.

A departure in promotion activities was that the construction of asuperstructure by the households themselves was being promoted. Itimplied that although in principle the possibility was opened to optfor a superstructure through an additional loan arrangement underseparate financing, no efforts were made to materialize this option. Itwas felt that it would increase the financial burden of households,while by using simple and locally available construction materials atleast provisional structure could be made. It was noticed that by fullyincorporating the construction of a superstructure through self—help inthe promotion activities, the actual use of the latrines installedsharply increased.

Construction through masons cooperatives

Under the Ganga Action Plan, a masonary training programme for female

construction workers had been taken up. The purpose was to increase theshare of women involved in the more skilled jobs available throughconstruction work. The training consisted of 3 weeks classroom and 3months on—the—job training. The first batch of trainees consisting of15 women each in Kanpur and Mirzapur, formed afterwards a society totake up construction work directly. Presently, the second batch isundergoing training.

It was found that although the female masons have less workingexperienced, they were able to do a much better job than their malecounterparts from contractor side. Being highly motivated and properlytrained, they are much more conscious about quality aspects.

During field investigations, it was very normal to receive complaintsfrom masons working for a contractor, that they were riot allowed or notknowledgeable enough to adhere to the quality standards. The firstrelates to compromises made by the contractor on the quality of work inorder to ensure additional profits and the second aspect relates toinsufficient training.

It was therefore decided to organize a skill upgrading programme forpetty masons from the project area. The programme was of 3 daysduration and had as main aim to learn from earlier mistakes made. Fieldvisits were made to learn from the past experience. At the same time it

was felt that masons, both male and female, could play an importantrole in promotion of better sanitary practices. Part of the course wasdirected therefore to equip the masons for this task.

The formation of registered societies of masons has the followingbackground. There is a multiplicity of Acts of the Government of India,which protect the construction workers from exploitation bycontractors. The following acts are relevant for the industry:

1. Workmen Compensation Act, 19482. Minimum Wages Act, 19483. Inter—state Migrant Workmen Act, 19574. Contractor Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970

.3)

Provisions cover aspects as minimum wages, health benefits, etc.Enforcement is difficult however for the nature of the constructionindustry. The workers do find seasonal employment most of the time andhave to take up other jobs in the off—season period. The constructionindustry also involves the largest percentage of migrant labour whichshifts from one place to another. Its labour force is unorganized andopen to exploitation from contractor side.

The formation of registered societies of petty masons from the areaitself enhances the accountability for the work done. It operates itsown bank account and the profits go directly to the masons themselves.

Initially, there was the bottleneck of the societies not having thefinancial muscle to compete for work orders directly. Althoughsocieties can obtain a government order which entitles them to 80%advance, it is not sufficient to start work independently. Theassignment through a government order has the additional disadvantagethat it adheres to PWD rates, while contractors get paid according tomarket rates. No advance is provided to contractors however. For thelarge differences that through inflation can evolve between the PWDrates and market rates, the societies worked below profit margins for aconsiderable time.

For the support of both local governments and the Ganga ProjectDirectorate towards this experiment, the initial bottlenecks have beenremoved. The societies were given work orders/initially covering alimited number of latrines only, financial support was increased andthe cost estimates were adjusted taking into consideration theprevailing market rates.

5.4 Reflections

The change in modus vivendi ~in implementation of the LCS programme, hascertainly contributed to a better quality of work and a greateracceptance of sanitary latrines.

Although the outcome is positive in itself, it is too early to presentthe approach bei,ng followed as an example for other sanitationprogrammes. The provision of sanitary latrines has to go hand in handwith a change in sanitary practices, in order to maximize the impact onthe prevailing health conditions. It is too early yet to claim thiseffect. Besides, insufficient experience is available on propermaintenance of the latrines in terms of removing the sludge from thepits, regular cleaning of the sewers, etc.

The second observation is that the spectrum between on one side privatelatrines and on the other side, public latrines, is too wide. Theestimates are that about 30 percent of the target population cannotavail of individual latrines because of a lack of space, the housebeing on rent with the owner having no interest or the household beingtoo poor to opt for a latrine. There are doubts whether public toiletsalone can answer the needs of all those households who are not in aposition to opt for a sanitary latrine and an intermediate systembetween private — and public latrines might be required.

In terms of replicability the approach followed has certainlimitations. The training of masons and the formation of societies isonly feasible when sustained employment can be offered through sizeable

construction programmes. Diversification of skills is a long termrequirement.

The preparation of the lists of beneficiaries by the executive agenciesthemselves, was yielding positive results because of their interlinkagewith community workers from the municipality working in the concernedproject areas for already a considerable period of time. Through themcontacts could be established with community volunteers acting asintermedium between the executing agency and the target population.These volunteers were well acquainted with the programme and itsobjectives through their earlier involvement in other programmecomponents. They did participate in orientation and follow-upprogrammes organized and conducted by the Municipalities whichsentisized them and made the environment conducive towards change.

6. THE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF HANDPUMPSIN URBAN SLUX A~REAS

6.]. Introduction

When the project started in 1987, a crash programme was taken—up toprovide emergency relief to the target population in terms of sanitaryfacilities. To establish the priorities for interventions, a community

survey and baseline survey were conducted. The surveys were carried outin a period in which a third successii~re drought year resulted indrinking water scarcities which did seriously affect the population.

The inventories made on existing sanitary conditions established forMirzapur, that large parts of the core city were served with pipedwater supply providing water through private and public taps. However,owing to leakages in the network and water spillages, an estimatedpercentage of 70 percent of the water supply did not reach, theconsumers. The water losses did result in under—pressure in the pip~es,contamination of the water through dirt sucked into the system and],irnited hours of supply. Long queues in front of the public standpostswere a common sight. Households having private connections oftenresorted to suction pumps being connected to the pipe lines at thehours of supply. An undesirable situation considering its healthhazards but for the prevailing water scarcities, understandable initself.

In the core area of Mirzapur but even more so in the fringe areasthere was a large dependance on traditional wells numbering more than200. At that time most of the wells had gone dry and those still inoperation were highly contaminated.

In Jajmau, Kanpur, the situation was not much different. Waterscarcities prevailed, especially in the higher elevations, where tapwater could not reach owing to the low pressure in the pipelines. Inthe Northern belt, characterized by an intermergence of tanneries andslums, the main source of drinking water were public taps beingprovided by tanneries operating their own tubewells. The provision oftap water was found to be relatively better as compared to Mirzapur,with estimated losses amounting to 40 percent. On the other hand, thenumber of in-use wells was considerably less.

Based on the inventory taken and the need assessment, priority listsfor installation of handpumps were prepared. It covered those slumpockets which faced an acute shortage of drinking water. At a laterstage, additional lists were prepared for those areas where shortages

were less acute. It concerned those areas covered by piped water supplyand which would benefit from the planned rehabilitation programme ofthe piped water supply system but after a number of years only.

Below, we describe the methodology followed in the site selection ofhandpumps. We present as well the attempts made towards theestablishment of an O&M system with the active involvement ofespecially women. Rather than describing the state of affairs, we willreflect on the process since it is felt important to share theexperiences gained in the development process.6.2 Handpump site selection

The need assessment included the inventory taking and mapping of allexisting water sources. Group interviews were held by community workers

in more or less homogeneous clusters comprising 50 to 200 households.Through this process, project staff and community workers from themunicipalities could familiarize themselves with the project area anddid establish the first initial contacts in the different slum pockets.

The next step was to determine the sites where the handpumps wouldactually be placed. It involved an elaborate participatory processaimed at reaching a consensus on the most suitable sites for eachpriority area. In each area community members were invited to holdcommunity meetings to identify their own needs and indicate theirpreferences for sites. Separate meetings were conducted of men andwomen in which lists of preferred sites were prepared. In theconcluding meeting the proposals were discussed and the technicalfeasibility of the proposed sites was assessed. The system of havingseparate meetings first of women was not always readily accepted.

In Ooncha Tila, one of the slum pockets in Jajmau, men andwomen were holding separate meetings to decide on the sitepreference. Especially important so because the area ispredominantly muslim. Without initial segregation it wouldnot have been possible for women to have their say. When itturned out that the mens list and the womeris list showedmajor differences it resulted in a strong defence of thewomen of their own choice. During the meetings, one of themen could not stand it any longer and shouted at us, ‘Is thisthe attempt to make our wives rebel against us. They havestarted quarreling and disobeying at home as well’. After thefirst man came out like this, it was learnt that many othermen shared the same misgivings.

Surprisingly enough, after explaining the importance ofinvolving women in the decision making process regarding thelocation of water sources, peace was settled again and themen present accepted the arguments. It is mentioned asurprise, because it is something you expect to find in textbooks but is not expected to work as an argument in slumlevel discussions.

After this argument at Ooricha Tila, more attention was paid atsubsequent meetings, to possible reservations with men about involvingwomen in the process of site selection.

What is described above, gives a fairly rosy and smooth impression ofthe process followed in site selection. However, there were constraintsas well some more serious than the others, but neverthelessconstraints. We discuss them below.

The caste factor

It would be incorrect to say that the decision making process can betotally left to the community. For that, the concept of a communityneeds to be defined first. Mirzapur is basically a medium sized ruralservice centre, in which the caste factor still plays an importantrole. In Kanpur, being a Large industrial city with a sizeable migrantpopulation the caste factor is less dominant. Separate castes and sub—castes for their habitat tend to cluster in pockets. Caste feelings arestill strong enough to prevent lower castes from using the same watersource without even raising objections. In organizing communitymeetings, this factor had to be taken into consideration, especially inMirzapur. The clusters were selected therefore, in such a way that theuse of the handpuznp could not be monopolized by a higher caste. Themethod there is easy. Make sure that the site of the handpump islocated within the cluster of the lowest caste. It is a good preventivemeasure against caste monopolization.

Not is all cases a consensus could be reached and the decisionregarding site location was kept pending and had to be abandoned in afew cases. It happenedwhere small clusters had to share a handpump andcould not reach a consensus.

The political factor

Often the provision of public facilities is considered to be not aright but a political favour which is arranged for by a politician forits vote banks through its contacts and influence over the bureaucracy.The site selection process is determined accordingly, with suggestionscoming from the local followers of the politicians. The choice of sitesis thereby not necessarily confined to the better off areas becauseminority communities and schedules castes, often being the inhabitantsof slum areas, do form important vote banks. The result is handpumpswhich are conveniently situated for local slumlords having theappropriate affiliations with the party that happens to be in power orSites which can hardly be qualified in terms of priority. Sincepolitics tends to be still overwhelmingly a mans world it is obviousthat women are not involved thereby in the process.

This factor could not be totally avoided in the process adopted in siteselection. When the lists were finalized through a participatoryprocess and were submitted ot the concerned authorities, alternativesites and lists were submitted through the political channels.

In this situation it turned out to be critically important that aproper justification based on priority needs, was made beforehand. Aconsensus could be reached on most of the identified sites and wereendorsed accordingly by the political level. Some good suggestions foradditional sites were given as well, but it happened in a number ofcases that political priority gained preference over actual needs. Itbrought project staff in the impossible situation to explain toaffected communities, why sites selected earlier, had to be abandoned.Rather than justifying it, the staff confined itself to explaining thesituation and in the mean time did make efforts to have the decisionreversed.

The individual factor

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There is no need to romantisize the process of community participationin site selection. Every individual tends to prefer a site that isconvenient to himself/herself. Discussions initiated on communitypreferences for a restricted number of handpumps can result in strongindividual objections and even fights. There is not much to do againstit except for establishing first the required number of handpumps andwait till a consensus has emerged. Outside interference to satisfyindividual preferences should be avoided. A condition thereby is thatthe informal opinion leaders from within the community are identifiedfirst and are in the position to guide the process.

6.3 Bandpump installation

Although the installation of the Indian Mark tI handpump is done on awide scale, it turned out that, especially in Kanpur, the quality ofinstallation was poor. The main reason was the involvement of smallcontractors with a lack of adequate equipment and skills. The resultwas a large number of handpumps being out of order or not givingsufficient yields.

A task force had to be fielded consisting of project staff arid staff ofthe implementing agency, to assess the condition of each handpump

installed and to propose corrective measures. The task force wassupported by Unicef office, Lucknow. Based on its findings repair workon handpumpswas carried out or redrilling done.

A main bottleneck in installation of handpumps is the lack of propersupervision. Therefore, it was decided to facilitate more communitycontrol on installation through training of handpump usersrepresentatives in proper installation procedures as well. It concernsaspects as providing information on required depth, number of pipes tobe used, etc.

6.4 Operation and Maintenance

To facilitate the community management of the O&Mof handpumps, a totalnumber of about 300 handpump users representatives have been trainedin Kanpur arid Mirzapur each. They are mainly man—womanteams, in whichone team takes responsibility for the handpump in their vicinity.Theywere selected based on community consensus but under the condition thatthey should be users of the handpump water themselves.

The initial training programme for handpump users representatives hadthe following objectives:

After the course the participants should be able to do the following

— to carry out preventive maintenance such as tightening of the nutsand bolts and greasing and oiling of the chain.

— to promote that the handpump site and its surroundings are keptclean.

— to promote safe water practices within their community— to carry out simple repairs— to identify the causes of breakdown and reasons for defects of the

handpump and duly report to the water works department foradequate action.

In addition, on—the—job training was provided to the maintenance crew

L1(

of the water works department by carrying out repairs on defecthandpumps.

The training programme was for two days and was conducted phase wisefollowing the progress in installation.

The experience gained with conducting the training programmes andmonitoririg of its impact in terms of the effective utilization ofhandpumps installed, did result in a number of modifications. For thelack of response of the water works department towards complaintsreceived, the reporting system for issuing complaints was revised.Loopholes were closed and the responsibilities of the handpump usersrepresentatives vs the maintenance crew of the water works departmentwere specified. It was found that most repairs were carried outthrough community initiative thereby using mechanics from the privatemarket. Most of the time, these mechanics did more damage than good,which in itself resulted in friction with the waterworks department. Asa policy decision it was agreed that repairs would be totally theresponsibility of the water works department which clarified mattersto a large extent.

From a strategic point of view and under the fortunate circumstancesthat the Ganga Action Plan covers a wide range of sanitaryinterventions, the network of handpump users representatives wasincreasingly mobilized to make other sanitary intervention successful.The first step was to seek their ~upport in community management of allin—use water supply sources in their vicinity, with the exception ofthe piped water supply system. The rehabilitation work for this lattercomponent has been taken up only recently after improving the watersupply capacity first.

The other water sources being covered now are in—use wells andhandpumps installed at earlier stages. Since these sources remain inuse till at least the piped water supply has been improved, it was feltnecessary that the quality of these sources should be controlled aswell. Water quality monitoring was introduced. With the support ofhandpump users representatives, regularly water samples are taken ofeach source and checked on possible contamination in the laboratory.Chlorination takes place as per need and requirement, again with thesupport of h/p users representatives.

Another development which has taken place is that this network getsincreasingly involved in other sanitary interventions taking place. Thenetwork of handpuxnp users representatives is well spread over theproject area and covers all slum areas. The handpumps are thereby usedas rallying point for mobilizing communities for other interventions,especially the sanitation and solid waste schemes.

6.5 Monitoring and follow—up

In monitoring of the effective utilization of the handpumps two aspectscan be distinguished. The first aspect is the establishment of anadequate operation and maintenance system. This need has been answeredto a large extent. Through a regular review of the progress being made,step—by-step, the system was modified and improved. The bottleneck atthe moment is a regular supply of spare parts and bleaching powder. Itrequires fixed budget lines with the water works department, to ensuretimely repairs. In itself however, it is a positive sign that this

‘ii

stage has been reached. The second aspect is that water practices needto be changed to prevent contamination of the drinking water betweencollection and consumption. Practices need to be introduced whichguarantee the safe storage and handling of drinking water.

We plan to introduce a monitoring system for this purpose which wouldfacilitate that change agents at community level can regularly reviewthe progress being made in this field. Important, because one of ourearlier findings was that although 50% of the samples taken from watersources showed contamination, at consumption point over 90% of thesamples indicated contamination. It could imply that even by ensuringsafe water supply, the effect on health would be minimal for thecontamination that takes place in the process of collection andstorage. To promote safe water practices is a necessity therefore.

The network of handpump users representatives could play a crucial rolein changing water practices with outside support from the communitydevelopment cell of the municipality and by using a monitoring systemwhich would indicate to them how far they have reached.

Coll. No. EFR1/MSRJ 91/K3

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