Environmental Planning and Renovation of Ports and Harbours in Bulgaria

8/13/2019 Environmental Planning and Renovation of Ports and Harbours in Bulgaria

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ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND RENOVATION OF PORTS AND

HARBOURS IN BULGARIA

EMMANUEL BOON

Department of Human Ecology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 103

B-1090 Brussels, BELGIUM

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Over the past few decades, the inextricable link between planning for socio-economic development

and environmental health has become more obvious. Previously, the main policy objective of socio-

economic development in all countries of the world is improving the quality of life of the

population. Most countries attempted to achieve this by formulating and implementing development

plans without any serious effort to integrate environmental considerations into the process.

However, in order to ensure that human activities interfere minamally with the functioning of the

life support systems or natural ecological processes, environmental planning is becoming an

increasingly important imperative in the rapidly globalised world economy. This paper provides an

overview on the concept of planning, environment, and the importance of and approaches to

environmental planning. The application of planning to port environments in Bulgaria certainly

involves strategic management implications. The paper discusses a number of useful strategic

management elements to guide an effective integration of environmental planning in the

management of ports and harbours in Bulgaria. These key strategic considerations includeenvironmental education and training; institutional and human capacity building; increasing and

broadening participation; co-operation, networking and partnerships; and the evaluation and

monitoring of port operations for the detection and mitigation of negative impacts. The discussion

of the chapter is supported by a case study on the ports and harbours in Ghana .

Keywords: Environmental education, Environmental planning, Institutional capacity building,

Monitoring, Planning process, Strategic management, Sustainable development.

1. INTRODUCTION

Although the extractors of the various natural resources hold different views on the justification oftheir activities, the continuing depletion of the earths resources at an increasing rate remains a

fundamental and an increasingly serious problem. As Agenda 21 [UN, 1992] points out, the

prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to separate economic, social and

environmental factors at the policy, planning and management levels. The various actors who

exploit and use natural resources often look myopically at the environmental system and see only

those parts which are within their own sphere of activity and/or interest. Indeed, it is because of this

myopic viewpoint that various human interventions in the environment often tend to work against

each other. Clearly, given the fact that environmental issues are complex, plagued with uncertainty

and highly political in nature [Bardwell, 1991], more attention than hitherto is needed in planning


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and implementing human activities in order to ensure a move towards sustainable development.

The introduction of environmental management systems at the national level in many countries, and

the requirement that such systems should go beyond merely restoring environmental damage to

actually reducing or eliminating pollution, clearly show the importance of environmental planning

in forestalling further damage to the natural environment and society. Not surprisingly, economic

policies that are not integrated with environmental planning, or do not address environmental

protection issues adequately, tend to exacerbate environmental pollution. The extensive damage thathas been caused in many countries through the exploitation of resources such as forest products,

minerals, agricultural lands and water bodies is symptomatic of the lack of proper environmental

planning. Furthermore, planning for socio-economic development and the health of the environment

are inextricably linked. For example, if the landscape loses its productivity, standards of living are

bound to decline; and, when it loses its aesthetic appeal, property prices may fall. Clearly therefore,

environmental planning needs to be done and implemented in an integrated manner at the level of

the local community, as well as at regional, national and international levels. Rosenbaum

[Rosenbaum, 1974] has identified a number of obstacles, which hinder effective environmental

planning:

'...in the past, national governments have been potent environmental degraders because their

planners usually treated the environmental consequences of policy as a secondary effect -unnoticed, unplanned, and seldom emphasised....Whether through indifference, ignorance, or

political expediency, public officials, by disregarding ecological values, established a highly

stable formal and informal policy process that circumvented the environmental problems they

were generating.'

Another increasingly serious problem facing the world today arises from the fact that environmental

pollution does not respect national boundaries. Increasingly each nation is both creator and victim

of pollution created by others and, consequently, it is becoming impossible for nations to protect

their own environment without regional or international co-operation.

Many Central and Eastern European countries and the South are seriously disadvantaged by their

limited planning and administrative structures. Often their ability to plan effectively is also thwarted

by poverty (sometimes extreme poverty), low level of public awareness, little or no public

participation, and civil unrest. [OECD, 1995a] The absence of effective legislative and

administrative procedures for incorporating ecological data into the decision-making process

constitutes another major hindrance to effective environmental planning and management.

The approach to development planning in most of these countries has been 'top down'; and this led

to excessive centralisation of the planning machinery; concentration of development efforts on

selected sectors of the economy without any appropriate linkages among the sectors or with the rest

of the economy; and concentration of socio-economic activity in a few of the urban centres.

Slocombe [Slocombe, 1993] adds that while the negative environmental and social impacts of

mega-projects and suburb and urban growth have long been known, only recently haveenvironmental problems been framed in planning terms. Devuyst [Devuyst, 1993] emphasises that

'environmental concerns in developing countries should be marked by a determination to achieve

sustainable development in an environmentally sound manner'.

Political and organisational obstacles constrain the ability of governments in developing countries

to formulate more credible environmental management systems [Carley and Christie, 1992]. Also,

the prevailing acute shortage of indigenous management skills at nearly all levels constitutes a

major, if not the major, constraint to the achievement of socio-economic development. The inability

of current managerial and planning systems to cope either with the dynamics of rapid change, or


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with the interaction between numerous organisations, entrepreneurs and the environment, is referred

to as limits to governance. These interactions among the various actors produce enormous

turbulence in the environment, which further erodes the ability of governments and non-state actors

to achieve sustainable development.

Two other critical problems, which hinder effective sustainable environmental planning in bothdeveloped and developing countries, are fragmentation of policy and institution and tensions which

can occur between central, regional and local governments. Governments often pursuecontradictory policies. But both politicians and the public appear to be impotent and lack thenecessary will or motivation to force those in power to undertake the difficult task of mediating

between conflicting social, economic and environmental goals for protecting the environment.

A further difficulty in environmental planning is caused by international rivalry. It creates tensions

in international relations and makes collaboration between and among nations difficult to achieve.A typical example of this is the wide and growing socio-economic disparity between the rich and

poor nations, which is often a critical issue in all discussions on environmental planning andmanagement at the international level. Similar problems of both developmental planning andenvironmental planning also occur at the organisational level, as they do at national andinternational levels. G. Daneke [Daneke, 1982] illustrates the situation thus:

'The incentives for corporate planners to interact with social and environmental policy analystsare certainly present in terms of reducing investment uncertainties, but an atmosphere of mutualco-operation to achieve viable trade-offs between economic and environmental concerns may bedifficult to achieve.'

2. UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

Clearly, ensuring a good environment, and moving towards sustainable development, require acomplete understanding of the total environmental system as well as of the political, organisationaland managerial functions of modern society. In other words, learning to understand the interactions

between the environment and society is an important pre-requisite of effective environmental

planning and management.

The environment comprises many subsystems, actors and processes. The main environmentalsubsystems are physical, biotic, ecological, social, political, economic, and technological. Thesesubsystems include all subsurface elements, all man-made and natural surface elements, as well asthose of the atmosphere. The local community, public agencies, professional associations, propertydevelopers, property owners and the general public are the key actors in the environmentaldecision-making process

Often, environmental decision-making is significantly influenced by both behavioural and cultural

dimensions. Environmental decision-making can be nation-specific or region-specific. There are, on

the other hand, increasingly serious global environmental problems that can only be addressed

through international co-operation, collaboration and partnership. The stratospheric ozonedepletion, the greenhouse effect and diminishing biological diversity are today the main global

environmental problems [Field, 1994]. A number of serious human health and agricultural crop

damage are attributed to ozone depletion and the earths rich bio-diversity. This is putting at risk the

proper functioning of global ecosystems that are so vital to both a healthy environment and human

well-being.

Given the complexity of the environment and the increasing environmental problems being created

by various types of human activities, it is clear that a holistic approach to studying environmental

problems is more effective. It is therefore important that the environmental subsystems and their


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respective elements are analysed and documented in a way that facilitates easy communication and

understanding by all the relevant actors and stakeholders. This means that formats, which permit

intelligent debate and decision-making and minimise confusion and conflict between and among the

actors, must be adopted. Understanding the environment as a system and the interactions amongst

its subsystems should be based on an analysis of the cause and effect relationships between and

amongst the various constituent parts and the stakeholders. In addition, a planning and management

system that permits simplification and eliminates duplication or overlap within the existing system

is needed. It should however be recognised that the final outcome of the environmental decision-making process of ports and harbours of Bulgaria depends on the values they the ports attached to

the environment. It should also be noted that each port and harbour is unique, with its unique set of

values which have evolved over time. The uniqueness of a given port should therefore be the

principal determinant of its environmental planning and management system.

3. TRENDS IN PLANNING

3.1. Definition and importance of planning

Planning takes place in different environments, in a village, town, country, region or in

organisations such as ports and harbours. However, the elusive nature of planning is acknowledged

in the literature [Smith, 1993; Wildavsky, 1973]. It is argued that planning can be all things to allpeople the ability to control the future by current acts, the application of causal knowledge, a

form of political power, and an act of faith. Benveniste [Benveniste, 1989] sees planning as the

elaboration of a set of related programmes designed to achieve certain goals ... [and the] ... planning

process is the set of interventions and other actions undertaken during the elaboration of a plan.

Planning may be said to be a rational methodology for approaching the future. It involves the

definition of the problem to be addressed, establishment of planning objectives, identification of the

assumptions on which planning is to be based, search for and evaluation of alternative courses of

action, and the selection of a particular action to be followed [Compton, 1993].

What is probably more important is the fact that development, or human well-being, is a primary

concern of planning. Development itself is increasingly defined in social and environmental terms.

It is seen as enlarging the range of peoples choices, including access to income and employment

opportunities, education, health and a clean and safe physical environment. Carley and Christie

[Carley and Christie, 1992] recognise the prevalence and importance of developmental planning

thus:

'Most...countries have...economic plans, forest plans, plans for tourism, industry, services,

ranching etc. not to mention plans for rural agricultural development. All these plans and

development efforts impact on one another; and can conflict with one another...in an attempt to

harmonise economic development with sectoral objectives, a land use planning overview is

essential ... a planning framework within which public bodies, the private sector and individuals

can all operate.'

Baldwin [Baldwin,1985] prefers to consider planning within a wider context of resource

management as the initiation, transformation, distribution and disposal of resources in a manner

capable of sustaining human activities, with a minimum disruption of physical, ecological, and

social processes. For Slocombe [Slocombe, 1993], planning is the collection and analysis of

information to serve the public interest by performing a wide range of human, economic and other

developmental activities.

Another significant trend in planning is the need to maintain cultural diversity, while at the same

time aiming to provide people with an environment that supports their way of life. People from


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different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about what constitutes a satisfactory

environment. Planners should therefore have a proper understanding of how people react to their

environment; otherwise unnecessary social costs may be incurred through the unintentional creation

of environments that alienate people.

3.2. Approaches to planning

There are many approaches to planning, including substantive planning and procedural planning.Substantive planning is concerned with the subject matter of planning, or the object of planning.

Procedural planning, also called the classical model of the planning process is a means for

promoting economic growth through the application of rational procedures of thought and action.

[Faludi, 1973; Cayer and Weschler, 1988] The planning process should be separated from the

substantive content of the plan itself. Procedural planning consists of the following inter-related

steps [Cayer and Weschler, 1988]:

identification of needs, specification of goals and objectives, development of alternative means to attain each goal, estimation of the costs of each alternative, selection of the most promising alternative(s).

Darke [Darke, 1983] advocates the integration of substantive planning with procedural planning. Heargues that procedural planning theory is only a partial approach to the explanation of planning,

because it is inherently confined to a conservative political philosophy that views social action froma strictly functional perspective. Moreover, the role of the state as an agent of change is not takeninto account in procedural planning, neither is an analysis based on class, gender or politicalideology. Procedural planning theories are also said to have limited methodological basis andconstrained by their adherence to the notion of rationality. These weaknesses of the approach

prevent it from addressing adequately the larger social milieu of a planning endeavour. It is argued,therefore, that the substance of planning should not be separated from the planning process. Hudson[Hudson, 1979] suggested five types of planning, which include synoptic planning, incrementalmodel of planning, trans-active approach to planning, advocacy planning, and radical planning.

Other approaches to planning include the top-down approach, the bottom-up approach, a mixture ofthe top-down and bottom-up approaches, and the team approach.

At the micro level planning generally entails the setting of the enterprise objectives and establishingthe policies, procedures, and programmes for their realisation. It involves determining what needs to

be done, by whom, and by when, in order to discharge ones assigned responsibilities. In otherwords, the exercise is to establish a predetermined course of action within an agreed policyframework. Customarily defined as strategic, tactical, or operational, it can be at the individuallevel, at the level of a working group, or at the functional level of an organisation. At the individuallevel, planning is required to deliver assigned tasks while at the working group or the functionallevel it must include agreement on purpose, assignment and acceptance of individualresponsibilities, co-ordination of activities, increased commitment to group goals, and lateral

communication.

Mintzberg [Mintzberg, 1994] gives an excellent review of the various definitions of planning andtheir interpretation. For some, it is thinking about the future, or simply taking the future intoaccount. To others, planning is about controlling the future not just thinking about it but actingon it or enacting it. More comprehensively, planning is decision-making the consciousdetermination of courses of action designed to accomplish purposes a formalised procedure fordelivering an articulated result in the form of an integrated system of decisions.

There are many reasons why organisations need to plan. One is to ensure the co-ordination of their


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activities, taking the future into account by preparing for the inevitable, pre-empting theundesirable, and controlling the controllable. Organisations must plan to be rational. The planning

process also determines the position of the planner and indicates how, and to what extent, thegeneral public should be involved [Slocombe, 1993].

4. CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

It is unfortunate that while developmental planning is largely the work of economists andmainstream urban and regional planners, environmental planning remains the exclusive and

separate realm of environmentalists, ecologists, and resource managers of various kinds. Beer

[Beer, 1990] sees the role of the planner as thinking more widely about how environments can be

maintained or created to ensure human well-being within the socio-economic constraints and

conditions of the community in question and its perception of the environment. In other words,

planners do need to translate the concerns of the community for their immediate habitat into

strategies and policies in order to guide the planning process. Growing concern for the quality of the

environment, and for the preservation and conservation of nature, is thus a fundamental objective ofenvironmental planning. It underlines the need for integrating both environmental and health

aspects into the decision-making process of national planning. W. Rosenbaum [1974] argues thecentral role of environmental planning thus:

Faludi [Faludi, 1987] sees environmental planning as the sum total of all public environmental

measures which an environmental authority can take. According to him, an environmental plan which is a document (or documents) used in guiding operational decision-making on public

environmental measures therefore stands for the outcome of deliberations in environmentalplanning. Westman [Westman, 1978] views environmental planning in terms of measuring the

value of the earths resources and predicting changes caused by disturbances. It is concerned with

the analysis of social, economic and environmental relationships resulting from human activities,

and with the design of programmes and action plans for improving both social well-being and

environmental health. He stresses the importance of environmental planning in these words:

'It seems clear that if we are to preserve for future generations some semblance of the biological

order of the world of the past and hope to improve on the deteriorating standards of urbanpublic health, environmental science and technology must quickly come to play a dominant rolein designing our social and industrial structure for tomorrow ... The prediction of impacts may

form part of tasks in environmental planning and design, resource management, and appliedecology.'

The objectives of environmental planning thus include measures to be taken under a variety ofcircumstances, some of which cannot be known in advance. The environmental planning processalso forces public officials to aggressively assert governmental power in vast areas of the economythat have been left largely to private interests. National governments need to establish priorities forenvironmental protection, calculate and create the trade-offs to be made between environmental

protection and other national goals, and plan resource use and protection over several generations.In addition, the planning process should give equal emphasis to both national socio-economicdevelopment and environmental quality.

It is very important for national governments to be more sensitive to the environmental impacts oftheir own policies, and more willing to sacrifice other objectives to environmental protection whengood ecology so dictates. Nations will bear not only severe environmental costs for delaying such

planning, but will also incur high political and economic costs. Delaying environmental planningmay lead to severe environmental costs; it may also lead to near-crisis situations whosemanagement would entail high or very high social costs.


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The design and implementation of appropriate and effective environmental plans depend on theability to prepare accurate Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs).

The purpose of EIA is two-fold: first, it attempts to identify what functions of the affected resourceswould be modified by each alternative proposal; and secondly it attempts to predict reliably thedirection and magnitude of any modification likely to result from each alternative decision or actionas compared to when that action is not taken. Evaluation, on the other hand, is the subsequent

examination of both the patterns of modifications caused by the action(s) taken and theconsequences thereof. The approach to environmental planning should be broad, based on bothmonetary and non-monetary considerations. Good inter-disciplinary skills are needed in anintegrated planning approach. From the very outset, the environmental planner needs to understandthe distinction between environmental assessment and evaluation. Faludi [Faludi, 1987]suggests that planning should depend on the context in which it takes place the planningenvironment Ryding [Ryding, 1994] proposes two different but closely related environmental

planning and decision-making approaches which are very relevant to ports and harbours:

the institutional approach, used in the social planning process (including agricultural, forestry,municipal and transportation sectors), in which remedial measures are often in the form oflegislation, regulations, taxes and charges; and

the commercial approach, used for planning in the business sector (including energy production,and industrial, trade and retail sectors), in which remedial measures can be in the form of non-regulatory initiatives for improving existing treatment processes, developing newenvironmentally-friendly processes and products, reducing waste through waste minimisation

programmes, and/or for improving the logistics of transportation, storage and sale of products.

A generalised planning and decision-making model for all aspects of environmental protection isshown in Figure 1.

Three pertinent features of environmental planning can be deduced from this figure. The first is themulti-disciplinary nature of planning which, for example, involves economic, social, ecological,land-use and technical considerations. The second and third features refer to public involvement inthe planning process, and to the systematic approach of the process starting from the setting ofobjectives through to the implementation of remedial programmes, assessment of results and a

permanent feedback mechanism.

Input to the general planning and decision-making model derives from the separate priorities set in

the institutional and commercial approaches and from the outcome of analyses of potential

consequences based on user and cost/benefit elements. The following must be considered during the

environmental planning process of ports and harbours in Bulgaria:

environmental effect-oriented issues should focus on the minimisation of ecological threatsvis--visthe input of the mixture of pollutants released;

technologically-oriented issues should focus on access of all countries to best availabletechnologies;

economically-oriented issues should focus on potential financial consequences beforedecisions are made; also, both financial aid programmes and modalities for transferringnecessary technology should be decided upon.

The planning and decision-making approach of ports and harbours in Bulgaria may be based on the

following:

initial evaluation of the environmental areas under threat; priority list of actions; plan of action; procedure for remedial actions; and regular auditing.


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In order to ensure that all the various issues are properly addressed and that nothing important is

forgotten or omitted, each step in developing a common strategy needs to be comprehensively

assessed and checked with the help of rules-of-the-thumb. The acronym ACTION, explained below,

provides a suitable set of such rules:

Figure 1. General sequence of planning and decision-making aspectsin im lementin remedial ro rammes. S. R din . 681 1994 .


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A: Anticipate the participation/involvement of all the stakeholders and the general public in the

environmental planning and decision-making process as well as in the different environmental,

technical and economic consequences;

C: Conclude the most plausible economic and environmental development;

T: Tabulate the possible advantages and disadvantages of all potential decisions;

I: Initiate a thorough evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of alternative decisions;

O: Omit all less useful alternatives and highlight the preferred ones; and

N: Negotiate with all relevant parties for the acceptance of the preferred action.

In general, the following characterise an environmental plan:

all stakeholders and the general public should be involved in setting and discussingenvironmental priorities;

the plan should be relevant and capable of meeting the stated environmental objectives; the plan should be operational and cost-effective at both regional and global scales (this

implies the allocation of environmental investments beyond national and regionalboundaries); and

the plan should be realistic and feasible.4.1. Strategic environmental planning and management

Effective environmental planning and renovation of ports and harbours in Bulgaria require a sound

application of the concept of strategic planning and management. The relevant elements of strategic

planning and management for ports and harbours include the following: the setting of clear

environmental objectives and the definition appropriate policies and programmes for their

achievement; effective environmental education and training; institutional and human capacity

building; participation; co-operation; networking; partnerships; and harmonisation of policies; andfinally, evaluation, monitoring and control.

4.1.1. Strategic environmental planning

Environmental management is about the achievement of particular environmental goals and

objectives which may be broadly defined in terms of the protection and/or improvement of

environmental quality [Compton, 1993]. The setting of clear environmental objectives for ports and

harbours in Bulgaria is important in the planning process; the objectives help to determine how

specific policies and actions should be developed for their achievement. It is important that

environmental planning and management of ports and harbours in Bulgaria are guided by long-term

strategic considerations and the need for renovation. Environmental objectives may be set as precise

quantitative targets, or expressed as broad aspirations.

Strategic planning is an effective tool which nation states and organisations can use to estimate thedegree of risk of port policies and actions in Bulgaria, This will help to facilitate the realisation oftheir environmental goals and objectives. However, the top management of port organisations musthave a sound conceptual understanding of long-term planning if it is to apply this tool effectively.Daneke [Daneke, 1982] sees strategic planning as a process for distilling social goals and

objectives, and design of alternative scenarios or road maps that become the basis for meaningfulcollective choice. According to Steiner and Miner [Steiner and Miner, 1977] the essential featuresof strategic planning are:


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it deals with the future impact of current decisions and actions; it examines the cause-and-effect relationships of an actual or intended decision or action

over time;

it examines the alternative courses of action that could be taken in the future, and, whenchoices are made, how they should form the basis of current decisions;

it considers future opportunities and threats together with other relevant data, therebycreating a management regime to improve current decisions for exploiting future

opportunities and for avoiding future threats; it is a process which begins with the setting of objectives and the definition of strategies and

policies to achieve those objectives; detailed plans should be developed to make sure thatappropriate strategies are implemented to achieve the stated objectives;

it is a continuing process of deciding in advance what is to be done, when it is to be done,how, and who is going to do it;

it is a philosophy, an attitude and a way of life. It is an understanding that planning requiresdedicated action based on the contemplation of the future; a determination to plan constantly

and systematically as an integral part of management; and

it may be defined as a structure of plans a structure which integrates strategic plans withshort-term operational plans.

In the absence of comprehensive strategic environmental planning and management, most countriesand organisations, especially the developing and Central and Eastern European countries, will face

mounting social costs in the long-term. Studies made by the UNDP [UNDP, 1995] on theexperience of a number of developing countries in formulating and implementing their national

conservation strategies, national environmental action plans and national Agenda-21 reveal the

following weaknesses:

the strategy was not a priority, either at the government level or at the local level; the process was externally-driven, without domestic resources and without prioritisation; emphasis was on the product (ie. strategy or action plan as a document) rather than on the

process;

there was lack of stakeholder involvement, and no ownership or implementation;each report or strategy was treated in isolation; no coherence, no information gathering and

no historical antecedent which could facilitate subsequent work; locally available management skills were insufficient, sometimes grossly so.

As Box 1 shows, port management in Bulgaria must acquire a number of critical skills if they are to

succeed in developing workable environmental plans.

Box 1: Skills needed in drawing up an environmental plan

Preparation of the plan:Preparing a plan can be a long, complicated and expensive process,

for the ports, harbours and the stakeholders. Handling the sometimes thousands of submissions

and the consequential hearing and decisions can be a highly complex process, with many

stakeholders and consultants involved. Good project management techniques are essential to

maximise efficiency, reduce delays and co-ordinate resources and inputs.

Plan Structure:The structure of an environmental plan is a fundamental matter to resolve at the

beginning of the plan preparation process. Complex structures may seem better in theory, but

can be difficult to use and more expensive to change.

Plan Contents:A plan typically contains a range of supporting technical information such as

appendices, diagrams, tables, and maps. There are a variety of techniques that can be used

some more effective than others.


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Engaging Decision-makers:Active engagement of the decision-makers (EPA, local authorities,

etc.) in the process is an important aspect of plan preparation. This can be difficult given the

complexity of the issues and the length of the process (often over many years and election

cycles). Decision-makers must also have a full understanding of the issues and the statutory and

legal requirements. They should be fully informed and involved in the process, and appropriate

means should be taken to facilitate the hearing and decision-making process.

Writing Rules: Writing rules, which have the effect of regulation, is a critical skill to planpreparation. It requires a good understanding of legal principles, as well as a clear focus on the

purpose of each rule.

Alternative Methods:In order to produce a good environmental plan, the ports must assess the

full range of possible ways of achieving good environmental outcomes, and must produce a

written record of this assessment process.

Plan Integration: Integrating a plan with the policies of other plans can present some

challenges. A plan might need integrating with the plans of other local authorities (district-

regional integration, or the plans of adjoining local authorities) and with the ports own internal

plans and policies, such as strategic plans, codes of practice, and safety and security plans

Making Plans User-friendly: Plans can be large and intimidating documents, and often

difficult to use, especially for the lay person. It is therefore important to use appropriate

techniques to improve their legibility and ease of understanding and use.

Dispute Resolution: Dispute resolution is an essential skill for policy-makers, and is needed

throughout the plan preparation process. In resolving disputes it is important that the views of

different parties are given credence, while ensuring that plan provisions remain cohesive and

effective policy instruments.

4.1.2. Strategic environmental managementStrategic management is a process by which organisations determine their purpose, objectives and

desired levels of attainment; decide on actions for achieving these objectives in an appropriate

timescale, and frequently in a changing environment; implement the actions; and assess progress

and results. Whenever and wherever necessary, the actions may be changed or modified. The

magnitude of these changes can be dramatic and revolutionary, or more gradual and evolutionary

[Thompson, 1997]. As is illustrated in Figure 2, an effective strategic environmental management

system for the ports and harbours of Bulgaria can serve as a basis for overcoming the above

deficiencies. It is essential that port management should ensure a creative and error-correcting

system that gives the ports their purpose and cohesion, and assures a satisfactory return on

investment. Strategy refers to a well co-ordinated set of action programmes aimed at securing a

long-term sustainable advantage whiles strategic management is the systematic identification of,and response to, opportunities and threats, both of which can and do originate from a firms

domestic and/or international market. Strategic management is a continuous iterative process

founded on the reality of good management practice. It focuses on the present strategy of the

organisation, supported by the resources and strengths generated in the past. It also focuses on the

design and implementation of a strategy that will carry it successfully into the future [Stahl and

Grigsby, 1992]. The analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, referred to as

SWOT analysis, usually covers both the internal and external environments of the organisation.


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Figure 2: The Strategic Management Model. Source: Wheelen, T. and Huger, J. (1995)

Wheelen and Hunger [Wheelen and Hunger, 1995] have proposed a strategic management model,shown in Figure 2, which separates the various activities that must be linked together in making

strategic decisions for an organisation. As can be seen from this figure, strategic management

involves the formulation, implementation, evaluation and control of strategic plans of the

organisation in question. Strategic management is also concerned with how an organisation goes

about translating its policies, missions, objectives and goals into results. This, however, can only be

done if the organisation carries out a proper assessment of its internal and external environments.

4.1.3. Environmental education and training

Probably the most demanding task in environmental planning and management of ports and

harbours in Bulgaria is that of educating and providing its employees with training and skills for

predicting the likely outcome of human activities on society and the environment itself needs to beintegrated into environmental education (EE) programmes. Indeed, enhanced public awareness of

environmental issues and problems is a critical and over-riding concern in successful environmental

planning and management [Buckley, 1991]:

In the longer term this may be done through the normal school education system. Unless publicenvironmental awareness is improved in the short-term, however, long-term improvements willbe too late. More effective means to communicate the importance of environmental concerns tothose in business, government and the general electorate are urgently needed.'

Clearly, therefore, any effort to develop an innovative and productive environmental planning

system is unlikely to succeed unless public officials, charged with a nations environmental

management, cultivated an ecological conscience themselves Environmental education and training

are most appropriate for equipping such officials and other environmental stakeholders with

essential skills in environmental planning and management. In particular, environmental education

would help port administrations and stakeholders to acquire essential skills for understanding and

using basic analytical techniques and tools such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Social

Impact Assessment (SIA) and Economic Impact Assessment (EcIA) [Clark, 1989; Jain and

Hutchings, 1978; Welford and Gouldson, 1993].


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Apart from helping to redress the lack of skills referred to above, environmental education and

training will also equip environmental scientists, especially in the developing countries, with

expertise in the appropriate and integrating styles of environmental management, as well as in

institutional and organisational development. However, the approach must be multi-dimensional, as

shown in Figure 3. Single issues must be analysed in their wider environmental context. And this

would require the acquisition of wider and deeper knowledge of the environment which should be

documented and disseminated in a simple but effective manner to all the social sectors concerned.

Dissemination of information would facilitate both the setting of environmental priorities and

international co-operation in environmental planning and management.

4.1.4. Increasing participation

For Stohr and Taylor [Stohr and Taylor, 1981] the most appropriate approach to environmental

planning is planning from below; that is, planning for the people and with the people. As Carley

and I. Christie [Carley and Christie, 1992] point out, environmental issues must be fully integrated

into socio-economic planning and involve public participation at all levels individual,

community and global. Faludi [Faludi, 1987] also refers to planning as teamwork in which

discussions should not be limited to the chief planners and politicians, but should involve all

sections of the community. He sees participation as a means of furthering criticism, thereby

expanding the range of options considered. Ryding [Ryding, 1994] also suggests that, at the

individual level, people should assist in environmental protection work through participation in

environmental organisations. At the community level, environmental considerations should be

integrated into all sectors of society, while the responsibility for safeguarding the environment at

the global level should be shared by all countries, both rich and poor. Planning without participation

is ineffective, undemocratic, paternalistic, and doomed to failure. Effective participation will

Figure 3. Multidimensional Approach to Planning.

R din 1994


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however depend on the scope and goals of the strategy and the likely participants as well as on the

political and social circumstances [OECD, 2002].

4.1.5. Co-operation and partnerships

Chechile and Carlisle [Chechile and Carlisle, 1991] cite a number of new environmental challenges

which compel the various stakeholders in the environment to change their attitudes to

environmental issues. These challenges include the high degree of uncertainty attached to the long-term; complex inter-relationships of numerous variables and time constraints; shrinking distances;

widening scope; and cultural diversity. The complexity of these challenges implies that

environmental policies, plans and programmes of individual countries and organisations need to be

effectively co-ordinated and harmonised. Principle 27 of Agenda 21 of the United Nations

Conference on Sustainable Development [1992] held in Rio de Janeiro emphasized the need for

cooperation and partnerships by the world community to ensure the attainment of sustainable

development. Also, the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held

in Johannesburg in 2002 [United Nations, 2002] recommended the establishment of partnerships

amongst sustainable development stakeholders to facilitate the implementation of the Plan of

Implementation (PoI).

The OECD [OECD, 1995b] recognises that environmental planning needs to be effectively co-

ordinated at the international level, because planning requirements are proliferating and becoming

increasingly more complex. Also, given that environmental plans are made at the local, regional,

national and international levels, and that the planning process often involves several agencies, it is

clear that co-operation between and among the different agencies is paramount. To this end Morell

[Morell, 1995] suggests that the planning process must have two characteristic features: first, a

mechanism for wide dissemination of decisions and information; and, secondly, established

structures enabling cross-functional activity. Effective modalities of communication are critical to

both and should be developed to ensure wide access to relevant information. For example, video

and tele-conferencing facilities can help to reduce the cost of interaction and, at the same time,

increase the frequency of communication among the experts. Also, partnerships and networks

should be developed to facilitate both understanding and consensus-building among people with

diverse expertise, outlook and cultural background.

Both governments and environmental stakeholders often play an important role in ensuring that

environmental policies, programmes and actions are co-ordinated and harmonised. A successful

implementation of environmental plans requires co-ordination at all levels. In the case of

developing countries, a high level of co-operation between aid donors and the recipient countries is

needed to make sure that all these actors understand each other and that they do not work against

each other [OECD, 1995c]. National governments must be at the centre of co-ordination at the

following levels:

between sectoral ministries and their related organisations; between local, regional and national authorities; between various external actors such as UN agencies, bilateral donors, and international

organisations.

Some current attempts to improve co-ordination include the following:

better information networks; sensitivity to national characteristics (culture, tradition, etc); multi-layer co-ordination; institution-building and tools; co-ordination at the sectoral level as a practical starting point;


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providing incentives for co-ordination at the individual career level; training experts in multi-sectoral planning and implementation; indicators of sustainability; agreed indicators to measure changes in both natural and social

environments to determine whether sustainability of activities is being achieved.

4.1.6. Human and institutional capacity building

Human and institutional capacity building, also referred to as institutional and organisationaldevelopment in literature, is critical for effective environmental planning. Institutional development

addresses legal and organisational constraints and limitations in human resources, while legal

institutions underlie the fabric of development and environmental control [Carley and Christie,

1992]. For example, property systems and land use planning controls are very important factors in

the development and conservation initiatives in ports; yet, very often programmes are initiated

without an analysis of these fundamental systems. Legal systems include the necessary laws,

regulations and environmental standards, and the government framework to implement them. The

legal system also embodies formal arrangements for centralisation or decentralisation of planning

and implementation, as well as the institutional arrangements of government.

In some countries environmental plans are made by a number of agencies. Such multi-planning

agencies are clusters of related planning organisations which permit a wider input of specialisation

as well as co-ordination of tasks [Faludi, 1987]. The aim of inter-organisational development should

be to forge new, formal and informal linkages among agencies of the government, and beyond

government to business and the voluntary and community sectors.

There is now an urgent need in most of the developing countries for institutional capacity building

for sustainable development. For this, it is suggested that a critical element in strengthening

institutional and legislative structures is the selection of environmental policy instruments [Buckley,

1991]. There are three main types of instruments for putting environmental policies into effect,

namely technological, regulatory and economic. Training of professionals and strengthening of

institutional structures are the two critical areas in which aid donors can assist the developing

countries [Buckley, 1991]. The OECD [OECD, 1995a], for example, regards co-ordination andharmonisation of donor approaches to the formulation and implementation of sustainable

development activities as key factors for improving the effectiveness, efficiency and quality of

development co-operation. Measures proposed for improving co-ordination include setting realistic

goals; better information networks; the recognition that people count; training of relevant donor

and recipient personnel; and the assessment of co-ordinated activities as part of professional

evaluation processes.

A key challenge in harmonising environmental plans and planning requirements is to find ways of

mutually acknowledging the substance of different plans and strategies, or even common points or

areas between different plans. It is also necessary to develop a better understanding of how sectoral

strategies relate to the overall planning framework. The translation of plans to suit different

national requirements on the basis of experience is an important measure for promotingharmonisation. For example, donors, whether bilateral or multilateral, need to be careful so that they

do not accentuate the existing problems of the recipient countries.

Inter-organisational development and networks help to facilitate both exchange of information and

resources needed for environmental problem-solving. Acting as non-hierarchical social systems,

networks permit co-operation and collaboration in implementing sustainable environmental

projects. For example, research by Lee [Lee, 1994] on community participation in the planning

process shows that, with necessary support, citizens at neighbourhood and community levels can

manage lanes, waterways, and waste collection and disposal systems; and that they can also develop


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and enforce access rules and reciprocal obligations among the members of the community.

According to Carley and Christie [Carley and Christie, 1992] there are four main types of networks

serving different functions. They include policy networks that are based on the major functional

interests of the government. Such networks are characterised by stable relationships, continuity of

restricted membership, shared responsibilities for service delivery, and insulation from other

networks. Issue networks are considerably less integrated by comparison. They have a large number

of participants but a limited degree of inter-dependence. Some are based on the need to sharetechnical information, while others on shared concern over issues such as conservation of the rain

forest. Professional networks cut across policy and issue networks, while producer networks are

concerned with economic functions and relationship between the private and the public sector.

Investment in individual and team skills is one of the keys to organisational innovation for

improving the management process, not only in terms of both personnel and professional

development, but also for upgrading all other supporting organisational, institutional and legal

structures. Incentives are an important means of generating commitment. At higher levels both

networking and consensus-building must be made so stimulating and essential to good decision-

making that senior officials would not like to be left out of the process.

4.2. Case study on combating marine pollution in ports and harbours in Ghana

A summary of the main environmental concerns in the Port of Tema in Ghana and management

responses to the issues clearly illustrate the importance of systematic environmental planning of

ports in developing countries and those of Central and Eastern Europe. Until very recently, Ghana

Ports and Harbours Authority (GPHA) did not have a clear and documented environmental policy.

A draft policy exits but is still awaiting approval by the Board of Directors. GPHA has two main

ports located at Takoradi and Tema.

The Port of Tema commenced operations in 1962 and comprises the commercial port, the fishing

port and an industrial area. Through their daily operations, each of these subsystems of the port

contributes significantly to the pollution of the coastal and terrestrial environments. The Port ofTema was opened in 1962. It encloses a water area of 1,659,247 square metres and a total land area

of 3,904,754 square metres. It has 12 multipurpose berths with a maximum draft of 9.6 metres.

These berths include one oil terminal for the Tema Oil Refinery. Of the 80 per cent of the

international trade handled by the two deep-water ports of the country, the Port of Tema alone

handles 66 per cent. Imports make up 85 per cent of the trade passing through the port. Major

imports include crude oil, petroleum products and dry bulk cargo including alumina, pitch and

petroleum coke. As a result of a significant increase in shipping operations at the terminals of the

port. The vessels calling may be discharging their oily waste, sewage and garbage along the coast

and even in the ports, in the absence of any reception at the ports. Tar balls found on Ghanaian

beaches have been attributed to unlawful discharges of waste by ships in the coastal environment.

4.2.1. Existing regulations on pollution

Ghanas current vessel-source pollution prevention law is modeled on the 1954 Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL 54). Under this convention, Ghanas domestic

legislation enables her to prevent discharge of oil only within 50 miles of her coast. Ghana has

ratified MARPOL 73/78 but it is not legislated into domestic law. It requires port operators to

provide oil reception facilities to enable ships to discharge or deposit oil residues. This is not so

under OILPOL 1954. Article 45 of the Ports Regulations, 1964 (LI 352) under which no ballast,

ashes, oils, pants or other objectionable matter shall be thrown overboard or allowed to escape in a

port supplements the provisions of OILPOL 54. If a master wants to discharge clear ballast, he must


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first obtain a written permission of the Harbour Master. MARPOL 73/78 specification requires

Ports to provide oil reception facilities in ports. These are absent from our ports.

Oil in Navigable Waters (ONWA, 64) does not take account of the 1962 and 1969 amendments to

the 1954 Convention, which leaves Ghanas initial treaty obligations concerning ships

unimplemented. These ships may lawfully discharge oil outside the old 1954 prohibited areas (50

mile limit). The continuing oil pollution around the fishing harbour from bilges in breach of the

ONWA 64 and the port regulation 1964 calls for implementation of current conventions such as theLaw of the Sea Convention (LOSC), 1982 and MARPOL 73/78 which have been ratified by Ghana.

4.2.2. Vessel-source pollution

The port was rehabilitated during the 1980s and this resulted in an increase in the port cargo

throughput from 2.8 million metric tones in 1987 to about 5million metric tones in 1996. The total

number of vessels has also increased from 679 in 1987 to 1022 in 1993. Tanker traffic has increased

from 25 in 1987 to 110 in 1995 and 100 in 1996. All these vessels release some oil into the water

through operational discharges.

4.2.3. Risk of collision in the port

With the increase in the number of tankers, the risk or threat of pollution in the coastal environment

from vessel collision or grounding exists in or near the port areas. Emergency response facilities at

the ports are therefore necessary. The numerous minor accidents at the Volta Aluminium Company

(VALCO) berth are evidence of possible accidents occuringin the port. There is a probability of

offshore oil pollution of the coastal waters from seabed exploration and exploitation.

4.2.4. Tanker operations

Oil tankers discharge oil at the oil terminal through an oil pipeline that feeds the Tema Oil Refinery

(TOR) storage facilities. Small spillages into surrounding waters do occur. When off-loading is

completed, the disconnection of the hose between the tanker and the pipeline also results in releases

of oil into the water. The cumulative effect of these spillages on the environment could become

significant over time. Tema Port has no waste oil reception facilities even though this is a

requirement of the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from ships and

MARPOL73/78 Protocol.

4.2.5. Vessel operations at the fishing port

The Fishing Harbour has a draft of 7 meters and can accommodate vessels up to 250 tonnes.

Smaller vessels use the inner harbour, whiles the outer harbour is built for bigger vessels. It has an

800-ton oil storage facility (Ghana Bunking Services Ltd) inside the outer Fishing Harbour. The

lines run along the quay walls and supply fuel to fishing vessels. Pollution associated with oil

discharges is a problem at the harbour.

The Fishing Harbour has a large fleet of vessels. While some of the fleet are actually engaged in

fishing, a large number of them lie idle in the port. These end up in the port for long periods and

generate a lot of bilge, which is pumped directly into the sea. There are no reception facilities in the

port and the port has been unable to monitor these vessels and to stop them from polluting the

coastal waters. Many of the small crafts laid up face the risk of sinking. The port monitors these and

whenever a list is observed on any vessel, the port takes steps to pump out any water intake. In

some instances, particularly when a vessel is lying in a traffic lane and found to be sinking, the port

authority tows and dumps in near coastal waters.


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4.2.6. Oil spill emergency response plans

Ghanas Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has a national oil spill response plan in place. It

has also trained personnel who would direct any response action nationally. The Port of Tema has

adopted its own plan from the national one. To ensure the mitigation of oil spillage impacts, the port

has procured equipment for oil-spill control. This includes a dispersant pump and booms fitted on

tug boats (one each for Tema and Takoradi). The list also includes oil containment booms, floating

oil skimmer and high pressure cleaner. Periodic oil spill combating exercises are performed with theequipment on the tugboats. Training has also been provided the personnel who operate the

equipment in time of need. Regular exercises are also done by the staff of the marine operations

department in preparation for any combat action.

It must be emphasized that the technology for oil-spill response is still evolving and therefore

scientific information is needed to determine the type of equipment needed for a particular spill.

The Port Management Association of West and Central Africa (PMAWCA) is working towards the

establishment of a marine hydraulic laboratory. This will enable member ports to jointly collect and

analyse data for oil-spill and other activities.The provisions of the protocol to the Abidjan

Convention should be implemented. More importantly, the OPRC Convention should be ratified by

Ghana.

4.2.7. Land-based pollution

The port handles among others, chemicals including those for the soap industry, textile industry and

bagged fertilizers. Although the storage facilities at the terminals where these cargoes are kept are

cleaned regularly to ensure health and safety in the port environment, the wastewater is directly

discharged into the sea. The difficulty is that the type of chemicals and their potential toxicity are

not fully known by the port or other relevant agencies. Land-based pollution is caused bythe

following human activities:

a) Industries

The quantity and diversity of industrial wastes have increased without any proper waste

management practice in the country. There are about 4,000 manufacturing industries nation-wide

with about half of these classified as medium to large. Sixty per cent of these medium to large scale

industries is located within the Accra/Tema area an area which covers only one per cent of the

total land area of the country. The concentration of industries in the Accra/Tema area is a cause for

concern with regard to pollution.

Industries in Tema include the Tema oil Refinery (TOR), Volta Aluminium Company (VALCO),

textile Industries, food processing, steel works and cement works. For many of these, the Chemu

Lagoon that drains the entire industrial region of Tema is used as a receptacle for both industrial

and domestic waste. These streams of waste eventually end in the sea with their attendant adverse

effects on marine life.

TOR is said to contribute about 20 percent of industrial pollutants by weight through its refining

process. However, Act 235 of the oil in Navigable Waters (ONWA) 1964 prohibit the discharge of

oil and oily mixture within designated waters from any such operations.

b) Fish market and surrounding areas

A lot of waste is generated at the Fish Market and the surrounding areas in the Fishing Harbour. A

number of fishing companies, fish canning factories and Banks are located within the Fishing


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Harbour. There is a large fish market at the Fishing Harbour for retail activities. Waste from fish

and `other food items sold in this area are collected by vehicles to a central dumping point for

burning. Some solid waste may be thrown into the seas. While their effluents are discharged into

drains leading to the sea, solid waste is dumped at a central point and burnt. At the canoe fishing

area, a similar situation occurs. Here rubbish collecting along the beach washes into the sea creating

all manner of litter. Hawking takes place at the Fishing Harbour and is a significant contributor to

solid waste generation. The port provides waste receptacles and the rubbish is removed regularly.

c) Port administration

Port administration also generates significant amounts of paper. In the absence of recycling, large

quantities of daily paper waste are dumped into bins that are later burnt

4.2.8. Capacity building Efforts

GPHA accords priority to capacity building, especially in the following areas:

a) Plant maintenance workshop

b) Civil engineering workshop

c) Electrical and marine workshops

4.2.9. Recommendations

In view of the fact that pollution problems (both vessel-source and land-based) are real in the port,

the following recommendations are made for the ports consideration and action.

a) Port Environmental policy and management

A thorough environmental policy and management plan are required for the port. These will

provide standard guidelines for ensuring pollution control in the ports terrestrial and marine

environments. The policy should include an effective environmental management system.

b) National maritime legislation

GPHA is directly supervised by the Ministry of Ports, Harbours and Railways. Under its extensive

training programme, the GPHA has trained three maritime lawyers, two of whom attended the IMO

International Maritime Law Institute. One of the ports lawyers has been involved in drafting the

new Merchant Shipping Act The port needs to liaise with the sector Ministry and the Attorney

Generals office to work towards the domestication of international conventions ratified by Ghana.

Ghana has only a few surveyors and with over a thousand vessels calling per year, their

effectiveness is hampered. GPHAs two surveyors trained at the World Maritime University in

Sweden should be designated to assist the government surveyors to inspect all vessels calling at the

port.

c) Public awareness

The port needs to undertake a public education programme for its staff and customers. This willhelp minimize the level of pollutants. Many industries appear not to be aware of the need for

protection of the environment. Key members of the port community such as industries, shipping

agencies and ship owners should be educated and requested to comply with port regulations and

international conventions.

Training in environmental issues must become a formal part of the training programmes of the port.

This is to ensure that environmental awareness is created among the rank and file of the port staff so

as to help them eliminate their own adverse or harmful environmental practices.


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Steps must be taken to minimize the ports land based pollution to the sea. Strategies that will

minimize the full discharge of effluent into the sea (e.g. providing oil separators in drains currently

lead to the sea to separate off oil or oily substances on the surface of the water) must be considered.

Treatment plants for sewage, garbage and oily water must be aimed at in the long term.

d) Environmental impact assessment (EIA)

EIA has not been conducted for some of the development projects in the port and its surrounding

areas. The Environmental Protection Agency now has power to request companies to conduct EIAs.The EPA must take further steps in requesting industries within the port surrounding areas to

practice EIA. The port has to upgrade its regulation and procedure and introduce into it the

requirements for EIA. This will enable it to monitor the implementation of the EIA during the

project development stage. This is significant in the light of the free port regime being introduced

by the port.

e) Reception facilities

With regard to marine pollution in the Ports of Tema as well as current strategies for combating

marine pollution, it is apparent that vessel-source pollution, particularly in the fishing port is not

regulated. The port itself is a large generator of solid waste. The provision of reception facilities is

very important. This must be incorporated into the management plans of the port to ensure their

implementation. In the meantime, the idea of providing vehicles to receive the different kinds ofwaste must be pursued. This is actually done by the Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) on a limited scale. In

the long run, however, in view of the large amounts of waste generated by the port itself, a

treatment plant must be considered for both vessel and shore-generated wastes.

A concrete effort directed at environmental management is required to remedy this situation in the

port. It is gratifying to note that the port is taking steps to arrest the situation. Plans to draw up an

environmental management system are in progress.

4.3. Evaluation, monitoring and control

Evaluation, monitoring and control are important strategic elements in developing and

implementing environmental plans and management systems. They enable planners to keep track of

planned actions and to monitor and compare the actual performance of plans with their anticipated

performance. This process permits corrective measures to be taken as and when necessary. Taking

the case of the USA as an example, D. McAllister [McAllister, 1986] has shown how the evaluation

and monitoring of environmental actions can be inadequate; he argues that a disappointingly small

proportion of the decisions by local governments is made on the basis of systematic evaluations of

alternatives. Evaluations are often ad hoc, quick, and impressionistic. It is important for monitoring

and evaluation to pervade the whole planning process. In simple terms, the process should involve

the following inter-related steps:

identification of the problem to be addressed; design of alternative solutions to the problem;

evaluation of the alternatives; decision on actions to be taken through the appropriate political process, and the

implementation of those actions; and

monitoring of the results.The first phase of an evaluation exercise involves the definition and estimation of the various

impacts of the proposed action. This phase facilitates a good understanding of the consequences of

the action. But, at the same time, it poses a dilemma with regard to achieving coherence of the

many diverse parts of an environmental action programme. The second phase is basically a

synthesis, which attempts to solve the dilemma by integrating the impacts into an overall view so


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that a judgement can be made as to whether the action should or should not be undertaken.

The evaluation process should include the following: performance monitoring to control the use of

inputs and the production of outputs; process monitoring to evaluate the efficiency andeffectiveness with which the plan is implemented; impact evaluation to estimate the quantitative

effects of the project on the socio-economic conditions of the target population; and cost-benefit

analysis to compare alternative projects in terms of their costs and benefits [Bamberger and Hewitt,

1986]. The responsibility for monitoring and evaluating environmental plans lies with theenvironment ministry (or its equivalent) and related agencies. Plans may be evaluated in-house, or

through the services of consultants for an independent perspective. In order for the evaluation to beoperationally useful, senior management must participate actively in the planning and review of the

evaluation programme. Taking the investigation of the Parliamentary Committee, Government of

Ghana, into an illegal importation of toxic plastic waste materials into that country as an example,

Box 2. high lights the importance of evaluating, monitoring and controlling environmental actions;it also provides an insight into some of the fundamental problems environmental authorities face in

the process.

Box 2: Evaluation, monitoring and control: investigation into the disposal of plastic wastematerials in Ghana by Metalloplastic (Ghana) Limited.

Metalloplastic (Ghana) Limited is a registered company in Ghana which manufactures plastic goods

from imported raw materials. The company was alleged to have illegally imported into Ghana a

quantity of cytotoxic materials from an American company, Petroco Americas Uniondale of New

York, for disposal in Ghana. On receipt of a quotation from the supplier, Metalloplastic (Ghana)

Ltd. established irrevocable letters of credit at the Bank of Ghana through the National Investment

Bank to pay for the raw materials to be imported. Socit Gnrale de Surveillance (Ghana) Ltd.

(SGS) confirmed its inspection of the cargo prior to shipment from Houston, USA, on March 9,

1992. The consignment arrived at the Port of Tema, Ghana, on April 15, 1992, and was clearedunder a certificate of urgency.

The arrival of the waste material caused a stir in the country and had to be referred to the

Parliamentary Committee on Environment, Science and Technology for investigation. The

Committees terms of reference were to determine the following: the circumstances under which

Metalloplastica (Ghana.) Ltd. imported plastic waste material into the country and cleared it from

the Tema Harbour; whether any post-shipment tests were made on the toxicity or otherwise of the

material; who approved the disposal of the waste locally and under what circumstances; whether

there was any evidence of toxicity prior to its disposal; whether a second batch of plastic waste

material imported by Metalloplastica (Ghana) Ltd. was re-exported to its supplier and, if so, under

what circumstances; why was the first batch of the plastic waste material, imported by the company,

not re-exported to the supplier; why was the Ghana Standards Board not involved in the laboratoryexamination of the plastic waste material; and any other issues incidental to the foregoing.

The following gave evidence to the Committee: forty-three witnesses from Metalloplastica (Ghana)Ltd.; the Ghana Police Service; the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of Ghana; the AccraMetropolitan Assembly (AMA); the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC); the GhanaStandards Board (GSB); Socit Gnrale de Surveillance (Ghana) Ltd. (SGS); the Customs, Exciseand Preventive Service (CEPS) of Ghana; and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ghana. In additionto the above evidence, the Committee visited the Accra Metropolitan Waste Management


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Departments landfill site to see where the material had been dumped by Metalloplastica (Ghana)Ltd.

Inspection of the cargo, which was stored in the companys warehouse, revealed that only 1,063 ofthe bags (10 percent), out of a total of 9,334, contained the imported material. This implied that 90

percent of the cargo was not meant for the manufacture of plastic products. Although the results oflaboratory tests did not establish the presence of radioactivity, the material was found to contain

heavy metals like lead and copper. Part of the cargo was also found to be cytotoxic.

In spite of these revelations, and instructions from the Ministry of Environment, Science andTechnology that the material should not be disposed of in Ghana, the EPA issued Metalloplastica(Ghana) Ltd. a licence to dump the waste in AMAs landfill site. Surprisingly, however, thecompany could not provide the Committee with any record to prove that the waste was actuallydisposed of at that site. Since it had no expertise for determining the toxicity or otherwise of thematerial, the National Toxic Waste Task Force recommended the re-exportation of the waste to thesupplier. But Metalloplastica went ahead regardless and dumped the waste at AMAs landfill inAccra.

A second consignment of plastic waste material arrived at the Port of Tema on May 10, 1992, but it

was re-exported to the supplier on June 4, 1992. A relevant question to ask here is, why was the firstconsignment not re-exported to the supplier even though 90 percent of it did not comply with thespecifications of the import order? It was established, furthermore, that Ghana did not have anyneed for such waste, neither did it have any facility for treating it. Moreover, no prior consent wasgiven by the Government of Ghana for accepting such wastes, as required under the BaselConvention.

A reason given for dumping the waste material in Ghana, contrary to instructions, was that attemptsto return it to the US exporter through the American Embassy in Ghana and Green PeaceInternational had not been successful. Also, while investigations were going on in Ghana into thecircumstances leading to the illegal importation of the waste, Petroco Americas Uniondale could nolonger be contacted in the USA.

This case shows, clearly and typically, that the evaluation, monitoring and control of environmentalactions in Ghana and many of the developing countries is far from efficient. Co-ordination of theroles of the various organisations in the country, responsible for protecting the environment, wasrather weak and poor. Indeed, the fact that the National Investment Bank and the Bank of Ghanaagreed to issue irrevocable letters of credit to Metalloplastic (Ghana) Ltd. for the import is ampleevidence of the deficiency in evaluating, monitoring and controlling environmental actions inGhana.

The lack of effective communication between and among the various organisations involved in theepisode has been a major contributory factor. For example, the Ghana Standards Board was notinformed about the arrival of the material in the country, neither was it asked to take samples for

testing. The directive issued by the EPA, authorising Metalloplastica (Ghana) Ltd. to go ahead withthe disposal of the waste in spite of instructions from the Ministry of Environment, Science andTechnology not to do so, is symptomatic of the total breakdown of the environmental decision-making process; it also illustrates vividly the lack of effective co-operation, collaboration and co-ordination among the environmental agencies in the country.

Furthermore, the capacity of these agencies and their staff to ensure effective environmentalplanning is questionable. For example, the National Toxic Waste Task Force did not have theexpertise to interpret SGS laboratory test results sent from Belgium. Also, different laboratory testresults were obtained, each capable of different interpretations, variously by the SGS, the Nogouchi


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Memorial Institute for Medical Research at the University of Ghana, and the Ghana StandardsBoard. This points to a lack of uniformity in international environmental standards, as well as tolack of capacity in Ghana for evaluating, monitoring and controlling environmental actions. Finally,the reluctance of both the American Embassy in Accra and Green Peace International to help re-export the first consignment of the waste to the US supplier highlights the problems of international

co-operation and co-ordination in matters of environmental protection.

Source: Parliament house, 1994

5. CONCLUSION

The crucial need for integrating the environment into developmental planning in a holistic manner

has been highlighted in this paper. Such an approach, it is argued, would help arrest the rapid

decline of the earths natural resources and restore the health of the environment in the long-term.

In order to do this effectively, a deep understanding of the environment as a system is needed,

together with access to essential information, basic methodologies, and appropriate instruments of

environmental planning and management. Being organisations that heavily impact the environment

and communities in their neighbourhood, ports and harbours in Bulgaria need to do environmental

planning in a more systematic and effective manner.

In addition, the application of strategic planning and management to environmental planning and

management of ports in Bulgaria is proposed as an appropriate conceptual framework for enhancing

their environmental management practices. The conceptual framework includes environmental

education; training; greater participation of the key actors and the general public in planning and

management processes; facilitating effective co-operation and partnerships between and amongst

the different ports and countries of the world; harmonising policies and plans at all levels; and

building human and institutional capacity for the sustainable development of ports and harbour

areas.

The planning process needs to guarantee the right of all to participate. Environmental information

should be reduced to a form in which it is easy to understand, and it should be easily accessible.

Future environmental plans should be made more relevant and cost-effective on a national, regionaland global scale. Thus, effective environmental planning, especially to deal with trans-boundary

problems, would require investment in the environment beyond national and regional boundaries.

In order to ensure this, port and harbour employees responsible for planning should have access to

effective environmental education and training to enable them to acquire the necessary scientific

and multi-disciplinary skills. Environmental planners of ports and harbours in Bulgaria must be

skilled in integrating new environmental fields into the planning process. They should also develop

their capacity for integrating the different contributions to the process in terms of general points of

departure, time spans, ways of formulating hypotheses, and uncertainties which inevitably are

attached to environmental problems. It is equally important for them to be able to present the

conclusions of their plans in a simple and succinct way for the attention and scrutiny of both the

public and decision-makers. Strategic environmental planning is a very useful analytical tool in this

regard. Finally, environmental plans would become effective instruments for improving the

environment only if they are subjected to continuing and systematic evaluation, monitoring and

control. This process should include performance monitoring, process monitoring, impact

evaluation, and cost-benefit analysis of the vision, objectives, targets, triggers, action plans and

institutional roles.


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Environmental Planning and Renovation of Ports and Harbours in Bulgaria