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Instructional Unit I Introduction

Environment:

Environment is derived from the French word Environner, which means to encircle orsurround. As per the Environment (Protection) Act, (1986), environment includes all the

physical, chemical and biological components surroundings of an organism along with

their interactions. Environment contains both biotic and abiotic components.

Biotic Components includes assembly of plants, animals and microbes.

Abiotic Components are physical factors and physiochemical substances (light,

heat, wind, moisture, tide, solar energy, pH, soil, topography minerals etc.)

Scope:

It creates awareness among the people to know about various natural

resources available in a region.

It provides the knowledge about ecological systems and relationships between

the components.

It provides information on biodiversity at local, national and global level and threats

to plants, animals and microorganisms. This study enables to understand the causes and consequences of natural

and man induced disasters and measures be followed to minimize the effects.

It enables to address the problems due to projects by Environmental Impact

Assessment studies.

This subject also enables about Research and Development in Environment, Green

advocacy, Green media and Environmental Consultancy.

This study enables environmentally literate citizens (by knowing the

environmental acts, rights, rules, legislations, etc.) and to make appropriate

judgment and decisions for the protection and improvement of the

environment.

This study exposes the problems of over pollution, health, hygiene etc role of

Science and Technology in minimizing the evils from the society

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This study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous, eco-friendly

skills and technologies of various environmental issues

The need for sustainable utilization of natural resources, which are inherited from

the ancestors to us without deteriorating their quality.

This study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of

environment

Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Science:

The knowledge inputs of various disciplines of Science, Social science, law and

Engineering are included in Environmental Studies.

Life Sciences: Biology, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Biotechnology etc., to

understanding the biotic components and their interactions and applied as tools for

emerging problems.

Physical Sciences: Physics, Chemistry, Earth Science, Atmospheric science,

Oceanography, geography etc. to understand the basic concepts and abiotic

components of environment.

Civil Engineering: Chemical Engineering, Hydraulics, Nanotechnology etc to control

the pollution and waste water treatment.

Economics, Sociology, Law, Education, management, Mass communication etc

useful for solutions to day to day problems.

Mechanics, statistics, Computer science etc for research, Analysis and effective

management of environment.

Need for Public Awareness/ Importance of Environmental Education:

Depleting and deteriorating the natural resources

Agriculture is threatened by the application of enormous quantity of chemical

fertilizer and pesticides.

The natural and man-made forest fires, deforestation, pollution etc. lead to

extinction of sensitive species and loss of biodiversity in different environments.

Air is polluted by burning of fossil fuels and wastes.

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The land is polluted by millions of tones of solid wastes disposed from

mines and urban centers while industries and cities discharge enormous quantity

of liquid wastes outside their locations.

The pollution generated in several industries lead to global warming, acid rain,

ozone depletion, sea level rise and the consequent impacts to various components of

environment.

To address the above problems we need to create awareness and also

environmental education at school level.

Environmental Summits:

5 June, 1972

Stockholm

Environmental Issues

Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the

Human Environment

The United Nations Conference on the Human

Environment, having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June

1972, having considered the need for a common outlook

and for common principles to inspire and guide the

peoples of the world in the preservation andenhancement of the human environment.

1992 (Earth Summit)

Rio de Janeiro

UN Conference on Environment and development. The

United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED) took place in 1992 in Rio de

Janeiro, Brazil. Government officials from 178 countries

and between 20,000 and 30,000 individuals from

governments, NGOs and the media participated in this

event to discuss solutions for global problems such as

poverty, war or the growing gap between industrialised

and developing countries.

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The UN summit focused on three broad concepts: An

"Earth Charter" covering a number of principles aiming at

development and the protection of the environment, was

the first focus for discussion. Secondly, "Agenda 21" was

intended to be a global action plan for sustainable

development; thirdly, developing countries demanded a

substantial increase in new funding from developed

countries to contribute to sustainable development in the

South.

2002 (World Summit)

Johannesberg

Sustainable

Development,

The World Summit on Sustainable Development

organised by the United Nations (UN) in Johannesburg

was held in August and September of 2002. Also called

Earth Summit 2002, it brought together over 100 heads

of state and 40,000 delegates to try and set up the goals

needed to halt poverty around the world whilst saving the

environment at the same time.

2009, Climate

Conference in

Copenhagen

In 2012 the Kyoto Protocol to prevent climate changesand global warming runs out. To keep the process on theline there is an urgent need for a new climate protocol. At

the conference in Copenhagen 2009 the parties of theUNFCCC meet for the last time on government levelbefore the climate agreement need to be renewed.

Therefore the Climate Conference in Copenhagen isessential for the worlds climate and the Danishgovernment and UNFCCC is putting hard effort inmaking the meeting in Copenhagen a success ending upwith a Copenhagen Protocol to prevent global warmingand climate changes.

The Climate Conference will take place in the BellaCenter. The conference centre is placed not far fromCopenhagen and near the Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup.

Governmental representatives from 170 countries areexpected to be in Copenhagen in the days of theconference accompanied by other governmentalrepresentatives, NGO's, journalists and others. In total

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8000 people are expected to Copenhagen in the days ofthe climate meeting.

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Concept of Ecomark:

In 1991, Government of India introduced

Earthen Pitcheras

ECOMARK for eco friendly products.

An earthern pot has been chosen as the logo for the Ecomark scheme in India. The

familiar earthern pot uses a renewable resource like earth, does not produce hazardous

waste and consumes little energy in making. Its solid and graceful form represents both

strength and fragility, which also characterises the

eco-system.

As a symbol, it puts across its environmental message. Its image has the ability to reach

people and can help to promote a greater awareness of the need to be kind to theenvironment. The logo for the Ecomark Scheme, signifies that the product which carries

it does the least damage to the environment.

Environmental Institutions in India

1. Bombay Natural History Society - BNHS

Founded in 1883

Major contribution on Wildlife research.

Largest and oldest environmental NGO in the subcontinent engaged in the

conservation of nature and natural resources, education and research in natural history,

with members in 30 countries.

Helped the Indian Government to frame wildlife related laws.

Organized Save the Silent Valley Campaign

Hornbill, Journal on Natural History are the publications

2. World Wide Fund for Nature - India WWF-I

Founded in 1969

WWF-India started as a wildlife conservation organization.

Started at Mumbai and now the head quarter is at New Delhi.

Branch offices are at all over India.

The main objective is to ensure the conservation of the country's wildlife and wild

habitats, wildlife education and awareness.

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Nature clubs for School Children

Think tank lobby force for environmental and developmental issues

3. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)

Founded in 1980

Organizing campaigns, holding workshops and conferences and producing

environment related publications.

State of Indias Environment Citizens report on Environment

Down to Earth fortnightly magazine on Science and Environment

Gober times Environment for beginners

Books, Posters, Video films

4. CPR

Envirornmental Education Centre (CPR-EEC) Established in 1988

To conduct verities of programs to spread environmental awareness and create

an interest in conservation among the general public.

Focus is on NGOs, teachers, women, youth and children

To conserve nature and natural resources.

Programs on wildlife and biodiversity issues.

Publishes large no. of books.

5. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)

Founded in 1990

An autonomous organization is a national centre for studies in Ornithology and

Natural History.

The centre was named befittingly after Dr. Slim Ali in appreciation of his life-long

services to India's bird life and conservation of natural resources.

SACON was dedicated to the nation on February 11, 2000 by the HonourableMinister for Environmaent and Forests, Government of India, Mr. T.R. Baalu.

6. Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)

Established in 1976

The first Crocodile Conservation Breeding Centre in Asia.

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Conservation and propagation of Endangered reptiles.

Over 1500 Crocodiles and Hundreds of Eggs were supplied to Forest Dept.

Started first Sea Turtle survey in Asia

Environmental Education programmes villagers, Schools, Resource persons

In 1992 Andaman & Nicobar Environmental Team (ANET) started for surveys

Irula Snake Catchers Corporation Society A adivasi self help group Supplies

Snake and Scorpion venom for preparing antivenom

Started Irula Tribal Womens Welfare Society

People in Environment:

1. Rachel Carson

Effect of pesticides on Nature and Man kind

Book Silent Spring - led to change in Government Policies towards

environmental conservation.

2. Dr.Salim Ali - Ornithologist

Father of Indian Ornithology

Bird man of India, Worked in BNHS

Wrote several books on Birds - Indian Birds and Fall of Sparrow

3. Dr. M. S. Swaminathan -Agricultural Scientist

Father of Indian Green Revolution

Worked on Conservation of Biodiversity

Started MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai

4. Madhav Gadgil - Ecologist

Developed Community based Biodiversity Registers.

Conserving Sacred Grooves

Studies on Mammals, Birds & Insects

Wrote 6 books and Editor forLifescapes of peninsular India

5. M. C. Mehta - Environmental Lawyer

Filed several public interest litigations

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Protecting the TajMahal & Cleaning the River Ganga

Banning intensive shrimp farming in coastal areas

Initiating government to environmental education in schools & Colleges

6. Anil Agarwal

Journalist Founder of CSE, Wrote a book on State of Indias Environment -1982

7. Medha Patkar

Leader of Narmada Bachavo Andolan, Fought against construction of DAMs on

Narmada River to protect the tribal communities and

8. Sunderlal Bahuguna

Founder and leader of Chipko Movement

Fought against construction of TEHRI DAM

9. Wangari Maathai

Wangari Maathai founded the Green Belt movement in Kenya in 1977, which has

planted more than 10 million trees to prevent soil erosion and provide firewood for

cooking fires. She is the first woman in central or eastern Africa to hold a Ph.D., first

woman head of a university department in Kenya, first African woman to win the Nobel

Prize in Peace during 2004.

Important Environmental Days

World Wetlands Day - Feb, 2nd

World Forest Day March, 21

World Water Day March, 22

World Health Day- April, 7

Earth Day April, 22

World Biodiversity Day May 22

World Environment Day - June 5

World Population Day - July 11

International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer - September 16

Green Consumer Day- September 28

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Wildlife week-October1-7

World Food Day-October 16

World planting day - October 22

World Aids Day- December 1

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Environmental Movements:

1. Chipko movement: The forests of India are a critical resource for the subsistence of

rural peoples throughout the country, but especially in hill and mountain areas, both

because of their direct provision of food, fuel and fodder and because of their role in

stabilising soil and water resources. As these forests have been increasingly felled for

commerce and industry, Indian villagers have sought to protect their livelihoods through

the Gandhian method of satyagraha non-violent resistence. In the 1970s and 1980s this

resistance to the destruction of forests spread throughout India and became organised

and known as the Chipko Movement.

The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in April 1973 and over the next five

years spread to many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The name of the

movement comes from a word meaning 'embrace': the villagers hug the trees, saving

them by interposing their bodies between them and the contractors' axes. The Chipko

protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green

felling in the Himalayan forests of that state by order of India's then Prime Minister,

Indira Gandhi. Since then the movement has spread to Himachal Pradesh in the North,

Kamataka in the South, Rajasthan in the West, Bihar in the East and to the Vindhyas in

Central India. In addition to the 15-year ban in Uttar Pradesh, the movement has

stopped clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas and generated pressure for

a natural resource policy which is more sensitive to people's needs and ecological

requirements.

The Chipko Movement is the result of hundreds of decentralised and locally

autonomous initiatives. Its leaders and activists are primarily village women, acting to

save their means of subsistence and their communities. Men are involved too, however,

and some of these have given wider leadership to the movement. Prominent Chipko

figures include: Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist and philosopher, whose

appeal to Mrs. Gandhi results in the green-felling ban and whose 5,000 kilometre trans-

Himalaya footmarch in 1981-83 was crucial in spreading the Chipko message.

Bahuguna coined the Chipko slogan: 'ecology is permanent economy'.

2. Tehri Bachavo Andolan: The Tehri Dam in the outer Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh,when completed, will submerge Tehri town and nearly 100 villages. Ever since the dam

was sanctioned in 1972, local people have been opposing the dam and resisting its

construction. Scientists, environmentalists and other groups have also opposed this

dam.

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Little has been done to ensure the proper rehabilitation and compensation for nearly a

lakh of people who will be uprooted from their homes as a result of this dam, as no

alternative land is available. There is also emotional and psychological trauma caused

by forcibly removing people from their homeland where their families have lived for

centuries.

Resettlement requires alternate land. However, in our overpopulated country, there is

no arable high quality land easily available. Thus, most project-affected persons are

usually given unusable wasteland. Rehabilitation involves more than just giving land. In

most cases, even this basic aspect is not adequately done. The greatest battle to save

their own precious land has been carried out by the tribal people of the Narmada River.

They have fought to save their lands for decades. The Narmada Bachao Andolan

movement has shown how bitter people can get over this issue.

3. Narmada Bachavo andolan: Narmada Bachao Andolan is the most powerful mass

movement, started in 1985, against the construction of huge dam on the Narmada river.Narmada is the India's largest west flowing river, which supports a large variety of

people with distinguished culture and tradition ranging from the indigenous (tribal)

people inhabited in the jungles here to the large number of rural population. The

proposed Sardar Sarovar Dam and Narmada Sagar will displace more than 250,000

people. The big fight is over the resettlement or the rehabilitation of these people. The

two proposals are already under construction, supported by US$550 million loan by the

world bank. There are plans to build over 3000 big and small dams along the river.

Narmada Bachao Andolan It is a multi crore project that will generate a big revenue for

the government. The Narmada Valley Development plan is the the most promised andmost challenging plan in the history of India. The proponents are of the view that it will

produce 1450 MW of electricity and pure drinking water to 40 million people covering

thousand of villages and towns. Some of the dams have been already been completed

such as Tawa and Bargi Dams. But the opponents says that this hydro project will

devastate human lives and bio diversity by destroying thousand of acres of forests and

agricultural land. On the other hand it will overall deprive thousands of people of their

livelihood. They believe that the water and energy could be provided to the people

through alternative technological means, that would be ecologically beneficial.

Led by one of the prominent leader Medha Patkar, it has now been turned into theInternational protest, gaining support from NGO'S all around the globe. Protestors are

agitating the issue through the mass media, hunger strikes, massive marches, rallies

and the through the on screen of several documentary films. Although they have been

protesting peacefully, but they been harassed, arrested and beaten up by the police

several times. The Narmada Bachao Andolan has been pressurizing the world bank to

withdraw its loan from the project through media.

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The strong protests through out the country not only made impact on the local people

but has also influenced the several famous celebrities like film star Aamir Khan , who

has made open efforts to support Narmada Bachao Andolan. He said he only want that

those who have been rendered homeless should be given a roof. He pleaded to the

common people to take part in the moment and come up with the best possible

solutions.

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Instructional Unit II

Natural Resources

Classification of Natural Resources

With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:

Renewable resources (Inexhaustible) are ones that can be replenished or reproduced

easily. Some of them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their

quantity is not affected by human consumption. Many renewable resources can be

depleted by human use, but may also be replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of

these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for renewal; others, like water, take a

comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take even longer.

Non-renewable resources (exhaustible) are formed over very long geological periods.

Minerals and fossil fuels are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is

extremely slow, they cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Of these, the

metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them. But coal and petroleum cannot be

recycled.

Forest ResourcesForest Uses / functions:

Functions of the forests: Forests are of immense value to us. They are not only useful

for industry but also for rural economic growth. They offer huge potential for reducing

poverty while also conserving their valuable key resources.

Commercial Uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which

include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber,

fibers, bamboo canes, fodder medicine, drugs and many more items.

Ecological Uses:

Product ion Of Oxygen: The trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis which is so vital

for life on this earth .They are rightly called as EARTHS LUNGS.

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Reducing Global Warming: The main green house gas carbon dioxide is absorbed by

the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus forest canopy acts as a sink for

carbon dioxide there by reducing the problem of global warming caused by green house

gas carbon dioxide.

Wildl i fe habitat: Forests are the homes of wild animals and plants. About 7 million

species are found in the tropical forests alone.

Regulat ion of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges,

absorbing the rain fall, slowing down the runoff and slowly releasing the water for

recharge of springs. About 50-80% of the moisture in the air above tropical forests

comes from their transpiration which helps in bringing rains.

Soi l conservat ion: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil

erosion. They also act as wind-breaks.

Pol lut ion Moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping

the air pure. They have also been reported to absorb noise and thus help in preventing

air and noise pollution.

Causes, effects and Control of Deforestation

Forests have been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been

exploited since early times for their vast potential .

Causes: Exploitation of forests has taken place to meet human demands in the

following ways:

Shifting cultivation : There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting

cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture and are supposed to clear more than

5 lakh ha of forests for shifting cultivation annually. In India, we have this practice in

northeast and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and M.P which contribute to

nearly half of the forest clearing annually.

Fuel requirements : Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population

in India alone has shot up to 300-500 million tons in 2001 as compared to just 65 million

tons during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.

Raw materials for industrial use : Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway-

sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp for paper industry etc. have exerted tremendous

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pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea for Tea industry of

Assam while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples in J&K .

Developmental projects : Massive destruction of forests occur for various

development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining etc

.

Growing food needs : In developing countries this is the main reason for

deforestation. To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands

and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests .

Overgrazing : The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel

leading to loss of tree cover and cleared lands are turned into grazing lands .

Some main causes of deforestation are:

1. population explosion

2. forest fires

3. grazing animals

4. pest attack

5. natural calamities floods, storms, lightning damage forests

6. mining and mineral processing

7. dams and reservoirs

8. irrigation canals

9. military activities

10. roads and railways

Effects of Deforestation:

It threatens the existence of many wildlife species due to destruction of their

natural habitat

Forest fires : may be natural or man made , and cause huge forest loss

Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.

Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.

Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase.

In hilly areas it often leads to landslides.

reduction in oxygen liberated by plants

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decrease in availability forest products

loss of cultural diversity

scarcity of fuel wood for people living nearby forests

lowering of water table due to more run off

raise in CO2 level resulting global warming, melting of ice and flooding of coastal

areas

Control of Forest Degradation:

More efficient agriculture on suitable farmland.

Efficient forestry practice includes plantations.

Reserves to protect species and ecosystems.

Using alternate source of energy instead of fuelwood , growing more trees

(afforestation).

Diverse species of natural forests must be protected as national parks and

wildlife sanctuaries .

Social Forestry : It is the planting of trees , mostly with the involvement of local

communities , in unused and fallow lands , along roadside and railway tracks, around

agricultural field and in degraded forest area .

Agroforestry : It is a farming system that integrates crops and or livestock with

trees and shrubs. This results in the multiple benefits along with diversified income

sources. Agroforestry is based on the principles of natural ecosystems.

Local people play a big role in conservation of forests. Most forest management

programmes now involve local communities in planning, decision making and

implementation. They can become excellent guides in eco tourism ventures. Ex:-

Chipko movement, JFM, NAP .

Joint forest management (JFM)

Under the JFM programme, the local communities and the government manage

the resource and share the cost equally.

An informal arrangement between local communities and the Forest Department

began in 1972, in Midnapore District of West Bengal.

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JFM has now evolved into a formal agreement which identifies and respects the

local communitys rights and benefits that they need from forest resources.

Local people will get economic benefit apart from conservation of forest habitats.

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Water Resources

Types and importance of water resources

Water Resources:

It can be divided into two parts.

Surface water - rain water, river water, lake water and sea water

Underground water - spring and well water

Water covers 70% of earths surface but only 3% of this is fresh water of this 2% is

present as polar ice caps only 1% is usable water in rivers lakes and subsoil aquifers.

Ice caps and glaciers are about 77.2% of fresh water and remaining 22.4% is ground

water and just 0.4% is distributed in lakes, swamps, rivers and streams. From 1% of the

available water, 70% of water is used up for agriculture, 25% industry and 5% domestic

use.

India uses 90% of its water for agriculture, 7% in industries and 3% domestic use.

In future, there is a great challenge facing the world in this century is the need to rethink

the overall management of resources.

The world population has passed more than 7 billion in future there is a great problem

for water in 2000 years the world commission on dams studied indicate that a person

needs minimum 20-40 litres of water per day.

Effects of ground water depletion

1. Water logging & Salination

2. Lowering of Water table

3. Soil Erosion

Effects of over- utilization and pollution of surface and ground water

With the growth of human population there is a increasing need for large amount

of water to fulfill a variety of basic needs . most of the people are using more water than

they really need .

Many agriculturist use more water than necessary to grow crops .

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There are many ways in which farmers can use less water without reducing

yields such as the use of drip irrigation systems.

Agriculture also pollutes surface water and ground water stores by the excessive

use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides

Conflicts over water

Future global conflicts could arise over control of the shared river basins on which

millions of people depend for drinking water, irrigation and energy. There were many

conflicts over the world on river water.

As much as 90 % of the waste water in the world is discharged without treatment in the

developing countries.

Confl ic ts over water around the wor ld may be classi f ied into the fol lowing

categor ies:

Military tool where water resources or water systems themselves are used by a nation

or state as a weapon during military action

Political tool - where water resources or water systems themselves are used by a nation

or state or a group for a political goal

Terrorism where water resources or water systems themselves are either targets or

tools of violence by terrorists.

Development disputes where water resources or water systems are a major source of

contention and disputes in the context of economic and social development.

Some of the disputes are Ganges Bhrahmaputra basin

India and Nepal wants to exploit the basins huge hydro electric power generating

potential, where as Bangladesh wants water to be managed in such a way as to

minimize flooding during monsoon and water shortages during dry months.

Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamilnadu

Sutlej Yamuna canal between Haryana and Punjab.

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Sustainable Water Management Methods

Save water campaign

Construction of several small reservoirs instead of larger once

Develop small catchment dams and project wetlands

Soil Moisture conservation works

Treating and recycling municipal water for agricultural use

Preventing leakages from Dams and canals

Preventing loss in Muncipal pipes

Effective Rain water harvesting in Urban areas

Effective water conservation measures in agriculture by using drip irrigation

Pricing water at its real value

Benefits of Construction of Dams

Water is precious resource that is becoming an increasingly scarce commodity world

wide. To reduce scarcity, there is growing pressure to harness and utilize surface water

sources like rivers by building dams over them for irrigation, hydro electricity, water

transport etc. Multi-purpose dams account for a large proportion. Irrigation comes first in

this category also, followed by flood control, hydro power, domestic and industrial water

supply and recreation, with fish farming and navigation.

Various benefits of the dams are

- hydro electric power generation

- transfer of water using canals from excess to areas of deficit

- irrigation

- flood control and soil protection

- ensuring year round water supply

- multipurpose river valley projects also provide for inland navigation

Most of the single purpose dams around the world (48% approx.) are forirrigation and therefore it contributes greatly to food production and a considerable

proportion (15%) of those dams serve for domestic and industrial water supply.

For the World as a whole, nearly 20% of dams generate electricity. However, in

Europe alone, about 40% are hydro power dams.

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Other purposes include flood control (8%), recreation (4%) and to a lesser degree,

inland navigation and fish farming.

40% of world food production comes from irrigated farming, with a direct 16%

contribution from land irrigated from dam reservoirs. 30-40% of the 268 million

hectares of irrigated land is watered from dams.

Hydro-electric power produces 19% of world energy and is used in more than 150

countries. It accounts for more than 90% of all energy in 24 countries and more than

50% in 63 countries.

12% of large dams supply towns and cities with water (60% in North America).

13% of the world's dams help control river floods and flooding in nearly 75 countries.

Some dams have helped improve ecosystems by creating new wetlands and new

opportunities for fishing and recreation in the reservoirs.

Effects of Construction of Dams (Both upstream and downstream)

Fragmentation and physiological transformation of rivers

Impact on Riverine ecosystem

Water logging and salination of surrounding soils

Loss of Migratory routes for birds and animals

Fishing and travel by boat distrupted.

Emission of green house gases due to rotting vegetation and carbon inflows

Sociological: Poorly managed involuntary displacement and loss of livelihood

Many of the displaced people were not recognized and therefore were not resettled

or compensated

Socio economic effects of Construction of Dams

Poorly managed involuntary displacement and loss of livelihood

Many of the displaced people were not recognized and therefore were not resettled

or compensated

Depriving the indigenous people of the means to support traditional ways of life,

particularly in case of culturally vulnerable indigenous/ethnic minority groups which

are largely dependent on locally available natural resources.

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Higher incidences of water borne diseases particularly among vulnerable

communities

Low Regional economic development reforms and inadequate distribution of

project benefits to affected communities.

It is not possible to mitigate many of the impacts of reservoir creation on terrestrial

ecosystems and biodiversity, and efforts to 'rescue' wildlife have met with little

long-term success

The use of fish passes to mitigate the blockage of migratory fish has had little

success, as the technology has often not been tailored to specific sites and

species

Some 40-80 million people have been physically displaced by dams worldwide

Millions of people living downstream from dams (particularly those depending on

natural floodplain function and fisheries) have also suffered serious harm to their

livelihoods and the future productivity of their resources has been put at risk

Where compensation was provided it was often inadequate, and where the

physically displaced were enumerated, many were not included in resettlement

programmes.

Those who were resettled rarely had their livelihoods restored, as resettlement

programmes have focused on physical relocation rather than the economic and

social development of the displaced

The larger the magnitude of displacement, the less likely it is that the livelihoods of

affected communities can be restored

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Water conservation Rain water harvesting Watershed management.

Water Consumption in India

Average water consumption around the world is about 53 liters per head per day. In

India, we expect to soon have only about 20 liters available per head per day. We have

had droughts for a long time, and now with global climate change, things will become

even more difficult. The glaciers are receding from the Himalayan Mountains. They are

about one fifth the size they were about 60 years ago.

The waters from the Himalayan glaciers provide water for about 70 percent of all the

people in Asia. In India, we have three major rivers - the Indus, Ganges, and

Brahmaputra and it is likely that they will drain to small rivers. In most of northern

India, there will be no water according to some leading water experts. Right now there

are floods. The flood area has increased from 25 million hectares to 60 million hectares

in the last 30 years. That is an indication that the water is draining away, and these will

become dry areas. This is expected to happen in less than 30 years.

India needs to invest in water infrastructure at all levels from large multipurpose water

projects to small community watershed management and rainwater harvesting projects

Water Issues in India

According to the recent report on Water in India from India-Report, http://www.india-

reports.com/summary/water.aspx ,the various issues related to Water Management in

India are given below:

* River Pollution: All of Indias fourteen major river systems are heavily polluted,

mostly from the 50 million cubic metres of untreated sewage discharged into them each

year

* Water Conflicts: Severe water shortages have already led to a growing number of

conflicts across the country. Nearly 90% of Indias territory is drained by inter-state

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rivers. The lack of clear allocation rules and uncertainty about water sharing has led to

major disputes between states.

* Ground Water Pollution: The primary reasons are industrial pollution and extensive

farming leading to agrochemical pollution of the groundwater. In case of industries, it is

due to lack of treatment of effluents that are pumped into rivers and streams leading to

groundwater pollution.

* Poor management, crumbling infrastructure and depleting resources: By 2020,

Indias demand for water will exceed all sources of supply. Indias past investments in

large water infrastructure have yielded spectacular results with enormous gains in food

security and in the reduction of poverty. However, much of this infrastructure is now

crumbling. Faced with poor water supply services, farmers and urban dwellers alike

have resorted to helping themselves by pumping out groundwater through tube wells.

Today, 70% of Indias irrigation needs and 80% of its domestic water supplies come

from groundwater. A number of areas are already in crisis situations: among these are

the most populated and economically productive parts of the country.

* Corruption: About one in 10 households paid bribes to regularize their water

connection

* Inadequate storage capacity: Developed, arid countries (United States, Australia)

have built over 5000 cubic metres of water storage per capita. Middle-income countries

like South Africa, Mexico, Morocco and China can store about 1000 cubic metres per

capita. Indias dams can store only 200 cubic metres per person. India can store only

about 30 days of rainfall, compared to 900 days in major river basins in arid areas of

developed countries.

* Aquifer Depletion: Already about 15% of Indias food is being produced using non-

renewable, mined, groundwater.

There is clearly an urgent need for action. First, India needs a lot more water

infrastructure. Compared to other semi-arid countries, India can store relatively small

quantities of its fickle rainfall. New infrastructure needs to be built, from large

multipurpose water projects to small community watershed management and rainwater

harvesting projects.

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Water conservation

Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water

for different purposes like cleaning , manufacturing , agriculture etc

1. Decreasing run-off losses

2. Reducing evaporation losses

3. Storing water in soil

4. Reducing irrigation losses

5. Re-use of water

6. Prevention of wastage of water

7. Pricing to the water

8. Conservation of Water resources in our daily life.

a. Use only as much water as you require. Close the taps well after use. While

brushing or other use, do not leave the tap running, open it only when you require it.

See that there are no leaking taps.

b. Use a washing machine that does not consume too much water. Do not leave

the taps running while washing dishes and clothes.

c. Install small shower heads to reduce the flow of the water. Water in which the

vegetables & fruits have been washed - use to water the flowers & plants.

d. At the end of the day if you have water left in your water bottle do not throw it

away, pour it over some plants.

Rain Water Harvesting

The process of collecting, conveying & storing water from rainfall in an area for

beneficial use.

a.Storage of rain water on surface for future use

b.Recharge to ground water

- Pits

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- Trenches

- Dug wells

- Hand pumps

- Recharge wells

- Recharge shafts

- Lateral shafts with bore wells

- Spreading techniques

Storage in tanks, reservoirs, underground storage

Roof Rain Water Harvesting

Land based Rain Water Harvesting

Watershed based Rain Water harvesting

For Urban & Industrial Environment Roof & Land based RWH

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Advantages:

1. An ideal solution to water problems in areas having inadequate water resources

2. The ground water level will rise

3. Mitigates the effects of drought & achieves drought proofings

4. Provides high quality water, soft and low in minerals

5. Reduces the runoff which chokes the storm water drains

6. Flooding of roads and low land areas are reduces

7. Quality of ground water improves

8. In saline or coastal areas & Islands, rain water provides good quality water

9. Soil erosion will be reduced

10. Saving of energy per well for lifting of ground water. (A one meter rise in water

level saves about 0.40 KWH of electricity).

11. Provides self-sufficiency to water supply.

12. The rooftop rain water harvesting is less expensive & easy to construct, operate

and maintain.

13. In desert, this method is only a good relief.

Water Shed management

The process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and

enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities

within a watershed boundary.

A watershed is an area of land from which surface water drains into a single outlet like

a stream or a river or a lake. The rain water flows from the ridges, along the slopes, into

the nallas and finally collects in the village ponds. This entire area with one common

drainage is called a watershed. Water conservation interventions includes contour

trenches, gully plugging, vegetative and field bunding, percolation tanks.

Positive Impacts

1. Assured availability of water

2. Improved water quality and hygiene

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3. More land availability and productivity

4. Increased employment

5. Improved morale

6. Better water management

7. Less disease

8. Better quality of life

9. Better ecological balance

Components of Watershed

The three main components in watershed management are

Land management

Water management and

Biomass management.

Land management

Land characteristics like terrain, slope, formation, depth, texture, moisture,

infiltration rate and soil capability are the major determinants of land management

activities in a watershed.

The broad category of land management interventions can be as follows;

Structural Measures

Vegetative Measures

Production Measures

Protection Measures

Water management

Water characteristics like inflows (precipitation, surface water inflow, ground

water inflow) water use (evaporation, evapotrasnpiration, irrigation, drinking water)

outflows (surface water outflow, ground water out flow) storage (surface storage, ground

water storage, root zone storage) are the principal factors to be taken care of in

sustainable water management.

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The broad interventions for water management are listed below;

Rain Water Harvesting

Ground Water Recharge

Maintenance of Water Balance

Preventing Water Pollution

Economic use of water

Biomass management

Major intervention areas for biomass management are indicated below;

Eco-preservation

Biomass Regeneration

Forest Management & Conservation

Plant Protection & Social Forestry

Increased Productivity of Animals

Income & Employment Generation Activities

Coordination of Health & Sanitation

Benefits:

1.Improve water quality by breaking down, removing, using or retaining nutrients,

organic waste and sediment carried to the wetland with runoff from the watershed.

2. Reduce severity of floods downstream by retaining water and releasing it during drier

periods.

3. Protect stream banks and shore lines from erosion.

4. Recharge groundwater, potentially reducing water shortages during dry spells.

5. Provide food and other productssuch as commercial fish and shellfishfor human

use.

6. Provide fish and wildlifeincluding numerous rare and endangered speciesfood

habitat, breeding grounds, and resting areas.

7. Increase opportunities for recreationbird watching, waterfowl hunting,

photographyand outdoor education.

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Cloud seeding:

Cloud seeding is the process of spreading either dry ice, or more commonly, silver

iodide aerosols, into the upper part of clouds to try to stimulate the precipitation processand form rain.

Since most rainfall starts through the growth of ice crystals from super-cooled cloud

droplets (droplets colder than the freezing point, 32 deg. F or 0 deg. C) in the upper

parts of clouds, the silver iodide particles are meant to encourage the growth of new ice

particles.

The history of cloud seeding has experienced uncertain results because it can never be

known whether a cloud that rains after seeding might have rained anyway. This is

because seeding is performed on clouds that look like they have some potential for

producing rain.

Cloud seeding is a form of weather modification. It can be used to disperse fog,

suppress hail, or control winds, but is most often used to increase precipitation. In order

to understand the process, however, a basic understanding of clouds and how

precipitation is formed is needed.

As warm air rises from the Earth, it begins to cool and forms tiny droplets of water that

condense into cloud droplets. Cloud droplets are formed around particles of dust, salt,

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or soil (called cloud condensation nuclei) that are always present in the atmosphere.

These cloud droplets group together into clouds, which can form precipitation in one of

two ways. In warm temperatures, the droplets in the clouds merge with many other

droplets and become heavy enough to fall to the Earth as rain. (It takes millions of cloud

droplets to form a single raindrop.) In colder temperatures, the droplets of water form ice

crystals. Other droplets freeze onto these ice crystals, which grow larger and heavier

until they fall to the ground as rain, snow, or hail.

Cloud seeding is actually a very complex process. In the simplest terms, it introduces

other particles into a cloud to serve as cloud condensation nuclei and aid in the

formation of precipitation. There are three types of cloud seeding: static mode, dynamic

mode, and hygroscopic seeding.

Static mode cloud seeding seeks to increase rainfall by adding ice crystals (usually in

the form of silver iodide or dry ice) to cold clouds. Dynamic mode cloud seeding

increases rainfall by enhancing "vertical air currents in clouds and thereby verticallyprocess more water through the clouds." Basically, in this method of seeding, a much

larger number of ice crystals are added to the cloud than in the static mode. In

hygroscopic seeding, salt crystals are released into a cloud. These particles grow until

they are large enough to cause precipitation to form. Clouds can be seeded from above

with the help of airplanes that drop pyrotechnics, or from the ground by using artillery or

ground-to-air rockets

The science of weather seeding is not without controversy. Many question the validity of

the results, since they are difficult to prove. Others feel that science shouldn't interfere

with nature. Still others claim that increasing rain in one area decreases it in another, ineffect, "stealing" rain from other lands that may be in need. Many states have also

passed legislation that attempts to regulate cloud seeding and other forms of weather

modification.

Mineral Resources:

Process of Mining

1. Prospecting

2. Exploration

3. Development

4. Exploitation

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Environmental effects of extracting mineral resources

Mining is extraction of economic minerals and building materials from the earth. These

materials may be extracted by adopting opencast mining or underground mining.

Generally most of the mines are located in forest areas. In opencast mining it requires

removal of huge quantity of unwanted material along with useful minerals. Mining

activity requires diversion of forest land for various activities. Forest land is diverted for

opening of mine and extraction of material

dumping of unwanted waste material

road to be formed for transportation of men and materials.

Big mines require residential accommodation for employees and providing basic

amenities

Effects of Mining

Deforestation

Air, water, Soil, Noise pollutions

Loss of forest cover

Loss of biodiversity

Soil erosion

Water logging

Ground water depletion

Appropriation of the land belonging to the local communities

Impacts on health

Destruction of forms of community subsistence and life

Social disintegration

Radical and abrupt changes in regional cultures

Displacement of other present and/or future local economic activities

Food Resources:

World Food problems:

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The World Food Problem is a phrase familiar from the 1970s, but one that has largely

lain dormant for the last decade: throughout the 1980s, concern was less with world

food supplies and prices than with the problem of hunger and with individual access to

food. The International Conference on Nutrition in 1992 was a high-water mark for this

perspective. Now, although hunger and malnutrition remain grave problems throughout

the world, issues to do with world food supplies have re-emerged on the international

agenda. There are several reasons for this: the slowdown in the rate of increase in

yields of the main cereal staples gives cause for concern that the Green Revolution is

running out of steam; the problems of environmental damage and pesticide resistance

associated with industrial agriculture are receiving more attention; there are worries

about the impact of GATT on food prices and food aid; and, of course, population

continues to increase relentlessly, by over 100 million people a year.

All these factors nave sparked a new interest in the future ability of the world to feed

itself. Many organizations are now thinking about the future of the world food system:

FAO to 2010, the International Food Policy Research Institute to 2020, a group of

American researchers to 2050. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural

Research has also commissioned a vision paper for the next century.

Changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing

Effects of Overgrazing: Soil Erosion, Land degradation, Loss of Useful species

Effects of Agriculture:

a. Traditional Agriculture: Forest clearing, Soil erosion and depletion of nutrients

b. Modern Agriculture: Impacts related to high yielding varieties, Fertilizer related

impacts, pesticide related impacts, water logging, Salinity

i. Fertilizer related impacts: Micro nutrient imbalance, Nitrate Pollution, Eutrophication

ii. Pesticide related impacts: Pest resistant problems, Biomagnification, Non target

species death

Green Revolution:

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Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer

initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture

production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.The initiatives

involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of

irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of

hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers. The term "Green

Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director William Gaud.

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Effects of modern agriculture

1. High yielding variety (HYV) seeds Loss of genetic diversity

2. Effect of Chemical Fertilizers By nitrate pollution Blue baby syndrome, by

enrichment of nitrates and phosphates into the lakes and ponds - Eutrophication

3. Effect of Chemical pesticides Bioaccumulation of toxic elements into the plants and

Biomagnification in various species and effects to the human health

4. Killing of Non target Organisms: The pesticide impact will be more on birds which will

depend on insects and pests present in agriculture.

5. The over irrigation leads to loss of ground water, energy, soil erosion.

Effects of Fertilizers and pesticides

i. Fertilizer related impacts: Micro nutrient imbalance, Nitrate Pollution, Eutrophication

ii. Pesticide related impacts: Pest resistant problems, Biomagnification, Non target

species death

Waterlogging and salinity

Waterlogging: Presence of water in an area over a period of time is called water

logging. The main cause is due to the over usage of ground water leads to decrease of

soil porosity and results lack of water penetration into the subsurface. The rain water will

not recharge and stagnant at the top soil. The excessive usage of (agricultural) irrigation

will also leads to Waterlogging condition. Due to this, excess water in the plant root

zone restricts the aeration required for optimum plant growth. It may affect the

availability of several nutrients by changing the environment around the roots.

Salinity:Accumulation of salts in the topsoildue to Waterlogging condition and effects

the plant growth is called Salinity. The salts in the subsoil will mix with water and

reached to the top layers. When water completely evaporates, the salts will remain in

the top soil and causes salinity.

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Excess salts in the root zone inhibit water uptake by plants, affect nutrient uptake and

may result in toxicities due to individual salts in the soil solution. Excess exchangeable

sodium in the soil may destroy the soil structure to a point where water penetration and

aeration of the roots become impossible. Sodium is also toxic to many plants.

Waterlogging and salinity in the soil profile are most often the result of high water tables

resulting from inadequate drainage or poor quality irrigation water. Adequate surface

drainage allows excess irrigation and rain water to be evacuated before excess soil

saturation occurs or before the water is added to the water table. Adequate subsurface

drainage insures that water tables are maintained at a sufficient depth below the soil

surface to prevent waterlogging and salt accumulation in the root zone.

Salinization of the soil profile is prevented because upward capillary movement of water

and salts from the water table does not reach the root zone. Adequate subsurface

drainage also allows salts to be removed from the soil profile through the application of

excess irrigation water (leaching).

Energy Resources

Classification of Energy resources with examples

Sources of energy can be described as renewable and non-renewable.

Renewable sources are those which are being continually replenished. Eg: Solar,

wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, Biogas, biomass, nuclear, tidal etc

Non-renewable energy sources: The resources which are available in limited amount

and develop over longer period of time. (being used faster than it can be replaced) Eg.

Coal, Natural oils and Natural gas.

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Advantages and disadvantages of Renewable and non renewable energy sources

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Solar Energy

Introduction

Solar power (also known as solar energy) is the technology of obtaining usable energy

from the light of the sun. Solar energy has been used in many traditional technologies

for centuries, and has come into widespread use where other power supplies are

absent, such as in remote locations and in space. Solar energy can be used in a

number of applications including

Heat (hot water, building heat, cooking)

Electricity generation (photovoltaics, heat engines)

Desalination of seawater

Plants lifecycle

Indirectly, the sun is responsible for all our energy. Plants use the sun's light to make

food, animals eat plants for food, decaying plants hundreds of millions of years ago

produced the coal, oil and natural gas that we use today. So, fossil fuels is actually

sunlight stored millions and millions of years ago.

Benefits of solar energy

Solar power is an extremely clean way to generate electricity. There are no air

emissions associated with the operation of solar modules or direct application

technologies. Residential-scale passive construction, photovoltaic, solar water heating,

and other direct applications reduce power generation from traditional sources and the

associated environmental impacts.

Solar thermal energy: Solar Thermal is one of the best ways to lower your carbon

footprint and help protect the environment. Typically over 20% of a home's Green house

gas emissions come from heating water. For many commercial businesses, such as

fitness centers, water heating can account for over 50% of green-house emissions. A

solar water heater is one of the most influential and economical ways to reduce your

greenhouse gas emissions. For example, a two collector solar thermal system will offset

the same amount of greenhouse gasses as a 2.5 KW solar electric system at a fraction

of the cost.

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Solar energy is the most readily available and free source of energy since prehistoric

times. It is estimated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000 times the world's

annual commercial energy consumption reaches the earth every year. Worlds largest

Solar Plant is located at California. India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to 7

kWh/m2 for 300 to 330 days in a year. This energy is sufficient to set up 20 MW solar

power plant per square kilometer land area. Solar energy is renewable because the sun

is always present. Japanese farmers are substituting P.V.Operated insect killers for

toxic pesticides which will harmful to environment and also human being.

Applications of solar energy:

1. Solar water heaters, 2. Solar lights, 3. Solar Cookers 4. Solar vehicles 5. Solar home

appliances 6. Solar power plant 7. Solar furnace

Advantages

Solar energy is free - no fuel, no waste or pollution.

In sunny countries, easy to use in remote places

Good for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and battery

chargers

Disadvantages

Doesn't work at night.

Very expensive to build solar power stations.

Can be unreliable unless you're in a very sunny place

Wind energy

It is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind

turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping

water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

India now has the 5th largest wind power installed capacity, of 3595 MW, in the world

estimated gross Wind potentials in India is 45,000 MW.

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Advantages

1. Wind is free.

2. Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.

3. The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.

4. Wind farms can be tourist attractions.

5. A good method of supplying energy to remote areas

Disadvantages

1. The wind is not always predictable - some days have no wind.

2. Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive.

3. Some people feel that covering the landscape with these towers is ugly

4. Can kill birds.

5. Can affect television reception if you live nearby.

6. Can be noisy.

Hydro Energy

Hydropower, hydraulic powerorwater poweris powerthat is derived from

the force orenergy of moving water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. The

potential energy of falling water, captured and converted to mechanical energy by

waterwheels, powered the start of the industrial revolution.

Geothermal Energy

The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So,

geothermal energy is heat from within the Earth. We can recover this heat as steam or

hot water and use it to heat buildings or generate electricity.

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is continuously

produced inside the Earth.

Advantages

Geothermal energy does not produce any pollution, and does not contribute to

the greenhouse effect.

The power stations do not take up much room, so there is not much impact on

the environment.

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No fuel is needed.

Once you've built a geothermal power station, the energy is almost free.

It may need a little energy to run a pump, but this can be taken from the energy being

generated.

Disadvantages

The big problem is that there are not many places where you can build a

geothermal power station. You need hot rocks of a suitable type, at a depth where we

can drill down to them.

The type of rock above is also important, it must be of a type that we can easily drill

through.

Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam", perhaps for decades.

Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground, and can be

difficult to safely dispose of.

Tidal Energy:

The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, and harnessing it could provide

a great deal of energy - around 20% of Britain's needs.

Although the energy supply is reliable and plentiful, converting it into useful electrical

power is not easy.

There are eight main sites around Britain where tidal power stations could usefully be

built, including the Severn, Dee, Solway and Humber estuaries. Only around 20 sites in

the world have been identified as possible tidal power stations.

A few years ago, "tidal power" meant "tidal barrage", but these days there are other

options as well.

Advantages

Once you've built it, tidal power is free.

It produces no greenhouse gases or other waste.

It needs no fuel.

It produces electricity reliably.

Not expensive to maintain.

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Tides are totally predictable.

Offshore turbines and vertical-axis turbines are not ruinously expensive to build

and do not have a large environmental impact.

Disadvantages

A barrage across an estuary is very expensive to build, and affects a very wide

area - the environment is changed for many miles upstream and downstream. Many

birds rely on the tide uncovering the mud flats so that they can feed. Fish can't migrate,

unless "fish ladders" are installed.

Only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is actually

moving in or out.

There are few suitable sites for tidal barrages

Wave Energy:

Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the sea. Waves are a powerful

source of energy.

The problem is that it's not easy to harness this energy and convert it into electricity in

large amounts. Thus, wave power stations are rare.

Advantages

The energy is free - no fuel needed, no waste produced.

Not expensive to operate and maintain.

Can produce a great deal of energy.

Disadvantages

Depends on the waves - sometimes you'll get loads of energy, sometimes almost

nothing.

Needs a suitable site, where waves are consistently strong.

Some designs are noisy. But then again, so are waves, so any noise is unlikely

to be a problem.

Must be able to withstand very rough weather.

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Nuclear Energy:

Advantages

One gram of U235 can deliver as much energy as two tons of coal.

Reactors can run for years without refueling and do not produce CO2 or other

greenhouse gases.

Disadvantages

We have no permanent disposal system for the nuclear waste.

There have been several meltdowns in the industry and they have taken the

lives of many people.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is available all round the year. It is cheap, widely available, easy to

transport, store, and has no environmental hazards.

It can be obtained from plantation of land having no competitive-use.

Biomass-based power generation systems, linked to plantations on wasteland,

simultaneously address the vital issues of wastelands development, environmental

restoration, rural employment generation, and generation of power-with-no-distribution-

losses.

It can be combined with production of other useful products, making it an

attractive by product.

Fossil fuels

The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th century fired mans search for alternative

sources of fuel to meet energy needs of the mushrooming industries. With the

realization that fossil fuels could meet this requirement, the energy needs of the world

were fulfilled for the time being.

Fossil fuels are called so because they have been derived from fossils, which were

formed millions of years ago during the time of the dinosaurs. They are fossilized

organic remains that over millions of years have been converted to oil, gas, and coal.

Because their formation takes so long, these sources are also called non-renewable.

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These fuels are made up of decomposed plant and animal matter. When plants,

dinosaurs, and other ancient creatures died, they decomposed and were buried, layer

upon layer under the ground. Their decomposed remains gradually changed over the

years. It took millions of years to form these layers into a hard, black rock-like substance

called coal, a thick liquid called oil or petroleum, and natural gasthe three major forms

of fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are usually found below ground. Coal is either mined or dug out while oil

and natural gas are pumped out. Coal is widely distributed and is easier to locate than

oil and gas.

Fossil fuels take millions of years to make, but burn and disappear in seconds. Once

they are used, they cannot be reused. People have irretrievably damaged the planet by

extracting and burning these fuels. It is best not to waste fossil fuels as they are not

renewable. We have to learn to conserve these sources of energy.

Every year, millions of tonnes of coal is consumed as energy. This has led to global

warming (greenhouse effect) and the depletion of resources.

At present, the worldwide burning of coal, oil, and natural gas releases billions of tonnes

of carbon dioxide (measured as carbon) into the atmosphere every year. Burning any

fossil fuel means pollution of some sort. Even if the fuel is low in sulphur, the

atmosphere contains nitrogen, which combines with oxygen at the high burning

temperatures found in boilers, jet, or car engines. This yields nitrogen oxides, which like

sulphur dioxide, dissolves in rain to form nitric acid. Both gases are poisonous to

humans.

Mining and exploration for fossil fuels can cause disturbance to the surrounding

ecosystem. The burning of fossil fuels emits oxides of sulphur and nitrogen into the

atmosphere.

Role of an individual to conserve energy sources

Domestic Sector:

Turn off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use

Use the sunlight for drying the cloths instead of using power driers

Construction of buildings with large ventilators and windows

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Take shorter showers. Heating water uses energy.

Keep rooms cool by closing the blinds, shades, or curtains.

Use compact fluorescent bulbs.

Industrial Sector: Change of Raw material, process and technology

Recycling, Reduction, Reuse and Regeneration methods

Effective usage of power by using renewable energy resources

Conditioning all types of working process

Agricultural Sector:

Usage of Drip irrigation

Usage of Solar lights in the fields

Usage of PV insect killers in place of pesticides

Effective usage of agricultural waste material

Transportation Sector:

Less usage of petrol and diesel vehicles

Usage of Bicycle in place of bikes

Usage of electronic bikes and other vehicles

Usage of mass transportation Stopping vehicles near signals

Servicing the vehicles regularly

Land Resources

Land is a major constituent of the lithosphere and is the source of materials essential to

man and other organisms

Indias geographical area is 328 million hectares.

Increase in population has put great pressure on land resources and this has led to

- destruction of forest land for agricultural and other purposes

- urbanization

- industrialization

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- infrastructure (roads, railways and transmission lines)

Causes, effects and control of

a. Land degradation b. Soil erosion c. Desertification.

Land degradation:

Causes: 1.Natural factors: Heavy rains, High speed winds, Natural Disasters,

Expansion of Desert

2.Anthropogenic factors: Mining, Urbanisation, Deforestation, Overgazing, Construction

of Dams and Canals, Excessive use of fertilizers, Dumping of industrial and municipal

waste

Soil Erosion:

Causes: Large-scale deforestation, Floods in rivers, Overgrazing by cattle, Dry violent

winds, Improper agriculture techniques.

Effects: Decrease in the productivity of land, Desertification of land, Deposition of soil in

water bodies, Reduction of agricultural land at the banks of rivers

Control: Afforestation on barren land, Control of overgrazing, Construction of small

check dams, Promoting equitable use of water resources, preventing excavation of

rocks

Desertification:

Desert is an area of land that receives very less or no rainfall. It is very thinly populated

with little or no vegetation. The fertility in deserts is minimum and they are devoid of

wildlife. Conservation of fertile non desertic land into infertile desertic land is called

desertification.

Causes: Natural factors: Very low rainfall, Excessive evaporation, vast difference indiurnal temperature extremes, High salinity of soils.

Anthropogenic factors: Continuous cutting of trees, overgrazing, over-irrigation,

Excessive ploughing, conservation of pastures to arable lands, excessive use of

fertilizers.

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Effects: Rapid soil erosion, Poor soil quality, Unfavourable climate, Low water table,

salty and hard water, increase of economic and human costs.

Control: Promoting large scale plantation of trees, changing agricultural practices and

promoting dryland farming (Economically viable, ecologically sustainable and socially

acceptable) Development of water catchment areas.

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Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources: