ESSENTIALS - IFSTA › sites › default › files › 36922-manual-ch6_2.pdfNFPA® standards. Design and construction requirements for SCBA and PASS de-vices are covered in NFPA ®

O F F I R E F I G H T I N GESSENTIALS

INTERNATIONAL FIRE SERVICE TRAINING ASSOCIATION

Chapter Contents

256 Chapter 6 • Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment

Case History ......................................259Personal Protective Equipment ...............259 Structural Fire Fighting Protective Clothing .. 261

Wildland Personal Protective Clothing .......... 270

Roadway Operations Clothing ....................... 273

Emergency Medical Protective Clothing ........274

Special Protective Clothing ............................274

Station/Work Uniforms ................................. 276

Care of Personal Protective Clothing ............ 277

Safety Considerations for Personal Protective Equipment ............................... 280

Respiratory Protection ..........................281 Respiratory Hazards ...................................... 281

Types of Respiratory Protection Equipment ................................ 287

Respiratory Protection Limitations ............... 295

Storing Respiratory Protection Equipment ... 296 Donning and Doffing Protective Breathing Apparatus ......................297 General Donning Considerations ................... 297

Donning an Unmounted SCBA ....................... 298

Donning from a Seat Mount .......................... 299

Donning from a Side or Rear External Mount .......................................... 300

Donning from a Backup Mount...................... 300

Donning the Facepiece .................................. 301

Doffing Protective Breathing Apparatus ....... 302

Inspection and Maintenance of Protective Breathing Apparatus ......................303 Protective Breathing Apparatus Inspections and Care ..................................................... 303

Annual Inspection and Maintenance ............. 306

SCBA Air Cylinder Hydrostatic Testing .......... 306

Refilling SCBA Cylinders ............................... 307

Replacing SCBA Cylinders ..............................311

Using Respiratory Protection Equipment ....312 Safety Precautions for SCBA Use ...................312

Exit Indicators and Techniques ......................313

Chapter Summary ...............................316 Review Questions ...............................316Skill Sheets .......................................317

Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment

Key Terms

NFPA® Job Performance Requirements

Chapter 6 • Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment 257

Airborne Pathogens .............................287 Air-Purifying Respirator (APR) ................284 Asphyxiation ......................................283 Cascade System .................................307 Closed-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus ...................................298 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) ...........293 Fire Fighting Boots ..............................267 Gas .................................................284 Hearing Protection ..............................270 Helmet .............................................264 High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) Filter ...............................287 Hydrostatic Test ..................................303 Hypoxia ............................................282 Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus ......................289 Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere .................282

Particulate ........................................283 Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) ..........314 Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) ........270 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .......259 Powered Air-Purifying Respirator (PAPR) ..284 Protective Coat ...................................266 Protective Gloves ................................267 Protective Hood ..................................266 Protective Trousers .............................267 Proximity Fire Fighting .........................261 Pulmonary Edema ...............................283 Qualitative Fit Test (QLFT) .....................292 Quantitative Fit Test (QNFT) ...................292 Respiratory Hazards ............................281 Search Line .......................................315 Structural Fire Fighting .........................261 Vapor ...............................................284

This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements of NFPA® 1001, Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications (2013).

Firefighter I5.1.15.1.25.3.15.3.25.5.1

Chapter 6

Firefighter I Chapter Objectives


1. Describe the purpose of personal protective equipment. (5.1.1)

2. Describe characteristics of each type of personal protective equipment. (5.3.2)

3. Summarize guidelines for the care of personal protective clothing. (5.1.1, 5.5.1)

4. Explain the safety considerations for personal protective equipment. (5.3.1)

5. Identify respiratory hazards. (5.3.1)

6. Identify types of respiratory protection equipment. (5.3.1)

7. Describe the limitations of respiratory protection equipment. (5.3.1)

8. Explain methods for storing respiratory protection equipment. (5.5.1)

9. Describe general donning and doffing considerations for protective breathing apparatus. (5.3.1)

10. Summarize general considerations for protective breathing apparatus inspections and care. (5.1.1, 5.5.1)

11. Summarize safety precautions for refilling SCBA cylinders. (5.5.1)

12. Explain procedures for replacing SCBA cylinders. (5.3.1)

13. Explain safety precautions for SCBA use. (5.3.1)

14. Describe nonemergency and emergency exit indicators. (5.3.1)

15. Describe nonemergency exit techniques. (5.3.1)

16. Demonstrate the method for donning structural personal protective clothing for use at an emergency. (Skill Sheet 6-I-1, 5.1.2, 5.3.1)

17. With structural personal protective clothing in place, demonstrate the over-the-head method of donning an SCBA. (Skill Sheet 6-I-2, 5.3.1)

18. With structural personal protective clothing in place, demonstrate the coat method for donning an SCBA while seated. (Skill Sheet 6-I-3, 5.3.1)

19. With structural personal protective clothing in place, demonstrate the method for donning an SCBA while seated. (Skill Sheet 6-I-4, 5.3.1)

20. Doff personal protective equipment, including respiratory protection, and prepare for reuse. (Skill Sheet 6-I-5, 5.1.2)

21. Demonstrate the steps for inspecting an SCBA. (Skill Sheet 6-I-7, 5.5.1)

22. Demonstrate the steps for cleaning and sanitizing an SCBA. (Skill Sheet 6-I-7, 5.5.1)

23. Demonstrate the method for filling an SCBA cylinder from a cascade system, wearing appropriate PPE, including eye and ear protection. (Skill Sheet 6-1-8, 5.3.1)

24. Demonstrate the method for filling an SCBA cylinder from a compressor/purifier system, wearing appropriate PPE, including eye and ear protection. (Skill Sheet 6-I-9, 5.3.1)

25. Demonstrate the one-person method for changing an SCBA cylinder. (Skill Sheet 6-I-7, 5.3.1)

26. Demonstrate the two-person method for changing an SCBA cylinder. (Skill Sheet 6-I-7, 5.3.1)

Case History


Firefighter Personal Protective Equipment

Chapter 6

As a firefighter and emergency responder, you will work in a wide variety of haz-ardous environments. To protect your life and health, you must wear proper safety equipment at all times. This chapter provides an overview of two critical types of safety equipment: personal protective equipment (PPE) and respiratory protection. You will learn about the different types of this equipment, as well as their functions, proper usage, and maintenance.

Personal Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the personal protective clothing (PPC), re-spiratory protection equipment, and personal alert safety system (PASS) you will wear during emergency responses. It is designed to protect you from hazards and minimize

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) — General term for the equipment worn by fire and emergency services responders; includes helmets, coats, trousers, boots, eye protection, hearing protection, protective gloves, protective hoods, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and personal alert safety system (PASS) devices. Also known as Bunker Clothes, Full Structural Protective Clothing, Protective Clothing, Turnout Clothing, or Turnout Gear.

In 2002, Mark Noble, a nineteen-year veteran of the Olympia (WA) Fire Department, was diagnosed with brain cancer. During his treatment, Mark began to research the connection between firefighters and cancer. He learned that firefighters are exposed to highly toxic substances in virtually every fire and that some toxins can accumulate in the body after repeated exposures. These potentially deadly toxins include asbestos, benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), carbon monoxide (CO), and

other products of combustion that are present during the overhaul phase of a fire.

In his research, Mark found that firefighters are twice as likely as the general public to develop intestinal, liver, testicular, and prostate cancer, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and malignant melanoma. They are three times as likely to develop skin, brain, and bladder cancer, as well as leukemia. They are also four times as likely to develop kidney cancer (Figure 6.1, p.260).

In 2005, Mark Noble died at the age of 47. The brain cancer that killed him was most likely caused by the toxins he was exposed to in the fire service. Mark loved being a firefighter, but he said that if he had it to do over again, he would wear his SCBA more, and he would be more conscientious about attaching exhaust collection hoses to the apparatus.

Permission to use this information was granted by Mrs. Rebecca Noble and ERGOMETRICS & Applied Personnel Research, Inc., who produced a video interview with Mark during his final months. The video is available at the following Website: www.ergometrics.org.


Probability of Cancer Among Fire�ghters

• Intestinal • Liver • Prostate• Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

• Malignant Melanoma

• Skin• Bladder• Leukemia

• Brain

• Kidney

• Testicular

Legend

General AdultPopulation

Firefighters

0 1 2 3 4

Times as likely to develop

Type

s of

Can

cer

Figure 6.1 Firefighters are exposed to a greater range and concentration of hazards than the general public, and they have a higher likelihood of several types of cancers because of that exposure.


the risk of injury or fatality (Figure 6.2). Your PPC includes helmets, coats, trousers, boots, eye protection, hearing protection, protective gloves, and protective hoods. Its use is mandated by NFPA® 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, and all equipment must be designed and constructed based on NFPA® standards. Design and construction requirements for SCBA and PASS de-vices are covered in NFPA® 1981, Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Emergency Services, and NFPA® 1982, Standard on Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS), respectively.

Different emergency operations require different kinds of PPE. For example, some emergency types require full sets of PPE, including respiratory protection, while oth-ers require only protective clothing. Types of personal protective clothing include:

• Structural fire fighting protective clothing• Wildland fire fighting protective clothing• Roadway operations protective clothing• Emergency medical protective clothing• Special protective clothing• Station and work uniforms

Structural Fire Fighting Protective ClothingAll personal protective clothing designed for structural and proximity fire fighting must meet the requirements of NFPA® 1971, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting. This standard addresses the re-quirements for helmets, coats, trousers, boots, eye protection, protective gloves, and protective hoods.

Structural Fire Fighting — Activities required for rescue, fire suppression, and property conservation in structures, vehicles, vessels, and similar types of properties.

Proximity Fire Fighting — Activities required for rescue, fire suppression, and property conservation at fires that produce high radiant, conductive, or convective heat; includes aircraft, hazardous materials transport, and storage tank fires.

Figure 6.2 Protective equipment and clothing are tailored to the hazards that a first responder will face.


NFPA® 1971 requires that all components must include a permanent label that shows compliance with the standard (Figure 6.3). This label contains the following statement:

THIS STRUCTURAL FIRE FIGHTING PROTECTIVE (name of component) MEETS THE (name of component) REQUIREMENTS OF NFPA® 1971,

(current edition) EDITION.

Labels must also include the following information:• Manufacturer’s name, identification, or designation• Manufacturer’s address• Country of manufacture • Manufacturer’s identification, lot, or serial number • Month and year of manufacture • Model name, number, or design• Size or size range• Principal materials of construction • Footwear size and width (where applicable) • Cleaning precautions

Personal protective clothing components must be compatible with each other to provide the level of protection intended by the NFPA® standard. Each component is designed to protect you from specific hazards and may not protect you from other types of hazards. For instance, structural personal protective clothing offers no pro-tection against many types of hazardous materials.

Firefighters should never alter their protective clothing. Changing, adding, or removing components may void the manufacturer’s warranty, affect your workers’ compensation benefits, and endanger your life. Alterations include removing the moisture barrier or liner of coats and trousers, sewing hooks, loops, or clasps to the outer shell, and adding combustible decals to the helmet.

CAUTION Unauthorized alteration of your PPE may affect the worker’s compensation benefits provided to you by

your jurisdiction.

Figure 6.3 NFPA® 1971 regulates the clothing components that comply with the standard.


Structural personal protective clothing is designed to cover all portions of your skin when you are reaching, bending, or moving. It is also designed to prevent heat transfer from the fire to your body. However, one limitation of this design is that it also prevents heat from being transferred away from your body. Usually your body cools itself by sweating, but the protective clothing traps body heat and moisture in-side the clothing. This may significantly increase your breathing and heart rate, skin temperature, core temperature, and physiological stress (Figure 6.4). If environmen-tal conditions allow it, open your protective clothing to permit airflow around your body during authorized breaks. This will lessen heat stress and reduce your heart rate.

Hazards Determine the PPE Always wear the correct PPE that is designed to protect you from the specific type of hazard(s) presented by the incident.

Personal Protective Clothing Can Trap Heat and Humidity

HEAT

HEAT

HEAT

HEAT

HEAT

Figure 6.4 Protective clothing may create its own hazards including the entrapment of heat.


Helmets One of the primary concerns for firefighters is head protection. Helmets are manu-factured in a wide variety of designs and styles (Figures 6.5 a-c). They are designed to provide multiple benefits during structural fire fighting operations, including: • Preventing heated or scalding water and embers from reaching the ears and neck • Protecting the head from impact injuries caused by objects or falls• Providing protection from heat and cold

In addition to providing protection, helmets can also help to identify personnel. Shell color indicates the firefighter’s rank, markings indicate the unit, and removable identification labels indicate accountability (Figures 6.6 a-d). All of these uses are based on a department’s standard operating procedures (SOPs).

To properly protect you, your helmet must be worn correctly. Place the helmet on your head, secure the chin strap under your chin and tighten it, and fold the ear flaps down to cover your ears and neck. You must fold the ear flaps down even if you are wearing a protective hood. Some helmets also have a ratchet at the back of the head-band to allow you to adjust the fit.

Helmet — Headgear worn by firefighters that provides protection from falling objects, side blows, elevated temperatures, and heated water.

Figure 6.6 a Personal identification may be found on the front panel of a helmet.

Figure 6.6 b The markings on a helmet often indicate rank and unit.

Figure 6.6 c A responder’s name or nickname is often marked on the back of his or her helmet.

Figure 6.6 d Accountability tags may fit conveniently inside the rear edge of a helmet for easy accessibility before entering an incident scene.

Figure 6.5 a Helmets have developed over time to address specific incident needs.

Figure 6.5 b The features of a helmet should be used with the necessary safeguards in place to prevent injuries.

Figure 6.5 c Unique styles of helmets should be used according to their specific purposes and the AHJ.


Eye Protection DevicesEye injuries are some of the most common injuries at emergency incidents, but they are not always reported because they are not always debilitating. Although eye in-juries can be serious, they are fairly easy to prevent. Eye protection comes in many forms including SCBA facepieces, helmet-mounted faceshields, goggles, and safety glasses (Figures 6.7 a-d).

Helmets must be equipped with faceshields or goggles. Faceshields alone do not provide adequate protection from flying particles or splashes and are intended to be used in combination with a primary form of eye protection. NFPA® 1500 requires that goggles or other appropriate primary eye protection be worn when participating in operations where protection from flying particles or chemical splashes is necessary. During fire fighting operations, your primary eye protection is your SCBA facepiece. But in other situations, eye protection is needed when respiratory protection is not required. Some of these situations include:

• Emergency medical responses where exposure to body fluids is possible• Vehicle extrications• Wildland and ground cover fires• Industrial occupancy inspections • Station maintenance

These situations call for safety glasses or goggles, which protect against approxi-mately 85 percent of all eye hazards. Several styles are available, including some that fit over prescription glasses. Prescription safety glasses are another option, al-though these must have frames and lenses that meet American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard Z87.1, Occupational and Educational Personal Eye and Face Protection Devices.

In fire department facilities and maintenance areas, you should be aware of warn-ing signs posted near power equipment requiring the use of eye protection. Always follow your department’s safety policies and procedures regarding appropriate eye protection.

Figure 6.7 a SCBA facepieces include eye protection.

Figure 6.7 b Helmet mounted faceshields may serve as partial eye protection.

Figure 6.7 c Goggles are commonly used in emergency incidents.

Figure 6.7 d Safety glasses guard against slow-travelling hazards.


Protective HoodsProtective hoods are fabric coverings that protect your ears, neck, and face from ex-posure to heat, embers, and debris. They cover areas that may not be protected by the SCBA facepiece, helmet, ear flaps, or coat collar. The protective hood’s face opening has an elastic edge that fits tightly to the SCBA facepiece, forming a seal. Hoods are typically made of fire-resistant material and are available with long or short skirts (Figure 6.8). The skirts are designed to fit inside the protective coat, forming a con-tinuous layer of protection.

Pull the hood on before the protective coat to help keep the hood’s skirt under the coat. To ensure a secure seal between the hood and the SCBA facepiece, secure the facepiece first before pulling up the hood. This way you will not compromise the facepiece-to-face seal.

Protective Coats NFPA® 1971 requires that all protective coats used for structural fire fighting be made of three components: the outer shell, moisture barrier, and thermal barrier (Figure 6.9). These barriers trap insulating air that prevents heat transfer from the fire to your body. They also provide limited protection from direct flame contact, hot water, steam, cold temperatures, and other environmental hazards. Each component is important to your safety and should never be compromised. Removing the liner and wearing only the shell compromises the design of the coat, increases the likeli-hood of injuries, and voids the manufacturer warranty.

Protective Hood — Hood designed to protect the firefighter’s ears, neck, and face from heat and debris; typically made of Nomex®, Kevlar®, or PBI®, and available in long or short styles.

Protective Coat — Coat worn during fire fighting, rescue, and extrication operations.

WARNINGAll layers of the protective coat must be in place during any fire fighting operation. Failure to wear the entire coat and liner system during a fire may

expose you to severe heat resulting in serious injury or death.

b

Figure 6.8 Protective hoods provide a continuous layer of coverage for the head and neck.

Figure 6.9 The three component layers of a protective coat work together to provide resistance against hazards in the environment and are identified as: a) the outer shell, b) the moisture barrier, and c) the thermal barrier.


Protective coats have many design features that provide protection and conve-nience (Figures 6.10 a-e, p. 268). Design features required by NFPA® 1971 include:

• Retroreflective trim — Strips of reflective trim on the torso and sleeves make it more visible at night or in low light conditions.

• Wristlets — Fabric interface between the end of the sleeve and the palm of the hand that protects the wrist from water, embers, and other debris. Also keeps coat sleeves from riding up when reaching.

• Collars — Protects the neck from water, embers, and other debris. The collar must be turned up under the helmet ear flap.

• Closure system — Snaps, clips, zippers, or Velcro® fasteners that secure the front of the coat.

• Drag Rescue Device (DRD) — Harness and hand loop at the back of the neck that enables a rescuer to grab and drag a downed firefighter.

Coats are typically reinforced in high compression areas, such as the shoulders, and areas prone to wear, such as the elbows. Optional design features such as cargo, radio, or SCBA facepiece pockets are also common, based on local requirements. These optional features must be attached by the manufacturer to meet the NFPA® standard.

Protective Trousers Protective trousers are constructed from the same fabric, moisture barrier, and ther-mal layering used in protective coats (Figure 6.11, p. 269). High compression areas and areas prone to wear are reinforced, and cargo or patch pockets may be attached for carrying gloves and small tools. Heavy-duty suspenders are used to hold the trou-sers up. Closure systems are the same as those found on the protective coat.

Protective Gloves Protective gloves protect hands and wrists from heat, steam, or cold penetration, and resist cuts, punctures, and liquid absorption. At the same time, gloves must allow enough dexterity and tactile feel for you to perform your job effectively. For instance, gloves must permit you to grasp tools and nozzles or manipulate small objects such as control knobs on portable radios (Figure 6.12, p. 269). Properly worn, the gloves cover the wristlet of the protective coat to form a complete seal. Gloves worn for structural fire fighting must be NFPA®-compliant for this type of activity.

Protective Footwear Fire fighting boots are available in a variety of styles and materials (Figures 6.13 a and b, p. 269). They protect the foot, ankle, and lower leg from:

• Puncture wounds to the sole caused by nails, broken glass, and other sharp objects • Crushing wounds to the toes and instep• Scalding water or contaminated liquids• Burns from embers and debris

Boots have a steel inner sole and a steel or reinforced toe cap and must be high enough to protect the lower leg. The outer shell may be made of rubber, leather, or other water-resistant material. Thermal, physical, and moisture barriers are required inside the shell. Boot tops fit inside the trouser legs, providing a complete barrier even when you kneel down.

Protective Trousers — Trousers worn to protect the lower torso and legs during emergency operations. Also known as Bunker Pants or Turnout Pants.

Protective Gloves — Protective clothing designed to protect the hands.

Fire Fighting Boots — Protective footwear meeting the design requirements of NFPA®, OSHA, and CAN/CSA Z195-02 (R2008).


Figure 6.10 a Reflective trim catches light and reflects it to enhance the visibility of responders at night or in low-light conditions.

Figure 6.10 b Wristlets are built into the ends of coat sleeves to provide a protective interface between sleeves and gloves.

Figure 6.10 d A coat closure system may include more than one mechanism to ensure a complete seal.

Figure 6.10 e A loop on the back of protective clothing serves as a handle to aid in the rescue of a distressed firefighter.

Figure 6.10 c Coat collars prevent embers, water, and other debris from getting under the coat.


Figure 6.11 Because of their weight, protective trousers are supported in place with suspenders.

Figure 6.12 Protective gloves cover the hands and coat wristlet to provide protection against common hazards.

Figure 6.13 a Fire fighting boots protect the foot and ankle from hazards routinely found at an incident scene.

Figure 6.13 b Styles of fire fighting boots may vary but their common purpose is to protect a firefighter’s feet and lower legs.


Hearing Protection Devices Firefighters are exposed to a variety of loud noises in the fire station, during training, en route to incidents, and at the emergency scene. Hearing protection devices guard against temporary and permanent hearing loss. They are not required by NFPA® 1971, but they are required by NFPA® 1500.

To comply with this standard, departments must protect firefighters from the effects of harmful noise. Eliminating or reducing noise is the best solution, but sometimes this is not possible. In these cases, departments must provide hearing protection devices and establish a hearing conservation plan.

Hearing protection is most commonly used when riding on an apparatus where the noise exceeds maximum noise exposure levels (90 decibels in the U.S., 85 decibels in Canada). Intercom/ear protection systems are the most effective for this purpose, because they also allow the crew to communicate with each other or monitor radio com-munications. Hearing protection is also required during the operation of power tools, generators, and the apparatus pump, and when testing the PASS device (Figure 6.14).

However, hearing protection is impractical in some situations, and may even be dangerous. For example, during structural fire fighting, it prevents you from com-municating with other firefighters and hearing radio transmissions, changes in fire behavior, or calls from a trapped victim.

Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS) Personal alert safety systems (PASS) emit a loud alarm to alert other personnel that a firefighter is in danger. The alarm is activated when a firefighter is motionless for more than 30 seconds, or when a firefighter presses the emergency button. In some models, it may be activated when the temperature exceeds a preset limit. The alarm must be at least 95 decibels (dBA) and must go off continuously for at least one hour.

PASS devices assist rescuers attempting to locate trapped, unconscious, or inca-pacitated firefighters. They are particularly useful in total darkness, dense smoke, or confined spaces. Some devices are stand-alone units that are manually activated. Other devices are integrated units connected to the SCBA regulator that are auto-matically activated when the main air supply valve is opened (Figures 6.15 a and b). SCBA-mounted devices can also be activated manually, without opening the cylin-der valve.

PASS devices have at least three settings: off, alarm, and sensing. They also have a pre-alarm mode that activates if you are motionless for 30 seconds. This pre-alarm tone is different from the full alarm tone and is intended to prevent false alarms.

You must learn how to turn the unit from off to sensing (on) and to manually activate the alarm. You are also responsible for testing, maintaining, and activating your PASS device according to your department’s SOP, manufacturer’s instructions, NFPA® 1500, and NFPA® 1982, Standard on Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS).

Wildland Personal Protective ClothingPersonal protective clothing used for structural fire fighting is generally too bulky, heavy, and hot to be practical for wildland fire fighting. NFPA® 1977, Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Fire Fighting contains the specifica-tions for wildland fire fighting personal protective clothing and equipment (Figure 6.16). Wildland personal protective clothing and equipment includes:

Hearing Protection — Device that limits noise-induced hearing loss when firefighters are exposed to extremely loud environments, such as apparatus engine noise, audible warning devices, and the use of power tools and equipment.

Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) — Electronic lack-of-motion sensor that sounds a loud alarm when a firefighter becomes motionless. It can also be manually activated.

Figure 6.14 Ear muffs are one form of hearing protection that can be used during activities with high noise exposure levels.


Figure 6.15 a A stand-alone PASS device is not integrated with other safety equipment.

Figure 6.15 b An integrated PASS unit activates automatically when the air supply valve is opened. Courtesy of James Nilo.

Figure 6.16 Wildland personal protective clothing is minimal compared to structural fire fighting clothing.


• Gloves — Made of leather or inherently flame-resistant materials. They protect the hand and wrist from sharp or hot objects, temperature extremes, and scalding water.

• Goggles — Protect the eyes from ash, embers, dust, and other particulates. Must meet ANSI Z87.1, Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection Devices.

• Jackets — Made of high-strength, flame-resistant fabric, such as Aramid, or treated cotton. May have a thermal liner for use in cold climates. The cuffs close snugly around the wrists, and the front of the jacket must close completely from hem to neck.

• Trousers — Made of the same material and design as the jackets. The leg cuffs must close securely around the boot tops.

• One-piece jumpsuits — One-piece protective garments are similar in design to the two-piece jacket and trousers ensemble.

• Long-sleeve shirts — Protective shirts are worn under the jackets and are of simi-lar design.

• Helmet — A lightweight helmet with chin straps that provides impact, penetra-tion, and electrical insulation protection.

• Face/neck shrouds — Flame-resistant fabric that attaches to the helmet and pro-tects the face and neck.

• Footwear — Typically lace-up safety boots with lug or grip-tread soles. Must be high enough to protect the lower leg. Because the steel toes in ordinary safety boots absorb and retain heat, they are not recommended for wildland fire fighting.

• Fire shelter — Fire-resistant aluminized fabric covers that protect the firefighter from convected and radiant heat (Figure 6.17). Its use is required by NFPA® 1500, and its design must meet the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service Specification 5100-606.

• Load-carrying or load-bearing equipment — Belt and suspender systems that distribute the weight of the firefighter’s equipment including tools, water bottles, and protective fire shelters.

• Respiratory protection — Until very recently, the accepted form of respiratory protection has been a cotton bandana or dust mask worn over the nose and mouth. However, studies have shown that these items do not provide sufficient protec-tion. Beginning in 2011, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) certified and NFPA® approved air purifying respirators (APR) and pow-ered air purifying respirators (PAPR) will be available for wildland fire fighting.

Figure 6.17 A fire shelter reflects the heat of a fire away from the firefighter while in use.


• Chain saw protection — Chaps, leggings, or protective trousers made of ballistic nylon fibers that protect the legs (Figure 6.18). According to one source, leg inju-ries account for a significant number of all chain saw injuries.

Because wildland protective garments will not protect you from extreme heat, you should never wear underclothing made of synthetic materials, such as nylon or poly-ester, when fighting a wildland fire. These materials melt when heated and can stick to your skin, causing serious burns.

Figure 6.18 Protective chaps may limit some injury while using a chain saw.

Figure 6.19 A firefighter wearing a reflective vest is more visible at night than a firefighter wearing standard bunker gear.

WARNINGWildland personal protective clothing is not designed, certified, or intended for interior

structural fire fighting.

Roadway Operations ClothingEmergency operations along roadways are extremely dangerous for firefighters and emergency responders. No amount of personal protective clothing can prevent inju-ries when a person is struck by a rapidly moving vehicle. The best protection is to be visible to other motorists and to work behind a barrier formed by your apparatus, as discussed in Chapter 2.

To increase your visibility to oncoming traffic, you should wear traffic vests with retroreflective trim. Retroreflective trim reflects headlight beams, providing visibility at night or in low light situations (Figure 6.19). Traffic vests are required by federal law at incidents on federally-funded highways. They should be worn over your PPE if possible, or as soon as the situation has stabilized. Vests are not commonly worn during fire suppression or hazardous materials activities but should be worn at all other times.


Emergency Medical Protective ClothingWhen providing medical assistance, emergency responders must protect themselves against exposure to infectious bodily fluids and airborne pathogens. To accomplish this, they must wear emergency medical protective clothing. Most structural and wildland protective clothing does not prevent disease transmission, and fire fighting protective clothing is inappropriate because it can contaminate victims through their open wounds.

Emergency medical protective clothing may be either single- or multiple-use garments (Figure 6.20). Single-use garments are disposed of after contact with a patient. Multiple-use garments may be cleaned and reused a specified number of times before disposal. Medical protective clothing must meet NFPA® 1999, Standard on Protective Clothing for Emergency Medical Operations. It must also include the fol-lowing items:

• Utility gloves — Not used for patient care but do provide a barrier against bodily fluids, disinfectants, and cleaning solutions.

• Medical examination gloves — Gloves that are certified for patient care and pro-vide an effective barrier (against infection) up to the wrist.

• Eye/face protection device — Faceshield, goggles, safety glasses, or hooded visor that provides limited protection for the eyes and face.

• Facemask — A full face device that protects the eyes, face, nose, and mouth.• Footwear — Safety shoes or boots that protect feet and ankles; may be dual certi-

fied station/work shoes.

• Footwear cover — A single-use item worn over footwear to provide a limited bar-rier against bodily fluids.

• Medical garment — Single- or multiple-use clothing that provides a barrier against bodily fluids; may be sleeves, jackets, trousers, gowns, or coveralls that can be worn over a uniform.

• Medical helmet — Head protection that is designed to provide impact, penetration, and electrical insulation protection while working with a patient in a hazardous area. Helmets must meet ANSI design requirements for Type 1 hard hats.

• Respiratory protection device — Filter mask that protects the wearer from airborne pathogens.

Special Protective Clothing Other emergency incident types that require specialized protective clothing include the following:

• Technical rescue — Must protect the wearer from physical, thermal, and liquid hazards, as well as infectious diseases. Design criteria are specified in NFPA® 1951, Standard on Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents (Figure 6.21 a). May be dual certified for emergency medical use as defined by NFPA® 1951 and NFPA® 1999. They may also be chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) certified. While structural personal protective clothing is sometimes worn for technical rescue operations, it is usually too bulky and heavy. Respiratory protection typically consists of air purifying respirators (APR), SCBAs, or supplied air respirators (SAR).

Figure 6.20 Protective clothing includes single-use garments.


• Standing/Swift Water rescue — A full-body wet suit that is buoyant, thermally-insulated, and abrasion/puncture-resistant (Figure 6.21 b). A rescue helmet is also part of the required ensemble. In addition, a U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) approved personal floatation device (PFD) must be worn in rivers, streams, and lakes, and along shorelines and coastlines.

• Ice rescue — Similar to the full-body dry suit that may be used in water rescue, but with more thermal insulation (Figure 6.21 c). USCG PFDs are mandatory, and some models have watertight hoods, integrated gloves, and attachable boots.

Figure 6.21 a Technical rescue clothing may include equipment features that are CBRN certified.

Figure 6.21 d Personal protective clothing must be chosen to counteract the specific dangers presented by the substances that will be encountered.

Figure 6.21 b Swiftwater rescue equipment safeguards against dangers unique to that environment.

Figure 6.21 e Proximity protective clothing reflects radiant heat.

Figure 6.21 c Ice rescue clothing serves functions similar to swiftwater clothing but with more thermal insulation. Courtesy of Iowa Fire Service Training Bureau.


• Hazardous materials — Varying types include high-temperature protective clothing and chemical-protective clothing (CPC) that protects against splashes and vapor (Figure 6.21 d).

• Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) — CBRN suits protect against these hazard types during accidents and terrorist incidents. They must adhere to NFPA® 1994, Standard on Protective Ensembles for First Responders To CBRN Terrorism Incidents. NFPA® 1971 also establishes optional design re-quirements for structural and proximity ensembles that are certified for CBRN incidents. These ensembles must carry the appropriate CBRN label.

• Proximity fire fighting protective clothing — Similar to structural protective clothing but with an aluminized outer shell on the coat, trousers, gloves, and hel-met shroud (Figure 6.21 e). This outer shell is designed to reflect high levels of radiant heat and protect against direct flame contact. Must be resistant to water, impact from sharp objects, and electrical shock. Proximity PPE may be used in some hazardous materials operations.

Station/Work UniformsAlthough station and work uniforms look different between jurisdictions, they are all intended to perform two functions. First, they identify the wearer as a member of the organization. Second, the uniform provides a layer of protection against direct flame contact. For this reason, clothing made of non-fire resistant synthetic materials should not be worn while on duty or under your PPE.

All firefighter station and work uniforms should meet the requirements set forth in NFPA® 1975, Standard on Station/Work Uniforms for Emergency Services. The purpose of the standard is to provide minimum requirements for work wear that is functional, will not contribute to firefighter injury, and will not reduce the effec-tiveness of outer personal protective clothing. Garments addressed in this standard include trousers, shirts, jackets, and coveralls, but not underwear. Underwear made of 100 percent cotton is recommended, because synthetic materials melt when heated and can stick to your skin, causing serious burns.

Clothing certified to meet NFPA® 1975 requirements will have a permanently at-tached label stating that certification (Figures 6.22 a and b). Note that while this clothing is designed to be fire resistant, it is not designed to be worn for fire fight-ing operations. Structural fire fighting protective clothing must always be worn over these garments when you are engaged in structural fire fighting activities. Wildland protective clothing, depending on design and local protocols, may be worn over sta-tion/work uniforms or directly over undergarments. Some station/work uniforms are dual certified as both work uniforms and wildland protective clothing. Dual certified uniforms will always carry the appropriate certification labels.

In many fire departments, safety shoes or boots are part of the station/work uni-form. They are required footwear while conducting inspections or doing work around the station. Safety shoes or boots usually have steel toes, puncture-resistant soles, or special inserts. However, footwear used for station duties should not be worn during emergency operations because they might then contaminate living quarters with po-tentially hazardous substances.

Uniforms can be contaminated/soiled following any emergency response. Therefore, they should not be taken home or washed in personal washing machines or at public laundromats. Contaminated uniforms must be laundered at the fire station or by a contractor.


Care of Personal Protective Clothing Your personal protective clothing is your primary barrier protecting you from injury and illness. However, it can also cause injury or illness if it is not properly main-tained. Hydrocarbon contamination will reduce the fire resistance of your PPE (Figure 6.23). Chemicals, oils, and petroleum products in or on the outer shell can ignite when exposed to fire. Some contaminants can reduce the effectiveness of ret-roreflective trim, and soot can obscure its visibility. Hydrocarbons, body fluids, and toxins that contaminate PPE can be inhaled, ingested, or absorbed, causing serious and sometimes fatal illness.

You are responsible for the inspection, cleaning, and condition of the PPE assigned to you. Procedures for the care of your PPE are found in your department’s SOPs, the man-ufacturer’s instructions, and NFPA® 1851, Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting.

Inspecting You should inspect your PPE at the beginning of your work shift, after every use, after washing, repair, decontamination, and on a periodic basis, such as weekly or monthly. An annual inspection should be made by a member of your department who is trained in advanced inspection requirements, such as the department’s Health and Safety Officer (HSO).

Figure 6.22 a Uniforms worn in a station must conform to NFPA® 1975 because they will serve as a layer of protection under PPE.

Figure 6.22 b Clothing that adheres to NFPA® 1975 should be labeled as such.

Figure 6.23 Contamination of protective equipment can directly cause health risks and impair the effectiveness of the PPE.


Conditions that you should look for during a routine inspection include:

• Soiling • Contamination • Missing or damaged hardware and closure systems• Physical damage including rips, tears, and damaged stitching on seams• Wear due to friction under arms, in the crotch, and at knee and elbow joints • Thermal damage, including charring, melting, discoloration, and burn holes• Shrinkage• Damaged or missing retroreflective trim or reinforcing trim• Loss of reflectivity of shell on proximity equipment• Cracks, melting, abrasions, or dents in helmet shell • Missing or damaged faceshield or hardware (Figure 6.24) • Missing or damaged earflaps or neck shroud• Loss of watertight integrity in footwear• Damage to or faulty installation of drag rescue device (DRD)

If your protective clothing requires only routine cleaning that will not cause the item to be removed from service, you should perform that cleaning yourself. If you ever determine that your PPE requires advanced cleaning or decontamination, re-pairs, or replacement, report this to your supervisor immediately.

Figure 6.24 A heat- and smoke-damaged faceshield is useless on the fireground and should be replaced before operations.

CAUTION Repairs to all PPE must only be performed by persons who are trained and certified to do so.

Cleaning NFPA® 1851 defines four types of cleaning for personal protective clothing:

• Routine cleaning• Advanced cleaning• Specialized cleaning• Contract cleaning

Types of cleaning are determined by the amount and type of contamination and whether the equipment must be removed from service to perform the cleaning. Many fire departments provide spare sets of PPE to replace units removed from service for cleaning, decontamination, or repairs.

Routine cleaning. Routine cleaning does not require that the clothing be removed from service (Figure 6.25). At an incident scene, the process for routine cleaning includes:

• Brushing off loose debris with a broom or soft bristle brush• Using a gentle spray of water to rinse off debris and soil


To remove heavy soil, cleaning should be performed by hand in a utility sink, in the designated cleaning area at the fire station. Whether you are at the scene or in the station, always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations and wear appropriate gloves and eye protection.

Advanced cleaning. Personnel trained in the care and cleaning of protective cloth-ing should perform advanced cleaning. A washing machine dedicated to cleaning protective clothing that is designed to handle heavy loads should be used.

Figure 6.25 Maintain the good order of equipment by keeping it clean.

WARNINGNever clean soiled or contaminated protective clothing at home or at a public laundry. This

may expose yourself, your family, or others to dangerous contaminants.

WARNINGDo not wash contaminated protective clothing

in washing machines used for other garments or items. Do not take contaminated protective clothing into the living or sleeping quarters of the fire station or your residence. PPE should not be stored where it can come in contact with vehicle exhausts. PPE

that is carried in personal vehicles should be placed in closable garment bags intended for that purpose.

Specialized cleaning. Required when clothing is contaminated with hazardous materials or body fluids that cannot be removed by routine or advanced cleaning.May be performed by a trained member of the department or an outside contractor. Clothing that is too contaminated to be cleaned must be removed from service and destroyed.

Contract cleaning. Specialized cleaning performed by the manufacturer, its repre-sentative, or a certified vendor. Typically removes accumulated grime or contaminants. Some contractors provide replacement PPE while clothing is being cleaned.


Repairing Damaged protective clothing must be repaired immediately, either by the manufac-turer, an approved repair facility, or a trained member of the department. Clothing damaged beyond repair must be removed from service and destroyed. Some dam-aged clothing may be marked for training only and used in non-live fire training.

Safety Considerations for Personal Protective Equipment PPE is designed to create a protective barrier between you and your work environ-ment. However, this barrier can also isolate you, preventing you from being aware of important environmental changes and making you overconfident of your own safety.

Keep in mind these important safety considerations that relate to your personal protective equipment:

• Always consider the design and purpose of your protective clothing, and be espe-cially aware of each garment’s limitations.

• Moisture in the shell and liner material will conduct heat rapidly, resulting in seri-ous steam burns. Always ensure that the garment is dry before wearing it into a fire.

• PPE insulates you from the heat of a fire. This will protect your life, but it will also delay your awareness of temperature increases.

• Never wear protective clothing that does not fit because it will provide reduced protection. Tight clothing will not close properly, leaving a gap. Loose clothing can hinder mobility and dexterity by bunching up at shoulders, elbows, and knees. It can also snag on debris, create a tripping hazard, absorb contaminants, and reduce thermal protection.

• Make sure that the overlap between coat and trousers is a minimum of 2 inches (50 mm) at the waist when you bend over to a 90º angle (Figure 6.26).

• Thermal burns may occur at compression points where the garment layers are pressed together, such as under SCBA shoulder harness, along sleeves in contact with hoselines, and on knees when kneeling on hot debris and embers.

• Radiant heat can rapidly penetrate protective clothing, causing serious burns. If you feel thermal radiant burns developing, withdraw from the area immediately.

• Prolonged exposure to hot environments will cause your body to sweat in order to cool itself. However, the protective clothing liner will retain the moisture produced by sweating, which may cause heat stress or burns. When you feel the symptoms of heat exhaustion, including weakness, dizziness, rapid pulse, or headache, move to a cool, safe area, remove your PPE, and follow established rehabilitation procedures.

• Your PPE is designed to protect you, but it is not designed to protect against ex-treme fire conditions such as backdraft, flashover, or other extreme fire behavior.

Figure 6.26 A protective coat must overlap the trousers by at least 2 inches (50 mm) no matter which position the firefighter holds during operations.

WARNINGBurns are a function of time and temperature. The

longer the exposure and the higher the temperature, the greater the severity of a burn. First degree

burns start when skin temperature reaches 118º F (47.8º C). Second degree burns start at 131º F (55º C), and third degree burns start at 152º F (66.7º C).


Respiratory Protection The case history at the beginning of this chapter illustrates how inhaling smoke and other products of combustion poses short-term, long-term, and even fatal health haz-ards. Wearing appropriate respiratory protection is the most effective way to protect your health. Operations requiring respiratory protection include:

• Structural and wildland fires, which produce smoke and other products of combustion

• Medical responses, which may expose you to airborne pathogens• Confined space search, rescue, and recovery, which may take place in toxic or low

oxygen atmospheres

• Repair work that generates fine particulates such as dust, paint, or metal shavings (Figure 6.27).

Always wear respiratory protection equipment that is appropriate for the type of hazard you are facing. Be sure to use equipment properly so that you are not exposed to respiratory hazards.

Respiratory HazardsCommon respiratory hazards include:

• Oxygen deficiency• Elevated temperatures• Particulate contaminants• Gases and vapors• Airborne pathogens

Respiratory Hazards — Exposure to conditions that create a hazard to the respiratory system, including products of combustion, toxic gases, and superheated or oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Figure 6.27 Repair work should be assumed to generate particles that must be kept from contact with skin, eyes, and respiration.


Respiratory hazards are often found in situations that produce immediate, irre-versible, and debilitating effects on a person’s health and may result in death. NFPA® 1500 and OSHA classify these situations as immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH). Prior to entering any structure or area that is or may be IDLH, you must don the correct level of personal protective clothing and respiratory protection.

Oxygen Deficiency Both NFPA® and OSHA define an oxygen-deficient atmosphere as one containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen. When oxygen concentrations are below 18 percent, the human body responds by increasing its respiratory rate. As less oxygen reaches body tis-sues hypoxia occurs. The physiological effects of hypoxia are illustrated in Figure 6.28.

Combustion is the most common cause of oxygen-deficient atmospheres. It con-sumes oxygen and produces toxic gases, which either physically displace oxygen or dilute its concentration. Oxygen-deficient atmospheres also occur in confined spaces such as sewers, chemical storage tanks, grain bins, or underground caverns. They are also found in rooms or compartments where carbon dioxide (CO2) total-flooding extinguishing systems have discharged.

Some fire departments are equipped with instruments to monitor atmospheres and measure oxygen levels or the presence of toxic gases. Where monitoring is not possible or monitor readings are questionable, SCBA or SAR must always be worn.

Figure 6.28 Oxygen deficiency has increasingly severe effects depending on the level of reduction and the amount of time it is endured.

Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere — Atmosphere containing less than the normal 19.5 percent oxygen. At least 16 percent oxygen is needed to produce flames or sustain human life.

Hypoxia — Potentially fatal condition caused by lack of oxygen.

Oxygen in Air (Percent)

19.5%15% - 19%

12% - 14%

10% - 12%

15% - 19%

12% - 14%

10% - 12%

8% - 10%8% - 10%

8%

6%

8%

6%

NOTE: These data cannot be considered absolute because they do not account for differences in breathing rate or length of time exposed.

These symptoms occur only from reduced oxygen. If the atmosphere is contaminated with toxic gases, other symptoms may develop.

Physiological Effects of Reduced Oxygen (Hypoxia)

Symptoms

Coma occurs in 40 seconds followed by death

Ability to perform strenuous work decreases. Coordination is impaired.

DizzinessHeadacheRapid fatigue

None — normal conditions

Exposure for 8 minute results is fatal; exposure for 4-5 minutes can be treated resulting in recovery

Exposure results in mental failure, unconsciousness, ashen face, blueness of lips, nausea, and vomiting


Elevated TemperaturesExposure to superheated air can damage the respiratory tract. The damage can be much worse when the air is moist. Excessive heat inhaled quickly into the lungs can cause a serious decrease in blood pressure and failure of the circulatory system. Inhaling superheated gases can cause pulmonary edema which can cause death from asphyxiation. The tissue damage from inhaling hot air is not immediately reversible by introducing fresh, cool air. Prompt medical treatment is required.

Pulmonary Edema — Accumulation of fluids in the lungs.

Asphyxiation — Fatal condition caused by severe oxygen deficiency and an excess of carbon monoxide and/or other gases in the blood.

Particulate — Very small particle of solid material, such as dust, that is suspended in the atmosphere.

WARNINGInhaling superheated air can cause

serious injury or death.

Particulate Contaminants Particulate contaminants are small particles that may be suspended in the air and are harmful to the respiratory system. Sources of these particulates include:

• Vehicle exhaust emissions • Chemical reactions• Heated metals or metal compounds• Combustion

According to medical studies, exposure to particulate contaminants causes asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and premature death. Smaller partic-ulates are especially dangerous, because particulates bigger than 1 micrometer are filtered by the nasal membranes and do not enter the lungs.

Particulate contaminants may be encountered during the following situations:

• Wildland fires• Welding and metal cutting operations• Operation of fire apparatus and small engines (Figure 6.29)• Operations following an explosion or building collapse• Structural fires, especially during the overhaul phase

Figure 6.29 Diesel exhaust carries small particulates as well as other contaminants that are known to cause health risks.


Air-purifying respirators (APRs) and powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) are generally sufficient to protect you from particulate contaminants (Figures 6.30 a and b). Cartridge and canister type APR/PAPRs have half or full facepiece units with replaceable filter elements that capture the particulates. APR/PAPRs are approved for wildland fire fighting but do not protect against toxic gases or heated or oxygen-deficient atmospheres.

Gases and Vapors Gases and vapors may be present at both fire and nonfire incidents. Gases exist at standard temperature and pressure, while vapors result from temperature or pressure changes that affect a solid or liquid. For example, natural gas is found in a gaseous state within the earth, while steam is a vapor created when water is heated.

Gases and vapors can be inhaled, ingested, or absorbed into the body, resulting in illnesses and death. Exposure may cause: • Cancer• Cardiovascular disease• Thyroid damage• Respiratory problems• Eye irritation

Fire gases and vapors. Harmful gases and vapors created by combustion include:• Carbon monoxide • Carbon dioxide

Air-Purifying Respirator (APR) — Respirator that removes contaminants by passing ambient air through a filter, cartridge, or canister; may have a full or partial facepiece.

Gas — Compressible substance, with no specific volume, that tends to assume the shape of the container. Molecules move about most rapidly in this state.

Vapor — Gaseous form of a substance that is normally in a solid or liquid state at room temperature and pressure; formed by evaporation from a liquid or sublimation from a solid.

Powered Air-Purifying Respirator (PAPR) — Motorized respirator that uses a filter to clean surrounding air, then delivers it to the wearer to breathe; typically includes a headpiece, breathing tube, and a blower/battery box that is worn on the belt.

Figure 6.30 a APR units filter the working environment and capture airborne particles.

Figure 6.30 b PAPR units include a headpiece, a breathing tube, a battery, and an air blower.


• Hydrogen cyanide• Hydrogen chloride• Hydrogen sulfide• Nitrous gases• Phosgene• Sulfur dioxide• Ammonia• Formaldehyde

Of these, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) are responsible for the majority of fire-related fatalities. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is present in virtually every fire. It is released when an organic material burns in an atmosphere with a limited supply of oxygen.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is a sometimes lethal condition in which carbon monoxide molecules attach to hemoglobin, decreasing the blood’s ability to carry oxy-gen. Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin about 200 times more effectively than oxygen does. The carbon monoxide does not act on the body, but excludes oxygen from the blood, leading to hypoxia of the brain and tissues, followed by death if the process is not reversed. Table 6.1 illustrates the effects of CO on humans.

Hydrogen cyanide is produced by the incomplete com-bustion of substances containing nitrogen and carbon, such as natural fibers, resins, synthetic polymers, and synthetic rubber. These materials are found in upholstered furniture, bedding, insulation, carpets, and other common building materials. HCN is also released during off-gassing as an ob-ject is heated. It may also be found in unexpected places, such as vehicle fires, where new insulation materials give off high amounts of gases and cause fires to last longer.

HCN can be inhaled, ingested, or absorbed into the body, where it then targets the heart and brain. Inhaled HCN enters the blood stream and prevents the blood cells from using oxygen properly, killing the cell. The effects of HCN depend on the concentration, length, and type of ex-posure. Large amounts, high concentrations, and lengthy exposures are more likely to cause severe effects, including permanent heart and brain damage or death. HCN is 35 times more toxic than CO. Table 6.2, p. 286 illustrates the effects of HCN on the human body.

Nonfire gases and vapors. Hazardous materials can pro-duce a potentially hazardous gases and vapors in nonfire emergencies, such as the following:

• Incidents involving industrial, commercial, or ware-house occupancies

• Spills resulting from transportation accidents• Leaks from storage containers or pipelines

Table 6.1Toxic Effects of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide

(CO) (ppm*)

Carbon Monoxide(CO) in Air (Percent) Symptoms

100 0.01 No symptoms — no damage

200 0.02 Mild headache; few other symptoms

400 0.04 Headache after 1 to 2 hours

800 0.08 Headache after 45 minutes; nausea, collapse, and unconsciousness after 2 hours

1,000 0.10 Dangerous — unconsciousness after 1 hour

1,600 0.16 Headache, dizziness,nausea after 20 minutes

3,200 0.32 Headache, dizziness,nausea after 5 to 10minutes; unconscious-ness after 30 minutes

6,400 0.64 Headache, dizziness,nausea after 1 to 2minutes; unconscious-ness after 10 to 15 minutes

12,800 1.28 Immediate uncon-sciousness; danger of death in 1 to 3 minutes

*ppm — parts per million


At any haz mat incident, always remain at a safe distance (upwind, uphill, up-stream) until a risk analysis has been completed. The surrounding atmosphere at these incidents should always be considered dangerous, so SCBAs must be worn until air monitoring demonstrates that the atmosphere is safe.

Hazardous nonfire gases and vapors are always a possibility at transportation in-cidents and in storage and manufacturing facilities. Common gas and vapor types include:

• Carbon Dioxide — Also produced by fire suppression systems• Ammonia — Also produced by air conditioning and cooling systems• Sulfur Dioxide — Also produced by air conditioning and cooling systems• Chlorine — Also found in water treatment facilities, water parks, and swimming

pools

• Pesticides — Also found in commercial outlets, farms, nurseries, and residences

Table 6.2Lethal Exposure Times and Concentrations of

Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) on Humans

Symptoms Indicating Exposure to Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

Exposure Concentration in parts Time per million (ppm)

1 minute 3,404 ppm 6 to 8 minutes 270 ppm 10 minutes 181 ppm 30 minutes 135 ppm > 29 minutes 20 to 40 ppm

Initial Initial Progressive Final Concentration Symptoms Symptoms Effect

20 to 40 ppm

Headache, drowsi-ness, vertigo, weak

and rapid pulse, deep and rapid breathing, a bright-red color in the face, nausea, and

vomiting

Convulsions, dilated pupils, clammy skin, a weaker and more rapid pulse and slower, slow, or irregular heartbeat, falling body tempera-ture, blue color to lips, face, and extremities,

coma, and shallow breathing

Death


Toxic gases may also be found in sewers, storm drains, caves, trenches, storage tanks, tank cars, bins, and other confined spaces. Even when toxic gases are not pres-ent, the atmosphere in these areas may be oxygen deficient and potentially deadly. Search, rescue, and recovery in these areas require the use of SCBAs and SARs.

Airborne Pathogens Airborne pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, or fungi) that are suspended in the air. They may be encountered when assisting victims during medical responses, vehicle extrications, rescue and recovery operations, and terrorist attacks. They cause infection after being inhaled or directly contacted.

Illnesses that can result from exposure to airborne pathogens include:• Meningitis• Influenza• Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)• Pneumonia• Tuberculosis (TB)• Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)• Measles• Chickenpox• Smallpox

Protection against airborne pathogens includes high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, APR/PAPRs, and SCBA/SAR. HEPA filter masks are single-use masks that are certified by NIOSH and designated N95, N99, or N100 (Figure 6.31). Designations indicate the percentage of airborne particles that the masks effectively remove. Note that surgical masks are not approved for use against airborne patho-gens. However, they may be used on patients to prevent them from spreading diseases by exhaling, sneezing, or coughing.

Types of Respiratory Protection EquipmentThe two categories of respiratory protection equipment are atmosphere-supplying respirators (ASRs) and air-purifying respirators (APRs). ASRs provide breathable air when working in oxygen deficient, toxic, or gas-filled atmospheres, while APRs only filter particulates out of the ambient air. The primary type of respiratory protection that you will use in the fire service is the ASR.

Airborne Pathogens — Disease-causing microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, or fungi) that are suspended in the air.

High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) Filter — Respiratory filter that is certified to remove at least 99.97 % of monodisperse particles of 0.3 micrometers in diameter.

Figure 6.31 A HEPA filter mask removes airborne particles before inhalation.


Facepiece

Low PressureAlarm

Backplate

Hose and Regulator

Personal AlertSafety System(PASS) device

Straps

PressureGauge

Straps

Straps

AirCylinder

Facepiece

AirSupply

Emergency Breathing System

AirHose

Figure 6.32 a An SCBA unit is intended to support a limited-time engagement in high-intensity operations.

Figure 6.32 b A supplied-air respirator system is intended to support longer engagements under conditions that will not damage the equipment.


Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators (ASRs) Atmosphere-supplying respirators consist of either SCBA or supplied air respirators (SARs) (Figures 6.32 a and b). SCBAs carry the air in a cylinder, while SARs are con-nected to a breathing air compressor or portable air supply, providing breathable air for a much longer duration.

SARs are used when the firefighter must be in the hazardous area for a long period of time, and there is no danger that fire may damage the air hose. These types of situations include hazardous materials incidents, confined space rescues, and other technical rescue incidents. They are not used for fire fighting because of the pos-sibility that fire or debris will damage the air-supply hose. They are only used by personnel who are certified in technical rescue functions.

There are two main types of SCBAs: open-circuit SCBAs, which use compressed air, and closed-circuit SCBAs, which use compressed oxygen (Figures 6.33 a and b). In open-circuit SCBA, exhaled air is vented to the outside atmosphere. In closed-circuit SCBA (also known as “rebreather” apparatus), exhaled air stays within the system and is reused. Closed-circuit SCBA are much less common and are mainly used in shipboard operations, extended hazardous materials incidents, some rescue operations, and by industrial fire brigades.

Figure 6.33 a An open-circuit SCBA vents exhaled air to the outside atmosphere.

Figure 6.33 b A closed-circuit SCBA reuses exhaled air to allow the user to remain in a hazardous environment for a longer duration.

Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus — SCBA that allows exhaled air to be discharged or vented into the atmosphere.

Closed-Circuit Breathing Apparatus — SCBA that recycles exhaled air; removes carbon dioxide and restores compressed, chemical, or liquid oxygen. Not approved for fire fighting operations. Also known as Oxygen-Breathing Apparatus (OBA) or Oxygen-Generating Apparatus.

Nose CupFacepiece

RegulatorBypassValve

High-PressureAir Hose

RIT Connection

Hose-CylinderConnection

CylinderValve

Air Cylinder

ExhalationValve

Open-Circuit SCBA Operation

Facepiece

ExhalationHose

InhalationHose

BreathingChamber

DiaphragmO2 Injection

Line

Backpack AssemblyOxygen (O2)

Cylinder

Carbon Dioxide(CO2) Filtration

Canister

Closed-Circuit SCBA Operation


Open-circuit SCBA consist of four basic components:

• Backplate and harness assembly • Air cylinder assembly • Regulator assembly • Facepiece assembly

Backplate and harness assembly. This rigid frame with adjustable straps holds the breathing air cylinder on the backplate, and onto the firefighter’s back. The straps are designed to stabilize the unit, carry part of its weight, and provide a secure and comfortable fit (Figure 6.34). An adjustable waist strap also distributes some of the apparatus’ weight to the hips.

Air cylinder assembly. The air cylinder contains breathing air under pressure. It may be constructed of steel, aluminum, aluminum wrapped in fiberglass, or a Kevlar/carbon composite material. Common cylinder sizes are shown in Table 6.3.

Depending on size and construction materials, cylinders weigh from 7.9 pounds (3.6 kg) to 18.9 pounds (8.6 kg). This weight significantly increases physical stress during emergency operations.

The cylinder has a control valve, threaded stem and/or quick-connect fitting, and a pressure gauge attached to one end. When in operation, the control valve is opened fully to emit air into the system. The high-pressure hose attaches to the stem and con-nects the cylinder to the regulator assembly. The pressure gauge displays an estimate of the amount of air in the cylinder in pounds per square inch (psi) (kilopascal [kPa]).

Figure 6.34 The backplate and harness assembly provide stability to the breathing air cylinder while in use.


Regulator assembly. Air from the cylinder travels through the high-pressure hose to the regulator assembly. The regulator reduces the high pressure of the cylinder air to slightly above atmospheric pressure and controls airflow to the wearer. When the wearer inhales, a pressure differential is created in the regulator. The apparatus diaphragm moves inward, tilting the admission valve so that low-pressure air can flow into the facepiece. The regulator diaphragm is then held open, which creates the positive pressure. Exhalation moves the diaphragm back to the “closed” position. The regulator may be located on the facepiece, the shoulder harness, or the waist belt harness (Figure 6.35).

Depending on the SCBA model, the regulator will have control valves for normal and emergency operations. These are the mainline valve and the bypass valve. On models equipped with both valves, the mainline valve is locked in the open posi-tion during normal operations and the bypass valve is closed. On some SCBA, the bypass valve controls a direct airline from the cylinder in the event that the regulator fails. Once the valves are set in their normal operating position, they should not be changed unless the emergency bypass function is needed. The current generation of regulators have only the bypass valve (Figure 6.36).

Figure 6.35 The regulator controls the flow of air to meet the respiratory requirements of the user.

Figure 6.36 The mainline valve and bypass valve on this older belt-mounted regulator are identified by their shape, color, and position.

Table 6.3Breathing Air Cylinder Capacities

Rated Duration Pressure Volume

30-minute 2,216 psi (15 290 kPa) 45 ft3 (1 270 L) cylinders





• Rated duration does not indicate the actual amount of time that the cylinder will provide air.


Facepiece assembly. The facepiece assembly provides fresh breathing air while protecting the eyes and face from injury. To accomplish these functions, the facepiece must fit tightly to the face. The facepiece assembly consists of (Figure 6.37):

• Facepiece frame and lens — Made of clear safety plastic and mounted in a flexible rubber facepiece frame. According to NFPA® 1981, all new SCBA facepieces must be equipped with a heads-up display (HUD) (Figure 6.38). This feature displays a series of lights on the inside of the facepiece lens indicating the approximate amount of air remaining in the cylinder.

• Head harness and straps — This harness, with adjustable straps, net, or some other arrangement, holds the facepiece snugly against the face.

• Exhalation valve — Simple, one-way valve that releases exhaled air without ad-mitting any of the contaminated outside atmosphere.

• Nose cup — Deflects exhalations away from the lens, reducing fogging or conden-sation on the lens.

• Speaking diaphragm — This mechanical diaphragm permits limited commu-nication by the wearer. It may be replaced by an electronic speaking diaphragm connected to a portable radio.

• Regulator fitting or hose connection — Permits the regulator or hose to attach to the facepiece frame.

To ensure that the facepiece has a perfect seal, the wearer must be fit-tested to determine the correct fit (Figure 6.39). The test must use the same make, model, style, and size of facepiece that will be worn during emergency operations. OSHA currently accepts two types of tests: qualitative and quantitative. Both tests provide an adequate assessment of a facepiece’s ability to maintain a complete seal to the face.

NFPA® 1500 prohibits beards or facial hair that prevents a complete seal between the facepiece and the wearer’s face. Wearing eyeglasses is also prohibited if the side frames pass through the seal area. Eyeglass kits are provided with all full facepiece

Head HarnessNet

Head HarnessStrap

RegulatorFitting

Head HarnessStraps

Speaking Diaphragms

FacepieceLens

FacepieceSeal

NoseCup

FacepieceFrame

Nose Cup

SCBA Facepiece Components

Figure 6.37 A facepiece assembly that fits snugly provides protection against a series of predictable hazards including heat and large airborne particles.

Figure 6.38 The series of lights in a heads-up display provides a constant reminder of the air pressure in a cylinder. Courtesy of Arlington (TX) Fire Department. Photograph by Jason Arias.

Qualitative Fit Test (QLFT) — Respirator fit test that measures the wearer’s response to a test agent, such as irritant smoke or odorous vapor. If the wearer detects the test agent, such as through smell or taste, the respirator fit is inadequate.

Quantitative Fit Test (QNFT) — Fit test in which instruments measure the amount of a test agent that has leaked into the respirator from the ambient atmosphere. If the leakage measures above a pre-set amount, the respirator fit is inadequate.


masks. Both NFPA® 1500 and Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.134 allow firefighters to wear soft contact lenses while using full facepieces if the firefighter has demonstrated successful long-term (at least 6 months) use of contact lenses without any problems.

Additional components. A remote pressure gauge displays the air pressure within the cylinder. It must be mounted in a visible position. Pressure readings are most ac-curate at or near the upper range of the gauge’s rated working pressures. Low pressure is measured less accurately, so the gauge’s readings at this low end of the scale may not match the reading on the regulator gauge. When this occurs, assume that the lowest reading is correct. Also, check to make sure that the equipment is in working order before using it again.

Both NFPA® and NIOSH require that two end-of-service-time indicators (ESTI) or redundant low-pressure alarms be installed on all SCBAs (Figure 6.40). The ESTI’s alarm warns the user that the system is reaching the end of its air-supply, typically when it reaches 20-25 percent of the cylinder’s capacity. The ESTI has both an audible alarm (like a bell, electronic beep, or high-pitched siren) and a flashing light or physi-cal vibration. The alarm cannot be turned off until the air-cylinder valve is closed and the system is bled of all remaining pressure.

All new SCBA are equipped with a rapid intervention crew universal air coupling (RIC UAC) located within 4 inches (101 mm) of the cylinder outlet. This allows any cylinder that is low on air to be transfilled from another cylinder, regardless of its manufacturer (Figure 6.41). When the cylinders are connected, the air supply equal-izes between them. Older SCBA can be retrofitted with the RIC UAC, but this is not required. Thorough training in the use of this feature is required.

Air-Purifying Respirators (APRs) Air-purifying respirators (APRs) remove contaminants by passing ambient air through a filter, canister, or cartridge. APRs may have full facepieces that provide a complete seal to the face and protect the eyes, nose, and mouth or half facepieces that provide a complete seal to the lower part of the face and protect the nose and mouth (Figure 6.42, p. 294).

Figure 6.39 The NFPA® requires that each person wearing a respirator must be fit-tested for his or her own equipment.

Figure 6.40 An end-of-service-time indicator may take the form of a bell that chimes when the air cylinder is nearly depleted.

Figure 6.41 The Universal Air Coupling (UAC) allows an RIC member to connect an air cylinder to the system and transfill the low cylinder. Courtesy of Kenneth Baum.

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) — Rules and regulations published by executive agencies of the U.S. federal government. These administrative laws are just as enforceable as statutory laws (known collectively as federal law), which must be passed by Congress.


Particulate filters are single-use items that protect the respiratory system from large airborne particulates. They may be used with half or full facepiece masks, and are mounted on one or both sides of the facepiece. When used with a half facepiece mask, eye protection is required.

Particulate filters are regulated by the Code of Federal Regulations, specifically Title 42: Public Health, Part 84: Approval of Respiratory Protective Devices. They are divided into nine classes, three levels of filtration (95, 99, and 99.97 percent), and three categories of filter degradation (N, R, and P) that indicate the filter’s limitations:

• N — Not resistant to oil• R — Resistant to oil• P — Used when oil or non-oil lubricants are present

Particulate filters are used primarily at emergency medical incidents to protect against airborne diseases. They are also appropriate for investigations or inspections involving body recovery; when bird, bat, or rodent excrement is present; at agricul-tural and industrial accidents; and when working with particulate-producing tools, such as sanders and paint sprayers (Figure 6.43).

Limitations of the APR are the limited life of the filters, canisters, and cartridges; the need for constant monitoring of the contaminated atmosphere; and the need for a normal oxygen content of the atmosphere before use. Usage should be restricted to the hazards for which the APR is certified.

APRs should be inspected regularly and cleaned following each use. Filters, can-isters, and cartridges should be discarded following use and when they have passed their end of service life date.

NIOSH-certified APRs do not have ESTIs like the ones found on SCBA. Instead, the canisters and cartridges have visual ESTIs only. These indicators show when the air cleanser has become totally saturated and is no longer providing breathable air. Indicators should be checked visually before entering contaminated atmospheres and periodically while wearing the APR. If it appears that the canister or cartridge is reaching its saturation level, exit the area and replace the canister or cartridge.

Other clues or symptoms that the canister, cartridge, or filter is losing effectiveness are time, taste, smell, and resistance-to-breathing indicators. You should estimate

Figure 6.42 Full- and half-face APRs use a filter as a barrier against particulate contamination in the ambient air.


the amount of time that the work in the contaminated area will take and compare it to the manufacturer’s estimated life expectancy for the canister, cartridge, or fil-ter. When the estimated time approaches, exit the area. If you can smell or taste the contaminant, the unit is no longer providing the proper level of protection. Finally, filters that have reached their saturation level cause resistance in the breathing pro-cess, causing your breathing to become labored. This is an indication that you must leave the work area before removing the facepiece.

Respiratory Protection LimitationsAlthough they protect you from a variety of hazards, all respiratory protection equipment has limitations. You must be aware of these limitations if you are going to operate safely and effectively in hazardous atmospheres. Limitations may be created by the wearer or by the equipment itself.

Wearer Limitations The limitations that you have the greatest control over are those created by you, the wearer. These limitations include:

• Lack of physical condition — If you are not in good physical condition or if you are overweight, you may deplete your air supply rapidly.

• Lack of agility — If you not sufficiently agile, the weight and restriction of the equipment will make you less so, thus making it difficult to accomplish your as-signed tasks.

• Inadequate pulmonary capacity — You must have sufficient lung capacity to in-hale and exhale sufficient air while wearing respiratory protection equipment.

• Weakened cardiovascular ability — You must have a strong enough heart to pre-vent heart attacks, strokes, or other related problems while performing strenuous activity.

Figure 6.43 Particulate filters must include an end of service time indicator (ESTI).

When an APR is Appropriate

EMS IncidentsAgricultural and

Industrial Incidents

Around ParticulateProducing Tools

Body Recoveries

Around AnimalExcrement


• Psychological limitations — You must be able to overcome stress, fear, and feel-ings of claustrophobia while wearing respiratory protection equipment.

• Unique facial features — The shape and contour of the face can affect the ability to get a complete facepiece-to-face seal. Weight loss or gain can alter the facepiece seal.

These limitations can be offset through constant training with each type of respi-ratory protection equipment you use, periodic medical evaluations, and proper fit testing of respiratory protection facepieces. Training will make you more confident and more effective while wearing respiratory protection equipment.

Equipment Limitations Both ASR and APR/PAPR units have limitations, including:

• Limited visibility — The full facepiece can reduce peripheral vision, while face-piece fogging can reduce overall vision.

• Decreased ability to communicate — The facepiece can seriously hinder voice communication unless it has built-in voice amplifica

Documents

ESSENTIALS - IFSTA › sites › default › files › 36922-manual-ch6_2.pdfNFPA® standards. Design and construction requirements for SCBA and PASS de-vices are covered in NFPA ®