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8/6/2019 Ethics of Participatory Theatre in High Education : A framework for teaching and learning.
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THE ETHICS OF PARTICIPATORY THEATRE
IN HIGHER EDUCATION
AFRAMEWORK FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING
FRANCES RIFKIN
2010
SUPPORTED BY A PALATINEDEVELOPMENT AWARD
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3
1. GENESISOF PROJECT:HISTORICALCONTEXTSAN DCHALLENGES 4
2. AIMS,METHODOLOGYANDSUMMARYOF OUTCOMES 9
3. ANETHICAL FRAMEWORKFO RPARTICIPATORYTHEATRE 13
APPENDIX1. ETHICSOF PARTICIPATORYTHEATRE:ALITERATUREREVIEW
BY DRELIZABETHHAR E 29
APPENDIX
2.
THE
WORKSHOP
METHODOLOGY 37
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Specialthankstomycollaboratorswhohavecruciallysupportedmeinsustaininganddevelopingtheresearch
andwritingprocess:
Stella Barnes of Oval House Theatre who has offered mentoring, workshop development andcontributionstothecoreprinciples
Elizabeth Hare of the Open University, who authored the literature review and provided advicethroughouttheproject
BillMcDonnelloftheUniversityofSheffieldwhohasprovidedacademicsupportandmentoring,andhaseditedthefinalversion
Iamgratefulforthegenerosityofideas,experienceandtimeofferedby:
Ali
Campbell,
Queen
Mary,
University
of
London
DavidGrant,QueensUniversity,Belfast MattHargrave,NorthumbriaUniversity KayHepplewhite,YorkStJohnUniversity JennyHughes,UniversityofManchester AdrianJackson,CardboardCitizens MatthewJennings,UniversityofUlster ChrisJohnston,Rideout GerryLing,Lawnmowers SallyMackey,CentralSchoolofSpeechandDrama SueMayo,MagicMeandfreelance CaoimheMcAvinchey,QueenMary,UniversityofLondon MiriamMurtin,PALATINE HelenNicholson,RoyalHolloway,UniversityofLondon DavidPearson,PALATINE NickRowe,YorkStJohnUniversity KerrieSchaefer,UniversityofExeter AmandaStuartFisher,CentralSchoolofSpeechandDrama JamesThompson,UniversityofManchester
Thankstostudentsinthefollowinginstitutions, fortheircontributionstoworkshops:
Goldsmiths,UniversityofLondon RoyalHolloway,UniversityofLondon UniversityofExeter UniversityofManchester QueensUniversityBelfast NorthumbriaUniversity YorkStJohnUniversity
FrancesRifkin,London,2010
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1. GENESISOFPROJECT:HISTORICALCONTEXTSANDCHALLENGESINTRODUCTION
This research is a response to a perceived absence of consensus on an ethical approach to the teaching,
learning and professional practice of Participatory or Applied Theatre. This does not imply an absence of
ethicalpractice in Higher Education; on thecontrary, the research revealed widespread thinkingabout and
commitmenttoethicalpracticeamongstteachersandlearners.
Theresearchersconcernhasratherbeentoidentifyareasbothofconsensusandofdebateinordertocreate
astructurewithinwhich the ethicsof this rapidlyexpanding,diverse,and increasinglyprofessionalpractice
might be theoretically and practically implemented. Recognizing that there are many points of entry into
practice, participation and commissioning, the reportjuxtaposes frames of reference ranging between the
political, thecivic,and theethical inorder tooffera fieldofpractices inwhichsomeagreementonethical
mightcomfortablyemerge.
Theresearchhasbeenbaseduponanactionresearchmethodology.Itsaimwasnottoteach,imposeortesta
setofaprioriethicalvalues,buttoenableadialoguewithcollaboratorsontheissueofpracticeethicsinPT.
Inotherwords,todiscoverwhatvalueswereoperative,whetherexplicitorimplicit,to identifygaps,andto
attemptaprovisionalcodification.
The aim was to produce a set of ethical guidelines for use in the HE curriculum, in teaching. In Higher
Educationtheguidelineswillraisevocationalawarenessforstudentsandintheworldofemploymentsupport
professionalism forpractitioners.
PARTICIPATORYTHEATREADEFINITION
Inthisstudytheterm ParticipatoryTheatre (PT) isusedtocoverpracticesreferredtovariouslyasApplied
TheatreorDrama,CommunityTheatre,WorkshopTheatre,RolePlayetc. Thepracticerangesbetweenwork
withaperformancefocustoprocessbasedworkaimedatpersonalgroupand/orsocialdevelopment.Ittakes
placeinawidevarietyofemployment,political,socialandcommunitysettingsandpractitionerscomefroma
varietyofbackgrounds.Practitionersmaybeprofessionaltheatreperformersanddirectors,dedicatedtrained
facilitators, or professionals from other backgrounds e.g. social work or education. Participatory theatre is
internationallyassociatedwithradicalandpopulartheatreformssuchasTheatreinEducation,YoungPeoples
Theatre,ForumTheatre(TheatreoftheOppressed)andTheatreforDevelopment.
Whiletheresearchemphasishasbeenontheinteractivityoftheworkshopsituationitsconsiderationsextend
to, and are applicable to, forms that involve participants professional and nonprofessional in creating,
devisingandperforminginawiderangeofmodesandrelationships.
THEHISTORICALCONTEXT
Radical participatory theatre practices have historically been founded on a cluster of ethical/political
principles. These principles have been articulated through the methods of practitioners such as Dorothy
HeathcoteandAugustoBoal,andthroughtheTheatreinEducationandpoliticaltheatremovementsandtheir
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organizationsandcompaniesandindividuals.1Theseethicalapproacheshavebeenrecorded invaryingways
overtime,buthaveemergedfromthedebatesandcompetingapproachesofthepractitionerslargelyaspraxis
which has been difficult to formulate and to share. The underpinning notions were strongly influenced by
contextsofpoliticalandsocialstruggleandexploration:forexampletheantiwarmovementandtradeunion
strugglesofthe60s,70sand80s;thegrowthofthewomensandgaymovements;andthestruggleforwider
equalitieswhichhasgrownoutofthese.
Asthegenerationoforiginatorsandinitiatorswhoarguedforapartisanandsociallycriticalpracticebeginsto
givewaytotheirsuccessors,theabsenceofaconsensusonwhatthenatureofanethicalapproachmightbe
hasbecomeproblematic.
ItisnowheremoreproblematicthaninHE,wherePTpracticeisapopularpartofmanycurricula,andwhere
manystudentshopetousetheirskillswiththewideningrangeofmarginalizedandvulnerablecommunities.
ThereisalsoanindustrialPTsectorwhereformssuchasForumTheatreandRolePlayhavebeenappropriated
inwaysthatmaynothavebeenanticipatedbytheirearlierproponents.Inparallelwiththesedevelopments,
increasingnumbersofartistswhoseprincipalobjective,ratherthanhavingasocialorientation,istoproduce
theirownwork,arecombiningwitharangeofcommunitygroupstopursuetheiraimsinwayswhichcanbe
ethicallyquestionable.
As a practitioner working across fields of participatory theatre and political performance, I have become
increasinglyawareofabuildupofpressuresaroundwhathadpreviouslyseemedunproblematicpractices. In
1993,after20yearsofpoliticaltheatrewiththeTradesUnionandantifascistmovements,Icheerfullywrote
thefollowing:
Tonewgenerationofpractitioners,the landscapeissomewhatmorecomplicated.It isforme. What
seemed clear is still clear in itself, its questions valid and current but the context has shifted. The
ethicalprojectrevealsitselfasfragileandtemporal.
PARTICIPATORYTHEATREANDETHICSCONTEMPORARYCHALLENGES
Thereforeethics isnotonlyanattitudeofquestioning,adisposition,and intention,butaprojecta
fallibleandperishableprojectthatexistsintensionwith(andthereforeboundto),asetting,history,
traditionandlanguage.LouiseLachapelle.
Participatorytheatretakesplacenowinmultiplecontexts,eachofwhichpresentspecificchallenges.
It stands between other participatory theatre techniques with ethical codes of their own: Playback,Sociodrama,Psychodrama,Dramatherapyetc;
Practitioners work extensively with socalled marginalized groups and others, and must respond tostatutoryrequirementsarounddutyofcare,equality,diversityandHealthandSafety;
It interfaces with situations where concepts of good practice are longestablished but not necessarilyapplicabletoacreativepractice,forexampleinattitudestoriskandchallenge;
1SeeLiteratureReview,Appendix1foramoredetaileddiscussionoftheseissues.
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It is increasinglyusedasa research tool inHE,andsoencountersa rangeof institutional ethicalcodeswhicharesometimesincompatiblewithitsworkingpractices;
Wherepractitionersareemployedoutsidethesocialandpoliticalfields,theycanfacecomplexchallengesto the demands of creative practice in employment and funding contexts which are unsympathetic to
processandpersoncentredpractice.
Whileatitsmostprogressive,PTfostersandembodiesthecreativedesiresandcommitmentsofpractitioners
andparticipantsforethical,equalandcollaborativeworking,itdoesthiswithoutageneralconsensusonhow
thesecrucialelementsmightbeidentifiedandclusteredtogether.
Thereislittletoprotectthefreedomofcompetentpractitionerstosetworkingmethods,agreeagendaswith
participants,chooseanddevelopwaysofworking,evaluateinappropriateways,workcreativelywithnotions
ofuncertainty,bewildermentanddiscovery. Thereispracticallynothingtoindicatetoemployersandother
practitionersbywhatstandardscompetenceandethicalstandardsmightbeunderstood.
Thisvulnerability, whichpractitionerssharewithsomeoftheirconstituency,isexacerbatedbyanabsenceof
clearethicalcontractsofemployment,poorunionisation,andconsequentisolationandlackofsupport. Itall
addsuptopoorornoprofessionalrecognition,statusandtrust. There is inadditionadeepconcern,even
dismayamongstmanypractitionersatthewilderexcessesintheapplicationofPTbymajorfundingbodiesand
institutionsforexampletheEuropeanUnionandtheBritishArtsCouncil. InresponsetheTheatreEducation
Network has produced a practitioners ethics framework, and Equity is promoting a practitioners contract.
ThisresearchthenispartofawidercontextofconcernabouttheapplicationandethicsofPTpractices.
ETHICALFRAMEWORKSCONVERGENCEANDCOMPLEXITY
WhenitcomestooutliningwhatappliedethicalframeworksmightberelevanttoParticipatoryTheatre,there
isconvergenceandcomplexity.
TheInternationalFederationofArtsCouncilsandCultureAgenciesreportEthicsinCulturalpolicyexpresses
itselfinhumanrightslanguage,withanemphasisonthecivic:
Culturalpolicyweunderstood in theway JarmoMalkavaaradefines itasanentityofmeasuresby
which different operators in society consciously seek to influence, and (be influenced by), cultural
activitiesinsociety.Ethicalchoicesarenotblackandwhiterightorwrongsetupsbutcan,indifferent
situations,bejustifiedbydifferentmeansandaimatdifferenteffect.Inculturalpolicytheimportant
thing
is
to
make
choices
consciously
and
transparently
after
a
keen
scrutiny
of
ethical
consequences.
2
IFACCAdefine threeethical lenses throughwhichculturalpolicycanbeevaluated:virtue, responsibilityand
benefit. UnderpinningtheseisthenotionofFairCulture,rootedinhumanrightsprinciples.
Incontrast,RustomBharuchashasprovocativelyproposedaGenetinspiredcommitmenttoabetrayalofthe
civic:
2www.ifacca.org/topic/ethics inculturalpolicy
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I think betrayal can seem perverse, but if one sees in it the possibilities of a certain rigor in not
succumbing tobourgeoismoralityand feelgood liberal,even radicalsentiments, itcanserveasa
robustcorrective topoliticalcorrectnessand the illusionsofgoodcitizenship.To whatextentam I
prepared to endorse the ethics of illegality in order to activate the process of social and political
changebeyondtheboundariesoftheatrepractice?This,indeed,ismyethicaldilemma.Notsomuch
incrossingthelineofunethicalaction,butinnotcrossingthelinewiththenecessarycombinationof
politicalrigor,cunningandaudacity. RustomBharucha.3
An approach which is in clear conflict with more sedate notions of good practice', and the observation of
HealthandSafetyregulations!
StellaBarneshasdevelopedasetofethicalprincipleswhichunderpintheparticipatorytheatreworkofthe
OvalHouse,London:
Choice:participantsagendanotpreempted. Respect:developedviacreativeprocess,modelledbyFs. Equality:withgroupshavinglittleexperience,throughcreativeprocess. Safety:focusonpresent/future,norequirementtodisclose. Tutorcompetence:supportandtraining,sharedperspectives.
(StellaBarnes:DrawingaLine:adiscussionofethicsinparticipatoryartsbyyoungrefugees,2008)
Shedescribesaprocesswherebyethicsareembodiedanddevelopedinthecreativeprocess;wheresensitivity
topersonalandcreativerisk,andmutualrespect,informthework;wherethegroupisviewedascollaborators
andnotparticipants;andwherereflexivityandcriticalthinkingareattheheartoftheprocess.Anapproach
whichechoes,andexpandson,thecertainrigourofBharuchastext.
The concept of Competence is a crucial anchoring for ethical practice: without this, the complexity of
Bharuchasposition,thepitfallsandstrengthsoftheITACCAproposal,andthedenselytexturedimplicationsof
theOvalHouseprincipleswouldbeimpossibletodeconstructandgraspinpractice.Wecanseeinthesethree
positionsthe longstandingpartisanpoliticsofPT inanapparentstandoffwiththecivic. Thethirdposition
opensupapassagebetweenthe firsttwo,respondingto theconceptofthecivic,withoutpreemptingthe
rightofparticipantstoreflectcritically.
Bharucharecognizesthatglobalpower/classrelationsfrequentlyoverridestatedcivicandhumanrightsethics.
IFACCA classifies and proposes an ethical frame based upon a projected universal liberal human rights
framework, inordertoavoidunfairness. BothBharuchaandBarnesareclearthattheseveryhuman rights
principlesarefrequentlyoverriddenbothincivilandothersocieties: thoughithastobesaidthatthecivichas
toexistinordertobebetrayed.
Convergencesonethicsaremanyandcontradictory. Whilethereisawidespreadconvictionthatthereflexive
creativity achievable through theatre practice is capable of generating aesthetically powerful, socially
3PerformanceParadigmFebruary2007, reprintedbyVredevanUutrecht
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transforming art, Bharuchas caveats are a necessary brake on assumptions about the efficacy or implicit
ethicalgoodnessofPTformsofwork:
IfIhadtogetbeyondtheeuphoriaofthemoment,Iwouldhavetoacknowledgehowdifficultitisto
activate these truths in collaboration with political agencies. Perhaps, the greatest lesson that Ive
learnedfrommyinteractionswithoppressedcommunitieshastodowiththeethicsofillegality.
Hecontinues:
(Aformof)radicalperformance,orantiperformance,ornonperformance,whichcouldhighlightthe
beginnings of new and more complicated ways of representing and problematising ethics, where
there isnoclearcutdistinctionbetween goodand evil.Rather,weareall implicated inthevery
crimes that we condemn, either through complicities of silence, indifference or apathy. For
performancetobetrulyradical,itcannolongeraffordtofallbackontheearlierassumptionsofan
artistsinnate,ificonoclastic,goodness
The assembling of an ethical framework, or landscape for the teaching and learning of PT would help to
produceagenerationofreflexivepractitionerswiththeconfidenceandvocationalaswellasacademicskillsto
steer the work in anethicaldirection. Reflexive practice introduced into theatre educationwouldnot only
havethepotentialfortransformingstudentsbutstaffaswell.
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2. AIMS,METHODOLOGYANDSUMMARYOFOUTCOMESAIM : Toresearchanddevelopasetofethicalguidelinesforpracticeinparticipatorytheatreforusein
HigherEducationbyteachers,researchersandstudents.METHODOLOGY: The work was within an Action Research framework in which participants wereinvitedtoreflectontheirapproachtoethics.Theresearchwascollaborativeandincludedtwolevelsof
exploration:
LEVELON E:DAT AGATHERING.
Interviewsandworkshopswith: HELecturersandstudents:toidentifyconcernsandissuesderivedfromcurriculum
planning,teachingandlearningandstudentspractice
Practitioners
LEVELTWO :
Review of findings with collaborators to reflect on the material from the interviews andworkshopsandtoextrapolateprinciplesunderpinningtheprojectedethicalguidelines
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES OUTCOMESToreviewtheexistingliteratureon
ethicalissuesinthefield
LiteratureReview
Toencouragedebateandreflection 6Workshops,interviews,attendanceatconferences
Toidentifyethicalissuesofconcernto
lecturersandstudents
Awiderangeofviewsgatheredandrecorded
Toprovideadocumentaryandaudio
archive
of
the
research
process
to
supportfurtherresearch
19audiointerviews:11transcribed Workshopmaterials
Totakeintoaccountdifferencesof
interestandperspectivewhichmay
arise
Interactionanddebateinworkshops,interviewswithpractitioners,Equityandsomeservice
providers
AttendanceatconferencesThroughtheaboveprocesstoidentify
theprincipalconcerns,issuesand
questionsleadingtotheformulationof
workableethicalguidelines.
Materialcontextualizedbythehistorical/theoretical basisprovidedbyLiterature
Review
ProductionofguidelinesBreakdownofResearchProcess
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Interviews: 14interviewswith
lecturersinuniversity
departments
5interviewswithpractitioners:
Transcribed:BillMcDonnell,UniversityofSheffield,JamesThompsonand
JennyHughes,UniversityofManchester,KerrieSchaefer,
UniversityofExeter,CaoimheMcavinchey,Goldsmiths,University
ofLondon,HelenNicholson,RoyalHolloway,Universityof
London,KayHepplewhiteandNickRowe,YorkStJohnUniversity,
AmandaStuartFisherandSallyMackey,CentralSchoolofSpeech
andDrama,AliCampbell,QueenMary,UniversityofLondon
Untranscribed:DavidGrant,QueensUniversity,Belfast,MattHargrave,
NorthumbriaUniversity,MatthewJennings,UniversityofUlster
Transcribed:StellaBarnes
Untranscribed:SueMayoofMagicMeandfreelance,AdrianJacksonof
CardboardCitizens,ChrisJohnstonOfRideout,GerryLingof
Lawnmowers
Sevenworkshops Workshopsconducted
withundergraduates,
postgraduatesand
someparticipatingstaff
Preliminaryworkshop:
EarlyintroductoryworkshopwithMAstudentsatRHUL:helped
todefineapproachtoworkshopprocess.
Theworkshoptemplatewasformulatedincollaborationwith
StellaBarnesofOvalHouse. Participantswereincludedas
collaborators.
Workshops:Exeter,Goldsmiths,Manchester,QueensBelfast,Northumbria,
YorkStJohn.
Collaborations Reflectionondevelopingworkincollaborationwith: BillMcDonnellofUniversityofSheffieldwhohasprovided
academicsupportandmentoring.
StellaBarnesofOvalHousehasofferedmentoring,workshopdevelopmentandhascontributedCorePrinciples.
ElizabethHare,OpenUniversity:authorofLiteratureReviewandexpertinfield.
Particularsupportandcollaborationfrom: MattJennings,UniversityofUlster,MattHargrave,NorthumbriaUniversity,
KayHepplewhite,YorkStJohnUniversity.
SeniorpractitionersandmanagersintheVoluntaryandHealthsectorswhoemployPTpractitionerstoworkwith
vulnerableandcomplexgroups.Theyhaveindicatedthatthe
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frameworkhasusesbeyondthePTfield.
Literaturereview ElizabethHare,OpenUniversity reviewofpublishedliteraturerelatingtoethicalissues
contributingtotheoryandhistoryofPT
OutcomesGuidelines EthicsFrameworkfordiscussionandapplicationbylecturersand
studentsinhighereducationandforuseinprofessionallife.
Documentation Workshops:Scribingbyresearcher,materialsgeneratedby
participantsintheformofdrawings,plansandsomepost
workshopreflections.Writtenupasreports.Photographs.
AudioInterviews 19interviews,14transcribed.LiteratureReview OnPALATINEwebsite.
Archive On
PALATINE website.
DisseminationPublicationofguidelinesfor
practiceandappropriate
materialsonthePALATINE,
SCUDD,Sheffield,Oval
HouseandEquitywebsites
Offersabasisforexchangebetweenhighereducation,theatre
practitioners, artsorganizations, unionsandartsemployers:
offerscurrentexperienceoffieldpractitionerswithinHigher
Education.
Conferences AppliedDramaConferenceExeter2nd5thApril08. PresentationatTaPRASeptember2008. WorkshoponWhatdoyoudo?calledbyKayHepplewhite,
YorkStJohnUniversity,atLiveTheatre,Newcastle.
LCACEconferenceonEthicsintheArtsinSeptember2008. PALATINEConferenceinJanuary2009:TeachingApplied
Drama.
AestheticsofUncertainty,ManchesterMay2009. PresentationatTaPRA,Plymouth,September2009. LivingandLearning,LearningandTeaching:MentalHealthin
HigherEducationconference,LancasterUniversity,3031
March,2010.
Acknowledgementof
contributionof
collaboratingdepartments
andindividuals
Returnofmaterialstodepartments.Namesofparticipantson
recordofwork.
LiteratureReviewTheLiteratureReviewoffers:anhistoricalcontexttothepracticeofparticipatorytheatreinthatitdescribesits
origins and its provenance; it provides a critical interrogation of the practice by raising questionsand
provokingdiscussion, (aswellasinthelongertermwehopeitwillactuallygiveatheoreticalunderpinningto
practice);anditaddsadepthtothepracticebyofferingthescholar/student/practitionerpointsofreference
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toexplorefurtherintheworkofthepractitionersdescribed,whichwillenrichandenhancetheirengagement
with thepracticeitself. TheliteraturereviewcanbefoundinAppendix1.
THE
WORKSHOPS.
Theworkshopsaimed:
toexploreexistingnotionsamongstparticipantsofwhatethicsmightmeantothem to find out what structures might have been adopted individually and institutionally to assert ethical
practice
to explore the relationship between notions and structures in the context of relations betweenpractitioners, between practitioners and participants and between practitioners and commissioners of
work
toexplorethepotentialforanassertive,principled,ethicalframeworkasopposedtoacode,capableofenhancingcreativitywhilesupportingpractitioners,participantsandinstitutions
Theworkshopwasa flowmodel,designedto findouthow theprocessesof theatrepracticemight interact
withethicalprinciples.TheworkshopstructureandexercisescanbefoundinAppendix2.
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3. ANETHICALFRAMEWORKFORPARTICIPATORYTHEATREINTRODUCTIONThissectionsetsouttheresultsoftheresearchprocessembodiedintheworkshopsandinterviewscarriedout
withHEacademicpractitionersandstudents.
ItoffersaprovisionalframeworkforethicalpracticeinParticipatoryTheatre.
The span of this proposed framework covers a range of questions for Ethical practice from the
fundamentalquestionsaboutwhatkindofvaluesare inoperationtohow relationswith recipients
andcommissionersoftheworkcanbecontracted.
Thestructurecontains the followingelementswhichwillbedealtwithasaconsecutiveprocessor
successionofstagesinpractice:
1. RadicalEthicalFrame(REF)foundedinthetheoryandpracticeoforiginatingpractitioners2. Values:asetofcultural lensesproposedbythe InternationalFederationofArtsCouncilsand
CultureAgencies(IFACCA)
3. CorePrinciples(CP):theethicalbaseofpractitionersatOvalHouse,London4. StanislavskisquestionsWho?What?Why?Where?When?5. ThequestionHow?6. EvaluationandReporting
Theaimistodemonstratehowoverarchingconceptsmaybebrokendownintoabasisforanethical
practicecapableofpracticalapplication.QuestioningwithintheparametersoftheREFwillproduce
usefulanswerstobetriedoutinpractice,reflectedon,evaluated,learntfromanddevelopedfurther.
Intertwinedwiththisisthepractitioners reflexiveprocessinwhichperceptions,values,knowledges
andskillsaredevelopedthroughcriticalthinkingandpracticeintoadevelopingpraxis.
Toclarify:thisprocessisofferedasanapproachtoenhancingethicalpractice.Referencetoteaching
anddeveloping practicestructures andskills is notdirectly made here, though cross referencing is
inevitable.
ORIGINATINGPRACTITIONERS
Forthepurposesofthisresearchproject,thesehavebeen identifiedthroughtheLiteratureReview
andintheinterviewprocessas:
AugustoBoal
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DorothyHeathcote TheTIEpractitionersof1970s,80sand90sPoliticsandEthicsinterrelateindifferentwayintheirwork,andareembeddedintheirpractices,but
arenotnecessarily identifiedassuch. It is inthevaluesandprinciplesexplicitand implicit intheir
praxesthatthisstructurefindstheethicalbasisofParticipatoryTheatreorPT.
Strong influencesonallofthemareBrechtandStanislavski:Brecht forhiscommitmentto making
strange,questioningandreflectingonwhatappearsnormalinthedominantculture;Stanislavski for
hisunderstandingoftheinternallifeofcharactersinthetheatrespace.
FROMIMPLICIT(ISH)TOEXPLICIT(ISH).
NOTE:Theuseof (ish) indicates recognition that in creativeworknoteverything canbe spokenor
explained,thatthereisalwayssomethingelusive.
Thisstructure looksat theboundarybetweenwhat is implicitandwhatcanbemademoreor less
explicitinadevelopingpraxis.
Theideasinformingthebodyofworkoftheoriginatingpractitionersarecoherentinthattheymake
intellectual,cognitiveandintuitivesense. However,theethicsoftheirworkarefrequentlyimplicit.Thismaybebecause theyinitiallyreliedonpersonaltransmissionoftheirworkanditspolitics/ethics.
Additionally, they were often working in a context where there was a high degree of political
consensusamongstcommittedandwouldbepractitioners.
Accordingly,thisEthicsFrameworkapproachessuchquestionsas:
Whatdowedoaboutethicsbeforeandasweentertheworkspace? What informs our practice in the space and how much of this can be made explicit without
reducingthepowerofwhatBoalcallstheaestheticspace?
Whatkindofethicallyinformedproceduremightenhanceandcreativelydeveloppractice? Howdowediscoverwhetherapracticeisethicalandinrelationtowhatsetofideasisitethical? Ifethicsare implicit inPT,whatdotheyderive from,andhowcanajudgmentbemadeabout
theireffectiveness?
WhatistherelationshipbetweenPoliticsandEthics?Howdoissuesofclass,gender,race,justice,equalityandpowerintersectinanethicalpractice?
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STAGE1:THERADICALETHICALFRAME(REF)
1.1 IntroductiontoRadicalEthicalFrameworksomepropositions The ideas that informPT as developed byBoal, Heathcote et al. formaRadicalEthicalFrame
(REF).
For Dorothy Heathcote, pedagogy involved the setting of boundaries, empowerment,questioningandreflection.
AugustoBoal,creatorofTheatreoftheOppressed(TO),whichincludesForumTheatre, refutesthenotionofanabsolutesetofmoralvalues,espousesradicaldissent, andbelievesthatonly
out of constant practice will the new theory arise. He identifies the purpose of his theatre,
whichistoempowerthepowerlessandvulnerableandtoeffectchangeintheirreallivesthrough
engagementwiththefictionofthedrama.4Hestressestheaestheticoftheoppressedasartist
and the nature of theatre as creatively and socially transformative. The practice of these
theatricalformscreatesasortofuneasysenseof incompleteness thatseeksfulfilmentthrough
realaction.5
Boalsethicsandpoliticsaredeeplyembeddedinhistheory,andinthestructuresofhisGames,Exercisesandtheatre forms. Thepracticehasbecomediffused,however,andwhatmayhave
appearedclearasapoliticsandethicstothoseworkingwithhiminthelate1980snowrequires
some
unpacking.
The role of Boals Joker/facilitator embodies the questions of how the balance betweenindividualandgroupmightwork,bothfortheJokerandintherelationsbetweenparticipants:it
raisesimportantconsiderations abouthowpowerisexercised,shared,and/orhandedoverinTO
andotherpractices.
TheatreinEducationsinterestinmoralvaluesandpoliticswasneverexplicitinitspublicagenda,althoughtheyformedtheheartofitssubjectmatteranddictated itsethics. Itsexplicitagenda
was forgoodtheatreand itsvalue inchildrens lives. Formanypractitioners,thepoliticswas
deliberatelyimplicitandsubversive.
Harestatesthat:ThereflectiveandreflexivenatureoftheprocessofTIE,(is)acharacteristic thathashadaprofoundinfluenceontheconductofparticipatorytheatreintheUKeversince.Italso
forms thecoreof thecurrentconcernto identifyand formulate theethicsofcurrentpractice.
TheaccountsofTIEprogrammesarealwaysaccompaniedbyaccountsofevaluations.6
4Hare,LiteratureReview,2010(Appendix1)
5Boal1979,p142
6Hare,LiteratureReview,2010(Appendix1)
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In order to illustrate the ethical aspect in cultural policy, we created a new concept 'fair
culture',whichwedefinedasfollows:
Fair culture means the realization of peoples cultural rights and inclusion in cultural
signification, irrespective of age, gender, language, state of health, ethnic, religious or
culturalbackground.
Thedimensionsoffairculturewedividedintothefollowingcategories
1.Accesstohumankindsandonesownculturaltradition
2.Physical,regionalandculturalaccessibilityandavailability
3.Diversityofculturalsupplyanditsmatchingwithdemand
4.Participationinculturalsupply,and
5.Opportunitiesfor,inclusioninandcapabilityforculturalselfexpressionandsignification
ThisformulationisderivedbyIFACCAfromAristotlesEthics,thoughitmovesquitealongwayfrom
itsoriginal. Ihaveadapteditandsuggestitasonemeanstodifferentiatebetweenrelatedpractices.
VIRTUE,RESPONSIBILITY,BENEFIT:THE ETHICALVALUESORLENSESPROPOSEDBYIFACCA.
Avirtueorfreedomethicfocusesonissuesoffreedominartandculture;onfreedomofselfexpressionandtheautonomyofart. Itviewscreativityandartas intrinsicallyvaluable
andthereforelegitimategoalsinthemselves.
A responsibility or rights ethic relates to the cultural interests and identities ofcommunitiesandgroups,workinginthecontextofculturaltraditions,andtherealizationof
cultural rights. This involves accessibility, availability and provision, participation and
inclusion.
A corollary or benefit ethic can see creativity as a tool, focusing attention on theapplicationofartspractice incomplexsocialandeconomiccontexts. Itsalsoapplicableto
industrialspheresfore.g.theprotectionof intellectualproperty,contractualrelationswith
employersandfunders.o Howmightpracticeusetheseethicallenses?o Thepositionsindicatedundereachcategoryarenotmutuallyexclusiveandapiece
of work might combine more than one. The corollary lens, for example, could
combinewithboththeothertwotolookattherelationshipbetweencreativearts
workandsocialorpoliticalintervention.
o The lenses, with their underpinning in human rights, point up those issues ofinclusionandmarginalizationwhichPTcontinuallyaddressesandcritiques. What
istheworkaimingatinanyparticularcontext,whatdrivesit?
ThevalueoftheselensesisderivedfromtheirrelationshiptotheREFsetoutabove,and
totheCorePrincipleselaboratedbelow.
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STAGE3:COREPRINCIPLES
CHOICE
,
EQUALITY
,
RESPECT
,
SAFETY
,
COMPETENCE
.
10
3.1:INTRODUCTION.
Thisstage,duringwhichcontinualreferencetotheRadicalEthicalFrameworkandValuesstageswill
bemade, is intendedtonarrowthefocusontoasetofworkingconceptswhichbothconnectwith,
and challenge, current ideas of good practice in the political and social spheres. The research
workshop process revealed that the Core Principles are resonant with meanings that may beobfuscatedbyinstitutionaloveruseoftheseterms: explorationrevealedthatmanymeaningscluster
aroundthewords,andshiftaccordingtocontext,individualinterpretation andinstitutional context.11
In terms of the Radical Ethical Framework, these principles may emerge as a challenge to and a
questioning of legal and institutional concepts of good practice and of research ethics. The
principlesweredevelopedinthecontextofworkwithcomplexandvulnerablegroupsforOvalHouse,
London,byStellaBarnes,their HeadofEducationandcollaboratorinthisproject.
Under prevailing codes of practice, notions of safety, for example, tend to default to limiting or
preventingphysicalrisk,emotionalrisk,ortouching,Theyaretheretooftentoprotectagainstlegal
action andfacilitatorincompetence,amongstotherthings. Inartsandtheatrepractice,ontheother
hand,riskisanacceptedelementingroupandindividualdevelopment,bothinpersonalandcreative
forms.Groupworkinvolvingphysicalactivityandtouching isregardedasstandard. However,what
kind
of
risk
is
being
alluded
to?
Does
it
conflict
with
the
statutory
position
on
risk
or
not?
Similarly, Respect may conventionally be seen as excluding Challenge, an element of the Radical
EthicalFramework,whileChoice, inthecontextofParticipatoryTheatreworkingsituations,canbe
provoking and provocative for all involved, owing to imbalances in power relationships, and to
agendasbeingsetbycommissionersratherthanbyartistsorparticipants.
Asking thequestionsWho,Whatetc (below)willhelp toclarifywhatsneededandwhat theCorePrinciples might mean in a specific context: a group of learning disabled people may require a
differentapproachtoagroupofrailwayworkers,forexample.
Acceptance of gender inequality in vulnerable or marginalized groups raises specific issues of
practice.Inherentinallgroupworkareissuesofpower:relationsbetweenfacilitatorandgroupare
especiallycomplexandchangeasprocessdevelops.
10StellaBarnes
11SeeIntroduction
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3.2:NOTESONCORE PRINCIPLES:CHOICE,EQUALITY,RESPECT,SAFETY,COMPETENCE.
With reference to the Radical Ethical Framework and Values, it is helpful to reflect on what
competenceactuallyis. Isitastateofbeingorofbecoming?Itiscertainlyakeytoexercisinguseful
judgment.
During research it emerged that becoming competent is an incremental process. At its centre is
reflection and reflexivity: a new practitioner who reflects, questions, learns from mistakes and
successesandmovesonisdevelopingcompetence.Theskillsandknowledgegrowwithpracticeand
incombinationconstitutethemeanswherebypractitionersdeveloptheirpraxis.
ThefollowingisaclusterofcapacitiesrelatingtoCompetenceproposedafterconsultation
COMPETENCE
Asanartist,developingandconsolidatingknowledgeoftheatreanditspotentialandhowtoworkinandholdthetheatrespace.
Learningfromandreflectingonexperience,anddevelopinghonestusefulknowledgeandselfawarenessofowncapacitiesandlimitsatanystage.
Learningespeciallyfrommistakes. Workingtodeveloppersonalskillsinreflectionandtransmittingthesetoothers. Developing, valuing and understanding your range and repertoire of strategies and
workingpracticesateachstageofworkinglife.
Developingtheabilitytoexercisejudgmentinrelationtoworkprocessbydevelopingasystematic and imaginative approach to analyzing the work, its context and key
factors. Increasing ability to question and to take working decisions with flexibility and
creativity.
Understandingtheimplicitcontractbetweenyourselfandthoseyouareworkingwith. Acquiring knowledge of Equalities, Health and Safety and other legislation and of
acceptedgoodpractice.
Workingtogainanalyticalrigourandimaginativefreedom. Developing ethical skills in negotiating, planning and contracting with employers to
supportboththeworkingsituationandyourselfasaprofessional.
Competencehere isbothanethicalprinciple(an incompetentpractitioner inacomplexsituation isunacceptable),andanecessarybridgebetweentheory,principlesandpractice.
3.3
THE
CORE
PRINCIPLES.
Having considered Competence at some length, it is worth pointing to the ambiguities that might
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surround the other Core Principles. Questioning of the Core Principles is appropriate, not least
becausetherearesociallyreceivednotionsaboutwhattheymightmean,andthesenotionsmayhave
tobechallenged;thisisespeciallytrueinplaceswherecontrolandrepressionarepractised,suchas
oldpeopleshomes,prisons,andyoungoffendersinstitutions.
Itisimportanttotakeintoaccounttheciviccontextinwhichtheworkmighttakeplace. Forexample,
in 1960s and 1970s Brazil, the coup of 1964 and continuing opposition to state repression and
violence generated Boals Theatre of the Oppressed with its penetrating analysis of power and
oppression.12
Recently,ProfessorJamesThompson13
haswrittenabouttheethicalquestionsraisedduringworkin
the Sri Lankan war zone. Both Theatre for Development work and local UK work with groups
experiencing injustice or coming from sexist, lawless and oppressive regimes, can raise particular
politicalandethicalissues. Judgmentandskillsareneededinthesecontexts,buttrialanderrorare
alsopartoftheprocess.
The meaning of Choice, for example, has to be carefully considered in a prison where choice is
restricted:whatrolecantheatreplayinexplicitlyorimplicitlyconfrontingtheissue? Whathappens
whenthepractitioners perceptionofchoicediffersfromthatoftheauthorities?HowmighttheREF
influencedecisions?WhatroledoesSafetyhave,howdoesitaffectnotionsofEquality? Inwhatway
wouldthedecisionschangein,say,acommunitycentreoraschool?
12SeeTaPRApresentationforRustomBharuchaonthecivic
13ProfessorofAppliedandSocialTheatre,UniversityofManchester
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STAGE4:QUESTIONS:WHO?WHAT?WHY?WHERE?WHEN?
4.1:
INTRODUCTION
.
Thisstage of theprocess applies Stanislavskis questions forcharacterbuilding to reflectionon the
characteroftheworkorprojectorlearningcontext,andofitsparticipants.
Askingusefulquestionscanhelpustoreflecton,clarifyandstructure ideasforallparties involved,
andfacilitateaclear,ethicalproposalandrealisticexpectationsofthework.
The questions will help particularly, perhaps, in the process of consulting and of developing anagreementwiththeorganisationofferingthework,thecommissioner,and/orwiththosetakingpartinit(whomayalsobethecommissioner).
Usingthisapproachtoexplorethecommissioners positionitispossibleataninitialstagetodecide
whetherornottheworkiswithinanacceptableethicalframeandhow/whetherornottodoit.The
process of asking will increase your competence and help in the accumulation of critical
understanding: reciprocally, as your competence increases, so over time, the questions will be
integratedintoyourworkandwillgiverisetonewquestionsandapproaches.
ThesequestionsarecrucialintheprocessofemergingfromtheImplicitishintotheExplicitish. They
can(mostly)beanswered,andusefullyso. Otherquestionscannotalwaysoreverbeanswered:some
ofthesearefrequentlyansweredwhentheyshouldnotevenbeaskedandarefoundonapplication
formstoArtsandotherorganizationsandinevaluationforms.
Thisprocessasawholehelpsinthetaskofseeingwhatcanandcantbeusefullyoreventruthfully
answered,andwillagainhelptoprotectpractice.
An example is a funders desire to close down and overdetermine outcomes very prevalent in
NorthernIreland,forexample,whereartistsareusedforcomplexcommunityworkbutwhere,asis
common, art and its uncertainty is feared and mistrusted. Or they may ask for outcomes to be
described before the group has had a chance to decide what it will do, precluding choice in, and
ownership of the work by all involved. Strategic and tactical decisions can be made as to how to
answer. In for example, refugee work, Theatre for Development and again in Northern Ireland,
fundingmaybedependentonachievingresultsatoddswithPTethicalpractices.Istheworkworth
doinganyway?
4.2 USINGWHO?WHAT?WHY?WHERE?WHEN?INPRACTICE
Thesummaryofpossiblequestions/issuessetoutbelowcannotbecomprehensive,asanswersare
contextdependent. Asyouwork,reflectonwhattheREF/CorePrinciplesmeanhere. What isthe
relationship withlegalandgoodpracticeprinciples,forexample?
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Who? Who do I think I am? Who do the group think I am? Who will be there? Age,
gender,ethnicity,class,sexuality,age,status,employment,presence,healthetc.
Who am I/are we as practitioners: what are our presence, stake, involvement,desires,connection,culture,knowledgehowmuchdoweknow,doesitmatter?
ItisusefulunderWho?tochallengethestigmatizingandreductiveuseoflanguagewhichdefinespeoplebytheirperceivedvictimhoodordisadvantage:marginalized
andexcludedareexamples. Suchtermsareoftenusedbypowerholders(inthe
benefitssystem,theimmigrationsystemetc)toclassifygroupsandarepickedup
byotherorganizationsandbyindividuals,includingpeopleinthegroupsinvolved.
Whoseistheidea/work,whosewillbetheoutcomesownershipareyouhappywiththeanswertothisquestion (refertoCorePrinciples)?Havetheparticipants
chosentheproject/work?
Forwhomistheworkbeingdone? Towhomwillitbeperformed,andforwhosebenefit?Isittoticktheboxesforacommissioner?GotoHow!
What? Whatswanted?Whowantsitemployerorparticipantsorbothwhoseagenda
isit?Whatarethepreconceptionstheparticipantshave,doIhave?Whatarethe
powerrelations?
Do the participants know about the work? Have they been consulted? If itsimposed,whatdorespectandchoicemean?WhatdoIwant,isitcontradictoryor
in harmony with the project? What are the aims and objectives, have you
scrutinizedandagreedthemaspartofyourcontract,whatchoiceshaveyoumade
already?
Why? Whynow?Whowantstheworkandwhy?Isitafreechoice?
Where? Locationandenvironment,physicalandsocial. Aricharea,adangerousplaceetc.
Whataretheimplications?Howdoyougetthere?
When? Timeofday,timeinhistory,inthelivesofpeopleandorganizations, yourlife,the
livesandcontextsoftheparticipants,insocialandpoliticallife.
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STAGE5.HOW?
5.1
FORMAL
STRUCTURE
OF
THE
WORK.
InarrivingatHow?thepractitionerisinapositiontothinkabouthowtheworkwillbedonewhat
elements,plans,strategiesmightbeselectedtorealisetheproject. Throughthequestioningprocess,
shewillhavecreatedavisionofthecontextandparticulardemands,ofthecharacteroftheproject.
Usingthisapproachthepractitionercanexplorethecommissionersposition;decidewhetherornot
the work is within an acceptable ethical frame, whether or not to do it and how to mediate the
problems through discussion or subversive action. This structure is not a guide on how to be
unemployed,butonhowtodecide,ethically,whattodo. Therearemanyexamplesofworkdone
ethicallybypractitionersworkinginproblematiccontexts.
The interchange with the commissioner creates a relationship in which each party is clear enough
abouttheotherspositiononcreative,ethicalandworkissuesenablingacontractualagreementtobe
reachedonthewholeprocessfrominitialsetuptoevaluation.14
5.2 HOW?MAKINGAGREEMENTS.
Howdoestheworkgetdonegiventheknowledgeaccumulatedthroughyourethicalinquiry? Reflect
oneachstageoftheprocessbyreferringtoREFandCorePrinciples.
Thisprocess isonethat isasappropriateforpractitioners intraining inHEas it isforthose inmid
career. Thepracticeofworkingtogetaclearandethicalagreementwithcommissionersiscrucialto
an
assertive
and
convincing
practice.
Developing a template for dealing with commissioners can be approached through applying this
processtoworkbetweenteachersandstudentswithintheHEenvironment. Suchapracticeneeds
tosafeguardwhatiscentralcreativelyandethicallywhilerespondingtothecommissionersneedsin
an environment in which, unlike that of HE, there is little or no understanding of the values and
principlesofthework.
Thefollowingishelpful. Itcanbeusedinternallywithteachersorcolleaguestoclarifywhatyouwill
do, and with commissioners. Thinking can be summarised and focused through a Proposal and a
Contract:
PROPOSAL: Aimandobjectivesoftheworkinwritingincluding1. Adescriptionofhowyouwork,yourmethodology2. Yourethicalvaluesandboundaries.
14Duringtheworkshopphaseoftheresearchforthisstructure,studentsformulatedcontractualapproacheswhichclarifiedtheirthinking
andrepresentedtheirworkinawaychosenbythem.
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DEVELOPING ACONTRACT:
This takes different forms: e.g. a contract with a group of participants, with an employing orcontracting organisation, an internal agreement with colleagues to clarify work plans and
relationships.
It should be noted that a contract needs to be written down and is a legal agreement whichproperly formulated creates professional and structured working relationships. It includes the
Proposal.
Contracts of employment/engagement have particular requirements including days/hours ofwork,dates,statementofwhatyouareoffering,ethicsstatement,whattheemployeragreesto
provide,numberofpeopleneeded,HealthandSafetyandstatutoryrequirements,appropriate
support and briefing, the appropriate number of facilitators, money. Issues of copyright and
ownershipofmaterialsshouldbeincluded.
A
contract
should
contain
an
agreement
on
evaluation,
how
its
done
and
if
the
scale
of
the
work
warrantsit,whowillpayforitandwhowillcarryitout.15
5.3 HOW? WORK PLANNINGANDEXECUTION.
THE PRACTICE PLANAN DETHICAL FACTORS
Whatistheworkfor?Balancebetweencreativeandsocialobjectives? (seeVirtue,Responsibilityetc.above).
HowdotheRF/CorePrinciplesaboveandtheanswerstoyourquestionsinformyourworkshopstructure?
Whatkindofgames,exercisesetc.willhelptocreatetheinteractionsandoutcomesyouwant? Alternativestrategies: Uncertainty,changeandunpredictability willinformtheprocess. Whatis
fixedandwhatcanbechangedasneeded?Whathappensifparticipantswanttochangethings?
Answersdependoncontext,ethicalpositioningandcompetence.
WOR KPROCESS
Inworking inPTthefollowingarecontextdependentallorsomemightbeuseful.Theycreatean
arenawhereagreedboundaries(e.g.noviolence)aretransgressedinimageintheother,aesthetic
space.
Negotiatingtheworkwithcommissioners: forexample,wherethecommissionermightconsideritrisky,emotionallyandphysically, foryoungoffenders toworkoncertain issuesof theirown
choicewhichmaychallengethesystem.
Exercisingpower:acknowledgeyourpowerasJoker,facilitator,workshopleader:Howdopower
15Seemodelcontractattached.
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and Equality correlate? Being clear about having different roles is part of Equality, as is
understandinghowthesemightchangeastheprocessdevelops.
Ground rules: asking thegroup topropose some (seesuggestionsbelow) oroffering them fordiscussion demonstrates a practice that respects participants, engages them from the initial
stagesoftheworkasequals,andoffersthemchoicesandcontrolintheprocessandtherightto
consenttoit.
Groundrulesdelineateareasofpowerandresponsibility:theyclarifyforeveryone intheworksituationequalthoughdifferentroles.Who isrunningthework?(Collective?Facilitator?)What
role do participants play in contributing, commenting, consenting, saying no, hearing each
other?Thisrequiresthefacilitatortoreflectonherownrole:whataretheboundaries,what is
thepoweractuallyfor,howdoesshehandlethebalancebetweenherroleandtheparticipants
roles?If,forexample,listeningisagroundrule,howdoesthefacilitatorunderstandthis?What
happens if participants dont like the work what does she do if she is listening? What is
appropriate
in
the
context?
ExplainandreviewtheAimofthework. Offergood,appropriateexplanationsofwhatsgoingon, encourage feedback at appropriate times, encourage listening, reflection, questioning.
Reviewprogress,sharereflections.
Being clear about what you seek to achieve but having alternative strategies and courses ofaction:knowingwhatisfixedandwhatisflexible.
Ownership isan issuewhereparticipantscontributecreatively toadevisedpiece,material forpublication and/or exhibition etc. Recognition and crediting of the material is essential and,
wherefinancialgainmaybeinvolved,clearcontractualboundariesareneeded.
Use of personal stories: issues around disclosure, past trauma, and decisions to work withautobiographical materials relate to confidentiality, emotional safety and ownership. Where
groupsand individualsagreeorevenvolunteermaterials,thedecisiontousethem,whether in
the workshop space or in public, needs special ethical attention, depending on context. The
choice of whether to use such material does not necessarily rest with individuals whose
willingnesstodisclosemightbeproblematic.
With personal and other kinds of difficult material, the need for competence in holding thetheatrespaceisexemplified. Ensuringthatthegroupsworkthroughthedistancingcontaining
thattheatreenablesiscreative,competentandsafer. TheBoalianprocessofmakinganimage
ofrealityandthenworkingwiththerealityoftheimage,Metaxis,encapsulatesthis.16
Personalstoriesareasubject forattention.Workingwith refugeesonpersonal,traumaticandsensitive material involves consideration of aesthetic, funding, personal and social issues. A
decisiontowork inthepresentandwiththewholepersonasa lifenotsolelycharacterizedby
trauma, for example, is an ethicaldecision withconsequences beyond the immediate piece of
work.
Taking on uncertainty, change and unpredictability is inherent in the creative process. This
16AugustoBoalRainbowofDesire.Routledge1995.P42Secondhypothesis:metaxis
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requires mediation in your interface with commissioners who may not grasp the centrality of
theseandmaywanttobereassuredthattheoppositeisthecase.
Competencemakingdecisionswithinyourcapacityatdifferentstagesofyourdevelopment.
5. 4COMMENTS:THEEXPLICIT
This is where the question of the Explicit emerges beyond the (ish). The REFs within which the
originating practitioners work was situated provided their ethical/political basis; getting group
consent,forexample,wasusuallyImplicitintheirpractice.Theageofstatutoryregulationwasbarely
beginning.
Contemporary practice does suggest an Explicit use of Ground Rules, boundaries and rules ofengagement. In a litigious environment, they act as a signal to commissioners that acceptedGood
PracticeandStatutoryobligationsarebeingacknowledgedandobservedappropriately, andthatthe
dangerofbeingsuedisminimal.
However, the ambiguities and complexities of meaning discussed under REF, Values and Core
Principlesstand. There isnouniversalrule:thereareexceptions.The issue istoconsiderHowthe
workcanbeenabledandtomakeajudgmentastowhat,incontext,mightbetheoptimumcourseof
action.
Statutoryrequirementsonchildprotection,healthandsafetyetc.area legal imperative. Abideby
them: physical safety is a given; allowing elders to fall over misplaced furniture is clearly
unacceptable.Beyondthestatutory,again,judgmentisrequiredtogaugewhatconstitutessafetyand
riskin,forexample,aprimaryschool,aprisonoraworkplace.
ThePALATINEConferenceCalculatingRisk:assessment,ethicsandriskassessmentindurationaland
sitebasedperformanceworkwith/bystudentsinJanuary2010isausefulreferencehere,though it
focusedonadifferentfieldofwork.17
SAMPLEGROUNDRULES(IT SGOODTO AVOIDTHEWORDNOWHEREPOSSIBLE)
Listentoeachother(dontinterrupt)
Supportive
challenging
(dont
be
rude
but
feel
free
to
disagree!)
Confidentiality Negotiatedifficulties(noviolence) Beontime Eatatbreaks Phonesoff Discussionattheagreedmoments Youcansayno Haveago!
17http://www.palatine.ac.uk/events/viewreport/1699/
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Usematerialyourecomfortablewith
STAGE6.EVALUATIONANDREPORTING
6.1Criteriaforassessingtheeffectsoftheworkneedtoberelatedtotheaimsandparameters
setout in the initialcontract. Onceagain, thisapproach isasappropriate forpractitioners in
traininginHEasitisforthoseinmidcareer.
Evaluationcriteriashouldbeagreedwiththecommissionerattheoutset,and, inHEcontexts,
should complement the usual internal evaluation of course outcomes. Sometimes, of course,
thetwowilloverlap.Thereisarangeofavailableapproachesfromsimplyaskingtheparticipants
to say orwrite their reactions in the finalsession, tostructuredschemeswhichmight involve
focusgroups,externalassessorsetc.
ReferringbacktotheVirtue,Responsibility,Benefitspectrum, theREFandtheCorePrinciples
will be helpful and at this stage it should be possible to evaluate confidently. Ethically, it is
essential tocheckout with participants themselveshow the work isgoing at regular intervals
duringtheprocessandtorecordtheirresponsesaspartofacollaborativeevaluationprocess.
6.2 Issues of confidentiality will be especially important in situations where participants have
offeredpersonalmaterial: forexampleprisons, largebusinessorganizations, childrenshomes,
local
councils,
trades
unions
etc.
where
comments
may
be
made
which
individuals
do
not
wish
to
have reportedback. AnonymitycanbepromisedviatheGroundRulesand thecommissioner
canbeinformedofthisethicalpositionviathecontract.
6.3 Due to pressure from funders, in some cases evaluation hasbecome amarketing tool for
promoting the work to new commissioners, of little benefit, in its published form, to the
practitionersinvolved. Attemptingtoensureongoingfundingshouldbeseenasseparatetothe
internalanalysispractitionersneedtopracticeforthedevelopmentoftheirwork.
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STAGE7.REFLECTIONANDREFLEXION
This is the final stagingpoint prior to returning to the beginningof the structure to reflect on the
processyouhavecarriedthrough,assesshowitrelatestothecriteriasuggested,andtothinkabout
howyouwilldevelopyourthinkingandpractice.
Inthemomentofreflection,throughouttheworkandatEvaluation,bringbackintoplaytheRadicalEthicalFrame,Values,CorePrinciplesandQuestionsasacontexttohelpassesswhetherthepracticeis still holding a relationship with its aims. What happened? Gibbss Reflexive Cycle offers the
followingquestionstoassistthinkingaboutwork. Mistakesareopportunitiesforlearning!
1. Description:whathappened?2. Feelings:whatwereyourthoughtsandfeelings?3. Evaluation:whatwasgoodandbadabouttheexperience?4. Analysis:whatsensecanyoumakeofit?5. Conclusion:whatelsecouldyouhavedone?6. Returnto1.
Thesequestionscanofcoursebeusedatanystage intheworkprocess. Liketheessentialsofthe
structureasawhole,theywillbecomesecondnature.
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APPENDIX1. ETHICSOFPARTICIPATORYTHEATRE:ALITERATUREREVIEWBYDRELIZABETHHARE
The purpose of this literature review is to provide a literary and academic background to support the
frameworkforpracticewhichformsthemainbodyoftheprojectreport.
TheframeworkitselfisintendedtoinformtheworkoffacilitatorsandprojectleadersinParticipatoryTheatre,
and further, would shape the educationalprocesses forstudents in HigherEducation who are studying the
subject, usually called Applied Drama,18
within the performing arts disciplines. This literature review will
identifythesourcesandintellectual ideaswhichinformtheproposedframework,fromtheconsiderablebody
ofscholarlywritingextantinthisarea.InthispaperIwilldealwiththehistoricalprecedentsforparticipatory
theatreandthehistoricalcontextfromwhichithasemergedoverthelast40years.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
The history of contemporary participatory theatre begins in the middle of the 20th
Century. There emerge
three significant areas of practice which may be deemed essential to the understanding of the practice of
participatorytheatreintheUKsincethenandatthepresenttime.Theyare:theworkofDorothyHeathcote
(andGavinBolton)ineducationaldrama;thepracticeofAugustoBoalinForumTheatreandtheworkofthe
TIE(TheatreinEducation)companies,hereintheUK,inthe1970sand80sandintheEnglishspeakingworld,
mostnotablyinAustraliainthe1990s.
Therealreadyexistsaconsiderablebodyofscholarlywritingaboutthesepractitionersandareasofpractice,
accumulatedduringthelastthirtyyearsofthedevelopmentofparticipatorytheatre,whichhasforalongtime
beenanelementofuniversity teaching in the performingarts,and an elementofeducation inourschools
system,andalso,perhapsmorepertinentlyhere,abodyofsuchworkundertakenbyprofessionalpractitioners
with a wide rangeof vulnerableand excluded groups ofall kinds in our society. It is not the remit of this
project to reexamine that literature indetail, but rather to identify andexaminethe ways in which it may
contributetothepresentdiscussionoftheethicsofthisofthepractice.
Thisbodyofliterature,mostofwhichdescribes,analysesandcritiquespractice,contributessignificantlytothe
emergenceofthecentralquestionsofthisproject.Iwouldliketoidentifythesequestionsasfollows:
Wheredidtheworkwearelookingatcomefrom? Whatweretheethicsthathaveinformedit? Whataretheethicsthatinformitnow? Whatcouldanexaminationofthismaterialcontributetothedevelopmentofanethicalframework
forcurrentpracticeandtraininginthepracticeofparticipatorytheatre?
18Thetermparticipatorytheatreisusedthroughoutthisdiscussionbecausetheresearcherstaketheviewthattheactivitieswithwhich
theyareconcernedaretheatreratherthandrama,andparticipatoryratherthanapplied.Seesectiontwoforanexpansionofthisidea.
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DOROTHYHEATHCOTE.19
Inthelate60sandearly70sHeathcotesworkinDramainEducationemergedasapractice, whichwaslater
reviewedanddocumentinliterature,intwoimportantbooksandnumerousarticles(Wagner1973andONeill
andJohnson1984andvariousjournals).More recentlyabiographyofHeathcotebyGavinBolton,her long
time friend and colleague summarizes her contribution to educational drama over the last 60 years.20
However,wearehereconcernedwiththehistoricalcontextandthereforeIwillconfinemydiscussiontothe
earlierworks.
Bothinthepractice,andinthecontemporaryliteraturewhichdocumentedit,Heathcotesethicswereimplicit
ratherthanexplicit.Forexample,inWagner1972,thereisachapterheadedThresholdswhichdescribesthe
settingofboundariesnecessary fortheconductofasuccessfuldramasession,andrelatestotheemotional
safetyoftheparticipantsandconfidentialityofthework.Thesethresholdstaketheformofpracticaladvice
and do not attempt to propose an ethical framework for the work, but they do implicitly offer one. They
describeclearlythenecessityforboundariesbetweenfacilitatorsandparticipantsandbetweenthefictionof
the stageand the space occupied by theaudience or participants in their real lives. This distinction was to
become,andremains,acentralconcernpractitionersofparticipatorytheatre.Itisconnectedwiththeequally
important questions of whether the activities of participatory theatre can affect reality and of that way in
whichtheemotionalsafetyofparticipantscanbecompromisedandmustbeprotected.
AnothersignificantcharacteristicoftherelationshipbetweenHeathcoteandherparticipatinggroupsisthatof
empowerment. This is of particular significance as many of the groups she worked with were vulnerable
people:forexample,youngchildrenandthelearningdisabled. Examplesofhowherworkischaracterizedin
thiswaycanbeseeninWagnersaccountsofhertechniques,suchasMantleoftheExpertandTeacherin
Role(Wagner1973).Intheuseofthesetechniquesthepowerisdeliberatelyabrogatedbytheteacher,the
culturally assumed powerful figure, and given to the participants. By handing over the knowledge and
direction ofactivitiesand decisions to agroup of youngchildren, the teacher motivates them to learn and
discover,andbyassumingadependentrole,theteacherallowsthemtosolveproblemsandmakedecisionsin
the imaginedadultcontextof the drama.The theatreactivity becomesparticipatory to theextent that the
leadershipanddirectionof theactivity ishanded over from theassumed powerful figureof the teacheror
facilitatortothemembersoftheparticipatinggroup,howeveryoungorvulnerabletheymaybe.
At no point has either Heathcote or any of the scholars who have documented her work, laid down a
prescriptiveor explicit ethical framework,but it isclear that these two elements of settingboundaries and
empowermentarebothcentraltoherworkandimplyanethicalframework,asetofunderlyingprinciples,in
operation.
AthirdcharacteristicofHeathcotespracticeisquestioning,andasherquestionsareopenendedandthought
provoking,thistechniquemightbedescribedashavingethicalimplications.Heathcotespractice,likethatof
Theatre inEducation, isprimarilypedagogical, andtheopennessofthequestioning impliesapedagogyofa
particular kind; a pedagogy that teaches questioning and thought rather than coerces into prescribed
attitudes;apedagogythat is radical, liberalandprofoundlypolitical;apedagogy thathasbecomeacentral
characteristic ofparticipatorytheatre. ThecurrentworkinBritishuniversitiesinparticipatorytheatreremains
essentiallypedagogicalinnatureinthatpostandundergraduatestudentsaretaughtskillsandpractice.That
pedagogyretainsthespiritofradicalquestioningthatcomesfromHeathcoteswork.
19 The Dorothy Heathcote Archive is housed at Manchester Metropolitan University in the UK and is a rich source of information and
materialforfurtherstudy. Visithttp://www.partnership.mmu.ac.uk/drama
20BoltonGDorothyHeathcote'sStory:TheBiographyofaRemarkableDramaTeacher2003
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To summarise, there are three aspects of Heathcotes work that can clearly be said to inform the current
practice of participatory theatre. They are the settingofboundaries, theempowerment of the given client
groupandthecentralityofopenandgenuinequestioning.
AUGUSTO
BOAL21
The same may also be said of the work of Augusto Boal, emerging in the 70s and is the most significant
influence on thepracticeofparticipatory theatrewhichhasdeveloped in thecontextof Britishuniversities
sincethattime. Boalsworkasrecorded inhisbookTheTheatreoftheOppressed, (UKtranslation1976)22
,
restsontheradicalpoliticsofthestruggleforliberationandhumanrightsandtheempowermentofminority
andvulnerablegroups.It isselfevidentthatthisworkhastohaveanethicswhichinformsthepractice,and
thisethicsisindeedcentraltotheconsiderableliteratureonhiswork.
ItisclearthattheethicalconsiderationswhichinformBoalsworkoverlapwiththoseofHeathcoteandthat,
likeher,Boal isnotexplicitinanyethicalprescriptionbutfromtheearlieststagesinthedevelopmentofhis
practiceanethicsisimpliedanddiscussed.
Boalsworkhasdeveloped,andcometoformthelynchpinofparticipatorytheatre.Mostundergraduateswill
beintroducedtothetechniquesofForumTheatreandithasbecomeclearthatthis,themostsignificantform
ofhispracticetoinfluencecurrentworkinparticipatorytheatre,cannotbeauthenticallypractisedoutsideofa
clearethicalcontext.Ithasbecomethemostused,andprobablybydefault,mostoftenmisused,techniquein
participatory theatre. For these reasons it bears a little more scrutiny here, in order to identify its implicit
ethicalcharacteristics.
Boal himself relates, in the early chapters of theTheatreof theOppressed (1976) how badly things can go
wrongifforumtheatreisapproachedwithoutafullunderstandingofitspotential,andthecorrectuseofits
techniques.
Thecreationanddevelopmentofgoodpracticeofthisformoftheatreisinformedbyareturntotheethicsof
Aristotleandhisnotionofvirtu(Boalopcitpp3335andfollowing1976).Boaltakeshisexpositionfromthe
ethics of Aristotelian tragedy, with its notion of the fatal flaw, through the politics of Machiavelli and the
philosophyofHegel,tothepointwhereherefutesthenotionofanabsolutesetofmoralvaluesandsaysthat
inthenewformoftheatreheespousesradicaldissentanddeclaresthatonlyoutofconstantpracticewillthe
newtheoryarise(Boalopcitp79).
Boal is scrupulously honest in identifying the pitfalls of working in this form of theatre, and facilitators
attempting touseitaspartoftheirpracticewoulddowelltotakeheedofhisexperienceasrecountedinthe
finalsectionofthebook,TheDevelopmentoftheArenaTheatreofSaoPaolo,(Boalopcitpp1591901976).[In
thisearlyworkheusesthetermarenatheatre;thebasisofthegroupoftechniqueslatertobecomeknown
asforumtheatre.]Intheseearlyexamplesofpracticehediscussestheproblemsattendantonthecentraltask
ofempowermentandtheneedforboundariesbetweenfictionandreality,andthequestionoftheimpactof
theworkonpeoplesreallives,asIhavealreadyidentifiedinHeathcotesworkabove.
Pertinent to this review, the book includes a chapter entitled thePoetics of theOppressed, in which Boal
outlines his thinking, his philosophy and theorising, of this own work (Boal op cit p119 1976). He gives a
thumbnailsketchoftheatrehistory,andidentifiesthemasses,theaudience,astheoppressed,andthetheatre
elite,(actorsdirectorsetc.)astheoppressors.Hedescribeswhat,tohismind,isthecrucialmomentwhenthis
21Forreliablebackgroundinformationvisithttp://www.theatreoftheoppressed.org
22TheoriginaltextwasinPortugueseandfirstpublishedinEnglishintheUnitedStatesin1973
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oppressionbegan,asthemomentwhentheroleofspectatorwasseparatedfromthatoftheactor;whenthe
spectatorbecamemerelythepassiverecipientofthework,andtheactor/theatremakerheldallthepower
overwhatwassaidanddone.Boaladvocatesareturntoparticipatorytheatre,andfromthispointonwardhis
workisfocusedonthisgoal.
Boaltalksaboutpower,andspecificallyaboutthepowerlessness,ofanyaudienceinthetheatreexperience.
This is the starting point for the ethical dimension of his work. He goes on to parallel this with the
powerlessnessinrealityofthemembersofthevulnerablegroups,theoppressedwithwhomheworks.Inthis
wayheidentifiesthepurposeofhistheatrewhichistoempowerthepowerlessandvulnerable,andtoeffect
change in their real livesthroughengagementwiththe fictionofthedrama,apurposethatremainsatthe
heartofthepracticetothisdayandismoreover,essentialtoanunderstandingofitsethics.
Boalsmission in ForumTheatre is to reverse thepowerbalance,both in the theatreand, to theextent to
which participatory theatre can be deemed transformative, in real life. He talks about how in the Forum
Theatre thespectatorstartsactingagain (p119),andtogive thepower in thetheatricaleventoverto the
participants.
Inamuchlaterwork,TheRainbowofDesire(Routledge1995)Boalgivesaconsolidationofthisprincipleintoa
useful series of practical guidelines for working ethically in Forum Theatre. The emphasis of the book on
guidanceforpracticeandwhatethicalguidancethereis,is,likeHeathcotes, impliedratherthanexplicit.
UnlikeHeathcote,whoworksinparticipatorydramaratherthantheatre,theovertpurposeofBoalsworkisto
removethebarrierthattheconventionsoftheatrehadpreviouslyplacedbetweenaudienceandstage(Boal,
1995p90). ItfollowsthatthetechniquescreatedbyBoalhavebecome,andremain,centraltomanyformsof
participatorytheatre.
Participation in the theatre experience does not take place simply because the conventions of theatre are
ignored.Itcomesaboutbecauseofwhatisputintheirplace,andiscarefullyconstructed,throughaseriesof
techniques and exercises, and development of the audiences understanding of its participatory role in
workshopswithgroupsoveraperiodoftime.Thisdevelopmentisclearlyoutlinedinthefirsttwochaptersof
TheRainbowofDesire.Initsfullydevelopedform,ForumTheatreallowsnotonlyforparticipation,butalsofor
theinterventionofaudiencemembersintheperformance,inordertochangethescriptandtheoutcomeof
theplaysevents.
Another significant characteristic, in which Boals work differs essentially from Heathcotes, is the overt
politicalnatureofitscontentandpurposeofpoliticalempowerment.Hesays:
Thepracticeofthesetheatrical formscreatesasortofuneasysenseof incompletenessthatseeks
fulfilmentthroughrealaction(Boal1979,p142).
ThepoliticsthatBoalisdealingwithinhisownpracticeisthatofthedivisionsinsocietycreatedbypoverty
andclass.Sincehisworkhasbecomecurrentamongpractitionersofparticipatorytheatre,it isapoliticshas
beenappliedtomanyotherkindsofdivisionsandexclusionsinsociety.Forthosewhotakeonthetraditionof
Boalspracticegivingintothepoliticsofcoercionisnotanoption.Itisaroundthesequestionsofpowerand
coercion that many of the ethical considerations affecting the practice of participatory theatre revolve. In
contrastpractitionerslearntoworkwithintheframeworkofliberationandradicalchange.
Coercion, however, can come from many different places in participatory theatre and can operate on a
numberofdifferentlevels.Itisoneofthemostsignificantanddifficultchallengesforthosewishingtoengage
with ethical practice. For example, coercion might be embedded in the attitude and policy of the funding
bodies, particularly if they are public or state institutions, such as charities or local authorities. Therefore
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practitionersneedaclearethicalpositionwithwhichtoresistcoercionintheinterestsofthecreativelearning
anddevelopmentoftheclientgroup.Thisiswhattheframeworkanditsinformingliteratureintendstooffer.
While participatory theatre is not a revolutionarymovement it is amovement for change and many public
institutionsandbureaucraciesresistchangeasamatterofcourse,aresistancethatisoftenaccompaniedbya
prejudice against artistic activities per se. Boals discussion of the politics and techniques of effecting such
changediscussedaboveprovideusefulprecedentsinthisrespect.
ThethirdhistoricalcontextthatbearssomeinvestigationhereisthatofTheatreinEducation,orTIE.
ThismovementbegininCoventryintheUKin1967,andhasspreadasaneducationalpracticewidelyacross
the English speaking world. In its original form it is, sadly, now defunct here in the UK, but it has had a
profoundandfarreachinginfluenceonthedevelopmentofparticipatorytheatreandonthepedagogywhich
underpinsthetraininginthispracticeinBritishUniversities.
From its inception TIE has had an overtly political and social agenda, a radical and left wing politics and a
principled pursuit in the spirit of that politics, and of social improvement. It has also had a symbiotic
relationship withmainstreameducationalprovision,albeitnotalwaysahappyone.TIEhasalwaysreliedon
interestexpressedbyindividualschoolsintheprojectstoprovideitswork.Eveninitsmostsuccessfulperiod
theprovisionandfundingofTIEinschoolwasalwaysscatteredandfragmentary. Itwasalwaysperceivedas
radicalandsubversive,anditswideinfluenceonpracticesthathavedevelopedsince,isthemoreremarkable
forthat.
In its halcyon days of preThatcher government funding, TIE focused its own ethical framework within and
responding to, and sometimes challenging, the educational mainstream. It forged its own moral agenda,
created its own values and expectations. Its principles were underpinned by the emerging culture of
inclusivenesswhichatthattimewasstyled,variouslyasmulticulturalism andequalopportunities,aculture
thathasmorerecentlybecomemainstreaminoursocietyintermsoflegalprovisionandculturalexpectation
andwhichusesalanguageofdiversityandidentity.
BehindthisagendainBritishpoliticsofthelastdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,layawiderglobalpolitical
andsocialagendaofHumanRightsandtheactivismofvariouskindsthatexpressedit.WhileTIEengagedwith
this agenda in its work in the 70s and 80s tackling racism and antifascism in its very earliest programmes,
acrosstheworlditsvoicewasechoedtothediscomfortofmany,invariousestablishments,intheemergent
UnitedNationsDeclarationofHumanRightsandingrassrootsmovementssuchasfeminism,blackcivilrights
andgayliberation. TIEwasitselfonesuchgrassrootsmovementandintunewiththetimes.
Despitelimitationsimposedbyitscontinualfightforfundingandlackofnationalrecognition,TIEconsistently
focuseditsworkonaddressingthesepoliticalissuesandtheaccompanyingsocialprobleminitsprogramme.
InherbookCanTheatreteach?(Pergammon,1983),ChristineRedingtoncapturesthemoodoftheearlydays
ofheadyoptimism.Sheoutlinesamissiontochangeinaworldreadytobechanged.Thiswasthecaseevenin
mainstream school education where TIE was initially greeted, like all arts activities, with suspicion and
mistrust.RedingtongivesausefulwellinformedandoptimisticaccountofthedevelopmentofTIEcompanies
inthe70sand80salloverEngland,anddescribestheimpactthattheirworkhadoneducationalthinkingand
practice.
The work of the TIE companies was linked with the then dominant classroom practice of teaching through
projectworkandthephilosophyofchildcentred learning.TIEwasseenasanappropriateeducationaltool,
providing stimulus and engagement; allowing for imaginative response and teaching children to think for
themselves.
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InhisbookLearningThroughTheatre(MUP1980),TonyJacksontakestheeducationalandhistorical
contextforTIEfurtherbackintheperiodoftheearly50sand60sseeingitsoriginsintheeducationaldrama
work of Peter Slade and Brian Way. Early work in TIE drew its stated aims from these origins, and they
emphasised the main purpose of their mission was to encourage an interest in theatre, rather than the
disseminationofpoliticalandsocialreform,withwhichtheprogrammesthemselveswereclearlyandovertly
preoccupied.Itisimportanttonotethatatthisstageandindeedthroughoutmostofitsheyday,TIEsinterest
inmoralvaluesandpoliticswasneverpartofitspublicagenda,althoughtheyformedtheheartofitssubject
matteranddictateditsethics.
Jackson identifies two importantcharacteristicsofthepracticeof theTIEcompanies,asa peculiar
interactionbetweenthedramaticeventandthelearningprocessandthatthepractitionersrespondtoand
learnfromtheirachievementsandmistakes(Jackson1980,introductionp.vii). Hisbookoutlinesthelegacyof
TIEwhichmaybesummarisedasan intention tonurtureandprovokechangebyaprocessofcollaborative
learning,accompaniedbyacommitmenttotheevaluationofandreflectiononpractice. Inthislegacy,which
characterizesthewayinwhichparticipatorytheatreistaughtinuniversities, thereisaclearindicationtheway
inwhichTIEhashadaprofound influenceontheconductofparticipatorytheatre intheUKeversince.This
legacy forms the core of the current concern to identify and formulate the ethics of current practice. (See
JacksonandRedingtonforexamples.)
These evaluations related to the original TIE materials and projects themselves form a subjective
ethicalframework,basedontheexperienceofeachoftheindividualprogrammesandtheirparticipants.Ifa
collectiveethicsemerges,itindicatesasensethatthecompanieshadoftheirroleasagentsofsocialchange
throughtheprovisionofadeeperandricherandlearningexperience.Theearlyevaluationsofworkinthe60s
andearly70s,(ofwhichadetailedaccountisgiveninRedington,seeabove)areconcernedwiththelearning
experienceachievedforthepupilsandforthesuccessofthetheatricalevent,ratherthanwithadiscussionof
the wider political or social impact of the content of the work. In them the actor/ teachers reflect on the
extenttowhichtheworkwasunderstoodbythechildren,ontheway inwhichthechildrenreactedandon
whetherthepieceworkedasaperformance.Theyarenotconcernedforthepoliticalorsocialimpactorfor
thepossibilityofachangingrealityasaconsequenceofwhattheyhavedone. It isalmostasthoughthis is
somehow assumed. In this they are different from the present day practitioners of participatory theatre,
whosecentralconcernsareoftenforpoliticsandthesocialproblemsofthesituationstowhichtheybringtheir
practiceandthewaysinwhichthatpracticecanaddressandseektoresolvethem.
The contribution of TIE may be summarised as offering an enriched educational experience
characterizedbythinking,questioninganddiscussion;amissiontoempowertheyoungtochangetheworldin
which they are to be citizens; energy to effect social change and to articulate political awareness, and a
commitmenttoreflectiononandcontinualimprovementofthepractice.
By1976,TIEhadalready,becauseofpoliticalantagonismandwithdrawaloffunding,beguntomove
intothewidercommunity,tolinkupwithcommunityandprofessional touringtheatreandtobecomethecore
ofamuchmorevariedpractice,whichwastobecomeknownasAppliedDrama/Theatre.Eveninthe1980s,
Jackson writes prophetically of the challenge of survival facing the arts in a recession! However, the
movementofparticipatorytheatreintoawiderthanpurelyeducationalcontextwasnotonlyforreasonsof
financialsurvival,althoughhasalwaysbeenandremainsacentralissue.Itwasamovementengenderedalso
byabroaderpoliticalagendaofsocialchange.Jacksondescribesacentralreason forthismoveasa lackof
understandingof,andindifferenceto,thebenefitstopolitical,moralandsocialeducation. Heattributesthis
prejudicetotheinsistenceonadistinctionbetweenlearningandentertainmentintheculturalmind.
Once established as part of the educational landscape in the schools sector, by the mid 1970s TIE was
declaring itscentral identityas thatofanagentofchange.This identitywasreinforcedby the formation in
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1975 of the Standing Conference of Young Peoples Theatre (SCYPT), an umbrella organisation intended to
bring together various forms of theatre and drama with which young people were engaged to share a
commonality of values, in both formal and less informal learning environments, and to develop an ethical
position. SCYPT was an organisation that has TIE at its heart and its prime movers were members of TIE
companies.
SeveralofthecontributorstoJacksonsbookemphasizethecentralityoftheemotionalexperienceto
theworkoftheTIEcompanies.GordonVallinsspeaksofavitalcommunicationbetweenpeopleofthoughts,
feelingsand ideas inresponsetoa livingsituation(Vallins inJackson1980,p4)andKathyJoycetalksofthe
directemotionalandintellectualimpactof(TIE)ontheaudience(JoyceinJackson1980,p25).
Theseemotionalpreoccupations alsohaveapoliticaldimension.InJacksonsbook,DavidPammenter
identifiesakeyideainrelationtointendedpoliticaleffectoftheprogrammes.Hediscussesthefactorswhich
governtheextentofthechildrensunderstanding,thechiefofwhichhesaysistheextenttowhichtheyhave
beenable tosecure access to understanding,and the extent towhichsocial conditioninghassucceeded in
mystifying
them
(Pammenter
in
Jackson
1980,
p43).
Here
he
suggests
that
there
is
a
conspiracy
on
the
part
of
theeducationalauthoritiestokeepchildreninthepowerlessnessofnotunderstanding.
Transferring Pammenters thoughts to themoderncontextofparticipatory theatre it is possible to
substitute language and cultural difference, bureaucracy or alienating systems for the educational
establishment,andseethe importantethicalconcernthatremainsattheheartofparticipatorytheatre,the
questionofwhetheritcanbeameansofempowermentforthedisadvantagedandexcluded.Inthiswaythe
ethicaldimensionsofTIEarelinkedwiththeimplicitethicsofbothHeathcoteandBoalandwiththepractice
oftoday.
AnotherconnectionbetweenTIEandtheotherpracticesdiscussedhereisapreoccupationwiththe
centrality of discussion and questioning in the practice of participatory work. Whereas Boal and Heathcote
emphasize the need for open ended questioning as part of the process of engagement with drama and
theatre, theTIEcompanieswereatpains,despiteaccusationsof leftwingpoliticalbias levelledatthem,to
createdialecticratherthanapoliticaldidacticasthebedrockoftheirinteractionwiththeiraudiences(Jackson
1980,p44).Theydidnotespousethepromotionofoneparticularpoliticalview,althoughtheywerefrequently
criticizedfordoingso.
Jacksoncitesoneheadmastersevaluationasclaimingthatthetheatrepiecewasdangerousbecause
ofitspoliticalovertonesanditscritiqueofirresponsiblecapitalisticenterprise(Jackson1980,p45).Itisnot
difficult to see, given this kind of remark, why TIE and other forms of participatory theatre sought a more
friendlyenvironment,andeventuallyfoundalikemindedoneinHigherEducationinthelate80sand90s.
ThecontentofTIEprogrammeswasusuallyfocusedonaddressingsocialissuesandproblems,notnecessarily
resolvingthem,butopeningthemupfordiscussion.Centraltoallcompaniesworkandallprogrammeswas
thecleareducationalobjectiveofachangeinunderstanding(BoltoninJackson,1980,p73).
Theother issuethatwashotlydebatedbythecompanies,and isstill importanttotheethicalstanceofour
contemporaryversionsofparticipatorytheatre,isthatwhichmightbebroadlydescribedasthesuspensionof
disbeliefandtheboundariesbetweenthefictionalworldofthestageandtherealworldoftheaudience.Ina
theatreformthatsetsoutwiththeexpresspurposetransgressingthoseboundaries,thishasalwaysbeen,and
remains, significant, be it with Boals audiencewho thought the actors guns were real and that they were
goingtojointheworkersintherevolutionarystruggle,totheschoolchildwhothinksthatactingoutawayof
dealingwithbullying, isactuallygoingtomaketherealbulliesgoaway.PamSchweitzer inheressay inthe
Jacksonbook,sumsuptheparadoxthatthispresentsforthepractitionerofparticipatorytheatre:
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Ononelevelwhatthechildrenareaskedforisasubjectiveresponsetoanemotionalconflict,buton
the other they are asked for ahigh degree of objectivity indealing with difficult adult questions
(SchweitzerinJackson1980,p83).
Thisraisestwoimportantethicalconsiderationsforallpractitionersthenandnow:firstaneedtoensurethat
the audience and/or participating group understands the boundaries between fiction and reality, and a
decisionastowhetherornottheworkshouldaimtoeffectanyrealsocialchange.
TheethicsofTIE reflect theeducationalethicsofa libertarianandradicalperiod inBritisheducation inthe
1970sand80s,nowsadlylonggone.By1976whenTIEmovedawayfromitsworkwithschools,theendofits
erawasalreadyinsight.Itwasthevictimfundingwithdrawal,andtheintroductionoftherigidityoftheearly
versionsoftheNationalCurriculuminschools,whichexcludedalmostallcreativeactivityfromtheclassroom.
Atthispoint,TIEandotherearlyeducationalbiasedformsofparticipatorytheatremovedundergroundinto
theburgeoningacademyofDrama,TheatreStudiesandPerformingArtswhere itcurrentlyhas itshomeas
AppliedDrama.Inmakingthatmoveitwastransformedbythetheorisingthatwasneededtocontextualize
it,despitethefactthatmostworkthatundergraduatesundertakeinthisareaispracticalandmuchofitstill
withineducationalsettingsofvariouskinds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BoalA.,TheatreoftheOppressed.Pluto,London1979
BoalA.,TheRainbowofDesire.Routledge,London1995
JacksonT.,LearningThroughTheatre.MUP,1980
Johnson L., & ONeill C., (eds)DorothyHeathcote:CollectedWritings inEducationandDrama. Hutchinson,
1984
RedingtonC.,CanDramaTeach?PergamonPress,Oxford1983
WagnerB.J.,DorothyHeathcote:DramaasaLearningMedium.Hutchinson,1979
Of the above, Redingon is a useful and evaluative survey of TIE, and Jackson is the most ethicscentred
account.
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APPENDIX2:THEWORKSHOPMETHODOLOGYTheprincipleaimoftheworkshopwastoworkwiththeimplicitknowledgeandfeelingsofparticipantsabout
ethics,andtocreateaspace inwhichtheycould reflectonandstructure their thoughts.Theprocesswas
reflectiveandreflexive anopportunityforindividualsandgrouptorecognizetheirexistingknowledgeandto
developtheirpraxis.
Theprocessmovedbetweenintuitiveandcognitiveworkwhich:
1. openedwithanexerciseinwordassociationswhichproposedaspaceinwhichethicalconsiderationsmightexist.
2. offeredaconceptualframeworkbasedonOvalHousesfiveethicalprinciples23(referredtoasCorePrinciples,
Core
Principles
in
the
structure)
within
which
a
debate
about
the
parameters
of
ethics
couldbegin.
3. asked participants in small groups to use theatre image and Forum to share with the group anydilemmasofp