EUROBAT is the association for the European manufacturers ...€¦ · FLOODED LEAD BATTERIES : ENHANCED FLOODED Even a well-established battery system like lead-acid has to answer

EUROBAT is the association for the European manufacturers of automotive, industrial and energy storage batteries. EUROBAT has 51 members from across the continent comprising more than 90% of the automotive and industrial battery industry in Europe.

ASSOCIATION OF EUROPEAN AUTOMOTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL BATTERY MANUFACTURERS

©EUROBAT2017

©Jo

hnso

n C

ontr

ols P

ower

Sol

utio

ns

1. Executive Summary of the report

2. Introduction

2.1. What are Motive Power batteries?

2.2. Applications of Motive Power batteries

3. Technologies of Motive Power batteries

3.1. Lead-based battery technologies

Flooded lead batteries: Conventional flooded

Flooded lead batteries: Enhanced flooded

VRLA : Gel & AGM (Absorbant Glass Mat)

3.2. Lithium-based battery technologies

3.3. Sodium-based battery technology

3.4. Nickel-based battery technology

3.5. Innovation of Motive Power battery technologies

4. Contribution of electrification of Motive Power to EU objectives

4.1. Emission Reduction as a driver for electrification

4.2. Motive power batteries as service providers to the electricity grid, either

as demand response providers or as active ancillary services providers

(through aggregation)

4.3. Noise Reduction as a driver for electrification

4.4. Circular Economy: recycling of Motive Power batteries

1. Recycling of lead-based batteries

2. Recycling of Lithium-ion -based batteries

3. Recycling of Sodium -based batteries

4. Recycling of Nickel-based batteries

4.5 Innovation

Contents7

8

8

10

12

12

12

13

14

16

18

19

21

22

22

24

26

27

27

27

27

28

29

6 The Availability of Automotive Lead-Based Batteries for Recycling in the EU

©Jo

hnso

n C

ontr

ols P

ower

Sol

utio

ns

7

Batterieswereusedtoprovidetractionpowerfromthefirstmomentaftertheirinvention.Infact,theconstructionofthefirstelectricmotorsandrechargeableleadacidbatteriesbothfallintothe1800’s.Inthefieldofmotivepower,progressinenergystoragecomeshandinhandwithnewmachinerydesignwhichleadstohigherproductivityatlowerhumanandenvironmentalcost in industry.Thankstoaseriesof innovations intheirchemistryanddesignmaintenancefree,batterieshavebecomeincreasinglysafeandmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.

The electrification of the motive power sector is driven by many factors. Batterytechnologies formotivepower applications havedeveloped and improved over theyears. Apart from reducing CO2 emissions, using motive power batteries can alsodrastically reduce noise emissions. Batteries can help to decarbonise the Europeanenergymixbyefficientlystoringelectricitygeneratedfromrenewableenergysources.

1/ Executive summary of the report

Executive summary

of the report1

©Sy

stem

s Sun

light

8 2/ introduction

What are Motive Power batteries ?2.1

Introduction2WiththisMotivePowerBatteriesreport,EUROBATaimsatincreasing

theunderstandingoftheimportanceofthissector.Motivepowerbat-

teries(ortractionbatteries)areusedinoff-roadapplicationswhere

thebatteryenergyisusedtoproducemotion.Oneofthemostwell-

knownapplicationsistheelectricforkliftbutthereareavarietyof

otherapplicationswheremotivepowerbatteriesareused.

Thegreatvarietyofmotivepowerapplicationsarecoveredbydifferentbatterytechnologies,whichallhavetheirownspecificationstoensureallthespecificneedsofapplicationsarecovered.Batteriesarethemostcommontechnologytopowerelectricorhybridelectricmotiveapplicationsbecausetheyhavetheabilitytobeadaptivetotheapplication.Ontheotherhand,alsoregulatorshavedriventheinnovationinthesectorbyalwaysdemandingthehighestenvironmental,performanceandsafetystandards.Indeed,batterieshavedevelopedtomaintenancefree,safeandmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.

ThereareavarietyofIECandENbatterystandardsexistingrelatedtoperformanceandsafetyaspects.Indeed,theMotivePowerbatterysectorisalreadywell-established.ThetotalinstalledcapacityofmotivepowerbatteriesinEuropeamountstomorethan20GWh.Thisismanytimeslargerthantheinstalledbatteryenergystoragecapacity,whichislessthan1GWhworldwide,orthedeployedelectricandhybridvehicles,whicharestillquitelimited.Moreover,annualsalesinEuropealreadyexceed6millionbatteriesperyear.

Asanexample,wehaveacloserlookattheordersofforkliftswithinternalcombustionengines(ICEs)versuselectricforklifts.ElectricforkliftshavetheadvantageofhavingthecapacitytoperformwithoutCO2emissions.

Moreover,sincetherearenoexhaustorenginenoise,theseforkliftsproducelessnoise

92/ introduction

©Ex

ide

ICE and Electric Lift truck orders in the world - Source WITS Data

ICE and Electric Lift truck orders in Europe - Source WITS Data

thanICEforklifts.TheWorldIndustrialTruckStatisticsgivefor2010-2015forICEandelectriclifttruckordersintheWorldandEuropeclarifythatindeedthetrendtowardselectrificationistakingplace.Moreover, it is clear that the percentage of electric lift truck orders in Europe isconsiderablyhighercomparedtothepercentageelectriclifttruckordersworldwide.

Thegraphicbelowillustrates thegreatvarietyofapplications thatarealreadyusingmotivepowerbatteries.

Chapter 3 provides some background on the different technologies underpinningdifferentmotivepowerbatteries.Itdescribeshowthesetechnologieshavedevelopedover time and continue to improve.

Chapter4explainshowmotivepowerbatteries–andtheelectrificationofthemotivepowermarket–relatestoEUobjectivesandpolicy.

10 2/ introduction

Applications of Motive Power batteries2.2

CLEANING OTHER MATERIALS HANDLING MINING

GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT MEDICAL WHEEL CHAIR AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLES (AGVS)

GOLF CARTSELECTRIC OR HYBRID ELECTRIC FORKLIFTS ELECTRIC INLAND VESSELS

CONSTRUCTION/AGRICULTURE RAILWAY APPLICATIONSillus

trat

ions

© F

ranc

esco

Zor

zi /

alia

s2k.

com

112/ introduction

© S

yste

ms S

unlig

ht

12 3/ technologies of motive power batteries

3 Technologies of Motive Power

batteries

Avarietyofbatterytechnologiescanbeusedfordifferentmotiveap-

plications.Thesetechnologiescanbesplitinfourmajorfamilies:

lead-based batteries, lithium-based batteries, sodium-based bat-

teries, nickel-based batteries.

Allthesetechnologieshavetheirownspecificfeaturesthatarefitfor

specifictypesofapplications.

Lead-based battery technologies3.1

FLOODED LEAD BATTERIES: CONVENTIONAL FLOODED

Floodedbatteries come in thewidest variety of shapes and sizes due totheirwidespreadusageinamultitudeofindustriesandapplications.Theyarethemostcommonlyusedbatteriesonthereservepower(standby)andmotivepower(cyclic)marketstoday.Floodedbatteriesareveryreliableandcansurviveinharshenvironments.Unlikevalve-regulatedlead-acid(VRLA)batteriesfloodedbatteriesdonot recombinehydrogenandoxygen toproducewater internally.As a result,

Innovation of Motive Power Battery technologies

133/ technologies of motive power batteries

Flooded Lead Batteries in a nutshell:

• Din&BSfootprints• Provenlonglife• Goodabilitytorecoverfromabuse• Betterindicationofbattery’shealthviavisualinspections• Nodependenceonpressurevents• Typicallybuiltlarger(moreAh–upto4000Ahrs)thanVRLA• Lesssensitivetoheatissues• Electrolyteactsas“heatsink”andspacebetweencellshelpswithheat

dissipation• Abilitytoreplenishlostmoistureduetogassingbyaddingdistilledor

deionizedwater

FLOODED LEAD BATTERIES : ENHANCED FLOODED

Evenawell-establishedbatterysystemlikelead-acidhastoanswerthechallengesofmodern times:The number of shipment services in intralogistics is constantlyincreasingandmaterialhandling trucksareequippedwithpowerful three-phasemotorsaswellasenergy-recoverysystems.Additionallyalsotheheavydutytruckswith internal, fossil fueled, combustion engines are being converted to electricwhich is a real challenge in terms of power demand and application conditions.Moreoverthereisacleartrendformulti-shiftapplicationsonwide-frontrequiringfastandopportunitychargingtomaximizeuptime.Asaconsequence,thedemandsontractionbatterieswithregardtoperformanceandefficiencyarerisingconstantly.Inresponsetothesedemands,enhancedfloodedleadbatterysystemshavebeendeveloped to optimise the opposing attributes of power, efficiency and lifespan.Improvementshavebeenmadepossiblebycombiningproventechnologywithnewmaterialsandconcepts.Essentialcharacteristicsofenhancedleadbatteriesarelowinternalresistanceandsignificantlyimprovedutilisationoftheactivemass.

Theadvantagesof these improved leadbatteries forfleetoperatorsandusersofmaterial handling trucks are clear. Greater available energy and more powerextendstherunningtimeof thetruck,whilereducedheatgenerationcontributesto longerbattery lifespans. In addition, lower heat generation feeds intogreaterenergyproductionandcorrespondinglylowerCO2emissions.

Comparedwithstandardleadbatterysystems,enhancedleadbatteriesarecapableof fastcharging(providingappropriatechargerinfrastructureisavailable),whichagainincreasestheavailabilityofthebattery.

flooded batteries require more maintenance thanVRLA batteries. For example,distilled or deionised water has to be routinely replenished tomake up for themoisturethatislostduringtheproductionofhydrogenandoxygen.


Enhanced Flooded Lead Batteries in a nutshell:

• DINfootprints• Ultra-highPower• Longoperatingtimes• Exceptionalservicelife• Fastandopportunity

charging• Stayscoolinextreme

applications• Highcapacityatlow

temperatures

MAINTENANCE FREE LEAD BATTERIES (VRLA):GEL & AGM (ABSORBANT GLASS MAT)

Valve-regulatedlead-acid(VRLA)batteriesareclassedasmaintenance-freemodelsandcanbedividedintotwocategoriesbasedonthetechnologytheyuse:

• VRLAgel• VRLAAGM(absorbedglassmat)

Neithertyperequiresanywaterrefilling,withthesignificantadvantageofreducingmaintenancerequirementstoinspectionandcleaningonly.VRLA gel batteries are particularly robust and are used as standard inmaterialhandling,cleaningandmobilityapplications.VRLAAGMbatteries aremost commonly used in stationary applications like datacentres.

Enhanced traction cell - TCSM

©Ex

ide

©Ex

ide


VRLAbatteriesfunctioninanalmost identicalwaytostandardleadbatteries,butwith the electrolyte fixed either in a gel or an absorbent glassmat. As a result,acid spillage is practically impossible, and the release of charging gases is solowastobeinsignificant.Thisduetotheso-called‘recombinationprocess’whichactivelypreventsthedecompositionofwaterintohydrogenandoxygen.Basicallyit is a closed-loop circulation of oxygen species between the electrodes whichovercompensatestheelectrolysisofwater.

VRLAgelbatterieshavenowbeenfulfillingan‘install-and-forget’rolefordecades.They are typically used in light- to medium-duty applications because of someconstraints relating to their energy capacity and charging time. Due to theirhigh reliability and ultra-low gas emission, VRLA batteries are used to powerelectricwheelchairs, cleaningmachinery forhospitals, andhandpallet trucks insupermarkets.

Recombination” process inside GEL batteries prevents the decomposition of water

VRLA Gel Batteries in a nutshell:

• DIN&BSfootprints• Ultra-lowemissionofcharginggases/noacidaerosoles• Maintenance-free• Absolutelysafe&user-friendly• Gelledelectrolyteactsas“heatsink”• Robustandreliable

©Ex

ide


Thin-Plate-Pure-Lead (TPPL) products are valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA)batteriesmadewithabsorbedglassmat(AGM)construction.VRLAabsorbedglassmat(AGM)batteriesuserecombinanttechnology.

Theoxygencreatedatthepositiveplatesrecombineswiththehydrogengeneratedat the negative plates to create water and simultaneously prevent water loss.AGMbatteriesabsorbtheelectrolyteinafibreglassmatseparator.Anintegratedpressure vent aids oxygen recombination and reduces water loss. The porousfibreglassmaterial isused toseparate theplates,retainelectrolyteat thesurfaceoftheelectrodesforelectrontransfer,andallowoxygenmigration.Highgradeacidisused inconjunctionwithhighpurityvirgin lead for thegrids,activematerials,andcurrentcollectors.Theplatesarethin,whichallowsmoreplatesperavailablevolumerelativetotraditionallead-acidbatteriesandfastercharging.

MarketsandapplicationsservedbyVRLAAGMbatteriesincludetelecommunications;cableTV;emergencylighting;loadlevelling;hybrid-electricvehicles;enginestart;uninterrupted power supply (UPS); computer back-up;medical equipment; solarpower data processing; electronics; defence; aviation; oil and gas industry; andmaterialhandling.

TheinherentcharacteristicsofVRLA–AGMtechnologye.g.lowinternalresistance,high energy/power density and fast recharge make this technology particularlysuitedtotheMotivePowersectorwhereopportunitycharge,fastcharge&reducedmaintenance/maintenancefreecharacteristicsaredesired.

VRLA AGM batteries in a nutshell:

• Din&BSfootprints• Superiorhighratepowerdensity• Exceptionalcyclelife• Highstablevoltagedelivery• Widestoperatingtemperaturerange• HighsurfaceareaallowsTPPLproducttoreachahighstateofchargeinfast

chargingapplications• Flexiblemountingandoperationorientation(exceptinverted)• Classifiedas“Non-spillableBatteries”forconvenientshipping• Shelflifeofmorethantwotimesthatofconventionallead-acidbatteries

Lithium-based battery technology

Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries have been commercialised since the beginningof the 1990s and captured 50%of the smallmobile phonemarket in only a fewyears.Despitethis,therearechallengesassociatedwithmakinglarge-scaleLi-ionbatteries.Manufacturersareworking toreduce thecostofLi-ion technology,andpricesareexpectedtodropfurtherwiththeexpansionofautomotiveandindustrialmarkets.

3.2


Alithiumionbatterysystemisanenergystoragesystembasedonelectrochemicalcharge/dischargereactionsthatoccurbetweenapositiveelectrode(cathode)thatcontainssomelithiatedmetaloxideandanegativeelectrode(anode)thatismadeof carbonmaterial or intercalation compounds.The electrodes are separatedbyporouspolymericmaterialswhichallowforelectronandionicflowbetweenthem,andareimmersedinanelectrolytethatismadeupoflithiumsalts(suchasLiPF6)dissolvedinorganicliquids.

Whenthebatteryisbeingcharged,thelithiumatomsinthecathodebecomeionsandmigratethroughtheelectrolytetowardthecarbonanodewheretheycombinewithexternalelectronsandaredepositedbetweencarbonlayersaslithiumatoms.

Thisprocessisreversedduringdischarge.Inpractice, the label‘Li-ion’ refers toavarietyof chemistries,dependingon theelectrodescathode.Lithiumionbatteriescomeinanumberofdifferentvarieties,including:

• differentcellshapes:cylindrical,prismatic,pouch• differentelectrochemistries,includingLiCo2,LiNCA,Li-NMC,LiFePO4,LiMn2O4,

LiT0,yieldingdifferentnominalcellvoltages(typicallyrangingfrom2.2Vto3.7V)• liquidelectrolyteorpolymericelectrolyte• differentelectrodethicknessesdependingontheenergy/powerratio

Li-ioncellsarenotusuallyuseddirectlyforindustrialapplications,butinsteadasserialand/orparallelassembliesinbatterymodulesorpackstoformacompletebatterysystem.

Tooperateintherecommendedvoltage,current,temperaturelimits,andtoensuresafe and reliableperformance, Li-ion requireselectronicmonitoringandcontrol.Thismanagementsystemalsoallowsthebatterytobe“smart”andtocommunicatewiththehostapplicationaboutitsstateofcharge(SOC),stateofhealth(SOH),andothervitaldata.Thisisofgreatbenefittofleetoperators,enablingthemtoscheduletheirworkloadproactively.

©SA

FT


Sodium-based battery technology

ASodiumNickelchloridecelloperatesattemperaturesbetween270°Cand350°Candeachcellhasasteelcaseandametal-ceramicseal,providinganhermeticallysealedcell,maintenance freealong life.Thecathode isbasedonnickel (Ni)andcommonsalt(NaCl)whiletheanodeconsistsofmoltensodium(Na).Theelectrolyteismade up of tetra-chlor-aluminate of sodium (NaAlCl4), liquid at the operatingtemperatureofthecellsandbyaceramicseparatorconductiveonlyforsodiumions.

Sodiumnickelchloridebatterieshavebeencommercialisedsince the1990sandwereoriginallymainlyfoundinelectricvehicles(EVs)andhybrid-electricvehicles(HEVs). Today their use has been broadened to include industrial applications,includingtelecomandback-upmarketsandon/offgridstationaryenergystoragesystems for ancillary services to theelectrical grid.Whenused in vehicles, theyprovideadvancedsolutionsforlowemissionmobility,withafocusonprofessionalapplicationssuchasutilityvehicles;electricandhybridbuses;deliveryvans;andtrucks. Sodium batteries have also been adopted for use in mining equipment, navalapplications and a range of specialistmachinery.They offer specific advantageswhenusedinbelow-groundapplications,comparedwithstandarddieselequipment.Thiscanhaveasignificantnegative impacton thecomfortandhealthofworkersduetodieselparticulatematter(DPM)pollutionandheatgeneration,bothofwhichrequirehighlevelsofventilation.Suchventilationisveryexpensive,bothintermsofinfrastructureandoperationalcosts(energyandmaintenance).Battery-poweredmachinesovercometheseissuesbyofferingcleanerandquieteroperation.

Ambientconditionsinenvironmentssuchasminesaretypicallyveryharsh,oftencharacterisedbyextremesoftemperatureandhumidity.Furthermore,theimpactofstrongshocksandvibrationscanbesignificantconstraintsontheperformanceofmachinery.Thecharacteristicsofsodiumnickelbatteriesmeanthattheyworkwellinthesehostileenvironments,andasaresultarebeingincreasinglywidelyusedinminesandotherbelow-groundapplications.Sodium batteries are also increasingly commonplace in both hybrid and fully

3.3

Of course, Li-ion is known for its lowweight (lithium is the lightestmetal in theperiodictable)andcompactsize-Li-ionbatterieshavehighenergy/powerdensityso they canmake optimum use of the sometimes restricted installation footprintavailable.

A significant advantage of the Li-ion electrochemistry is its capability to acceptveryhighratesofcharge(includingregenerativebreakingenergyrecovery)anddischarge.Fullchargeisachievedinlessthanonehourwithappropriateequipment.

Benefits includelessequipmentdowntime, leadingtogreateravailability.Astheyaresealedforlife,Li-ionbatteriesareessentiallymaintenance-free,theydonotneedtoppingupwithwater.Li-ionbatteriesalsoofferalonglife,bothintermsofcyclelifeandcalendarlife.SowhiletheinitialacquisitioncostsofaLi-ionbatteryappearhigh,theneed for reducedmaintenanceandbatteryreplacementover theoperationallifeof,sayaforklifttruck,presentastrongTCO(TotalCostofOwnership)argument.


Key advantages of sodium batteries for mining applications:

• highenergydensitiespermitlongrun-timesonasinglecharge• zeroemissions• nomaintenancerequirements• intrinsicallysafe• canbestrengthenedagainsttheharshenvironmentwitha

ruggedstainlesssteelboxandthermalinsulation• highcyclabilityforlong-lastingoperation

Nickel-based battery technology

“Nickel” isappliedindifferentalkalineaccumulator technologiessuchasnickel-cadmium,nickel-metalhydride,nickel-hydrogenandnickel-zinc.Theapplicationofnickelinaccumulatorsstartedattheendofthenineteenthcentury.

Nickel-basedbatteriesarethesecondmostusedelectrochemicalenergystorageafter Lead-based batteries. They serve special markets where energy must bestoredinextremeclimateorcyclingorfastchargingconditions.Differentdesignsareavailable:pocket, sintered,plastic-bonded,nickel foam,andfiberelectrodes.Cells are prismatic or spiral wound cells, flooded (vented) or valve-regulated(maintenancefree).Alkalinecellscanbeconnectedinseriesandparalleltobuildbatterysystemswiththedesiredvoltage,energyandpowercharacteristics.

Nickel-cadmiumandnickel-metalhydridearethemostappliedalkalineindustrialbatterysystems.Theyhaveanominalcellvoltageof1.2Vandareproducedwithcapacities from 0.5 Ah to 2.,000 Ah. Their energy efficiency can be above 95%dependingontheapplication.

Alkalinecellsareveryrobustandwellsuitedforoperationincriticalenvironments.Thisrobustdesignofthecellsthereforemeansanabsolutelyreliableenergystorage,evenunderthemostsevereoperatingconditions.

3.4

electricnauticalpropulsionsystems.Theyareparticularlyrelevantwhenusedonlakesandenclosedbodiesofwaterwherestandard internalcombustionenginesareincreasinglyprohibited.

Asdemandforenergystoragegrows,thecharacteristicsofsodiumbatteries,whicharelightandoffereasystorageforwinterisation,willgivethemkeyadvantages.Asdescribedabove,theyalsohaveanexcellentsafetyprofileandzeromaintenancerequirements.


Theirdesignlifeis25yearsandtheycanreachmorethan3,000turnoversoftheirnominalcapacity.Thelackofsensitivityofthenickel-cadmiumbatteriestoexternalfactors(e.g.lowtemperatures)excludestheriskofsuddenbatteryfailure(“suddendeath”).Theiroperationtemperaturerangeisverywide:-40°Cto+60°C.Theycanbeconnectedinlargestringswithoutneedforsophisticatedmanagementsystems.Collectionandrecyclingofusedindustrialalkalinebatteriesisapproximate100%inEurope.Thebatteryindustryhassetupaclosedwellcontrolledlooprecyclingprocess.Thebatterymanufacturertakesbackusedbatterieswhicharethenrecycledatcertificatedcompanies.Therecyclingproductsareused indifferent industries(e.g.steel)andofcoursearefedbackintothemanufacturingofNiCdbatteries.

Future development will focus on increasing cycle life, extending temperaturerangeandreducingcosts.Activematerials,collectormaterials,additivematerials,and production methods will be subject of R&D projects. In total, with respectto performance, reliability, operational safety and durability against adverseenvironmentalinfluences,alkalinebatteriescannotbereplacedbyanyotherbatterytechnology–todayandinfuture.

Nickel-based batteries in a nutshell:

• Excellentcyclingbehavior• Highefficiencyofabove95%possible• Excellentperformanceinextremetemperatures:Wellsuitedforverylow

andhightemperatures• Useunderdifficultconditions–verygoodmechanicaland

electrochemicalstability• Extremelyrobustdesignofthecellsmeansanabsolutelyreliableenergy

storage–evenunderthemostsevereoperatingconditions• Especiallysuitedinmotivepowerapplicationswhereoperationaround

theclockisrequired

©H

oppe

cke


Innovation of Motive Power Battery

technologies

Batterieshavecomealongwayoverthelastcentury.Thankstoaseriesofinnovationsintheirchemistryanddesign,theyarenowsaferandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlythanever,aswellasoftenbeingmaintenance-free.Sincetheirinvention,theyhavebeenthefocusofconstant innovation,andthishasoftentriggeredbreakthroughsbothintheindustryandsociety.Tworelatedfactorsarenowhavingaparticularlybiginfluenceonthedevelopmentofbatteries.Firstly,regulatorsaredemandingconstantimprovementsinchemicalenergystoragetomeettightersafetyandenvironmentalstandards. Secondly,machinery incorporatingelectrified traction isbecominganincreasinglyimportantpartoftheresponsetoguidelinesandregulationsgoverningbothhealthandenvironmentalstandards.

Motive power batteries are exploited in very demanding cycling patterns. Theyexperiencelargepowershifts,deepdischarges,operationatpartialstateofcharge,fastcharging,opportunitycharging,highlyvaryingtemperaturesofoperationandmechanical stress related to operation in motion. Motive power users are verysensitive to levels of batterymaintenance, which can pose serious disruption totheuseofvitalequipment.Motivepowerbatteriesareonthetechnologicalfrontierof medium-scale energy storage, and to meet their demanding applications theindustry is rapidly adoptingnewchemistries, aswelldesign changes toexistingbatterytypes.

Existingtractionbatteriescangivemaintenance-freeoperationforyearsandoverthousands of charge-discharge cycles. Some limitations that were commonplaceuntila fewyearsagohavebeenaddressedbyadoptingnewbatterychemistriesformotivepowerapplications,suchaslithium-andsodium-basedcells.Theseofferimproved cycle life time, power and energy densities, along with more flexiblecycling patterns. At the same time they pose new challenges related to theirdesign,manufacturing,operation, safetyandrecycling.Theestablished lead-acidtechnologyhas knowndrawbacks, particularlywith regard topowerdensity andcyclability.Ontheotherhand,itbenefitsfromdecadesofevolutionandoptimisation,withbreakthroughssuchasVRLA technology,gelelectrolytes,anda reduction intheamountof leadused.Asaresult lead-acidbatteriesaresaferandcheaper,aswellasbeingoutstandingly robust.Thegrowingrangeofbattery typesavailableformotivepowerallowsforanincreasinglygoodmatchbetweenthespecificationsofthebattery,theneedsoftheparticularcustomerandthepoliciesregulatingthemanufacturers and users of these products.

Inadditiontocreatinginnovativeproducts,batterymanufacturershavenotoverlookedopportunitiescreatedoutsidetheircorefieldofresearchanddevelopmentsuchascontrol electronics and information technology. It ismore andmore common formonitoringsystemstobeintegratedwithbatteriestoprovideoptimalperformance,aswelltohelpincreasetheproductivityofrelatedmachinery.

Itisnoticeablethatthedivisionbetweenstationary(backup)andmotive(cycled)useofbatteriesisbeingblurredwiththegrowingdemandforstorageofrenewableenergyaspartofthedevelopmentofsmartandsemi-detachedpowergrids.Assuch,harmonisedandsteadyprogressinallaspectsofbattery-basedenergystorageisgrowinginimportance.

3.5

22 4/ Relation between electrification of Motive Power and EU objectives

Contribution of Electrification of

Motive Power to EU Objectives4

TheEuropeanUnion(EU)hasalwaysbeenafrontrunnerinthepromo-

tionanddevelopmentofrenewableenergy,steeringtheefforttocom-

batclimatechangebyencouragingtheshifttoalow-carboneconomy

whilestimulatingeconomicgrowth.

Thatiswhythecurrent‘European2020FrameworkforRenewableEnergy’setsabindingtargetof20%offinalenergyconsumptionfromrenewablesourcesby2020betweennowand20201.Moreover,inthe‘CleanEnergyforAllEuropeans’package, theEuropeanCommission committed to cutCO2emissionsby at least40%by20302 .The electrification of motive power through batteries is contributing to thedecarbonisation of the European energy mix by enabling electricity generatedfromrenewableenergysourcestobeefficientlystored.Batteryenergystorageisanoptimumsolutionforstoringenergyandfacilitatesefficientenergyuse.Moreover,byplayingakeyroleinnearlyallsectorsofindustryandtheeconomy–ifnotdirectly,thenthroughlogisticsandmaterialhandlingapplications–themotivepowersectorcanhelp theEuropeanUnion tobemorecompetitiveandgenerategrowthandjobs.

Emission Reduction as a driver for

electrification

4.1

Airqualityhasimprovedconsiderablyinrecentdecades.However, theEuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA) has identified that the European Union is still farfromachieving levels thatdonot result inunacceptable risks tohumansand theenvironment.The EEA estimates that every year in the EU-28, 72 000 prematuredeathsareattributabletonitrogendioxide(NO2)and403000toparticulatematter(PM). According to the European Commission, the health-related costs of air

1https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/news/commission-proposes-new-rules-consumer-centred-clean-energy-transition2http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-4009_en.htm

23

©Jo

hnso

n C

ontr

ols P

ower

Sol

utio

ns


Motive power batteries as service providers to

the electricity grid, either as demand response

providers or as active ancillary services

providers (through aggregation).

4.2

The total capacity ofmotivepowerbatteries inEurope amounts tomore than 20GWh,waylargerthattotalinstalledbatteryenergystoragecapacity(lessthan1GWhworldwide)orthecapacityofdeployedelectricandhybridvehicles,whicharestillquitelimited.Thesebatteriesareusuallychargedfromthemainelectricitygrid,andassuchrepresentaburdentotheelectricitysystem.Thechargingtimevariesfrom4to12hours,dependingonthetechnologyused.

However,motivepowerbatterieshavethepotentialtobecomeasourceofflexibilityfor the electricity system.The concepts of smart charging and vehicle-to-grid –usuallyapplied toelectriccarsandvans–canalsoberelevant formotivepowerbatteries, which comparedwith on-road vehicles have the advantage of existingwidedeployment,withacorrespondinglylargecapacity.

3Non-Roadmobilemachineryemissions–EuropeanCommissionhttps://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/automotive/

environment-protection/non-road-mobile-machinery_nl

pollutionintheEUareintherangeof€330–940billionperyear.

Emissionsreductionisoneofthemaindriversbehindelectrifyingthemotivepowermarket. The market for electric industrial vehicles is already large because, ofcourse,indooruseofmotivepowerapplicationsdemandselectrification.

Emissions generated by ‘non-roadmobile machinery’ (NRMM) are regulated byanewRegulation3whichcame into forceon1 January2017.TheEuropeanpolicyonnon-roadmobilemachineryemissionsaimsatprogressivelyreducingpollutantemissions, and thus phasing out equipment with the most polluting engines.NRMM includesmachinery used in the agricultural sector (for example tractors,harvesters, sprayers and chainsaws), road construction (concrete pavers, cementmixers,bulldozers)andrailways,aswellas inlandwaterwayvessels (IWVs)suchasbarges.TheNRMMRegulationdefinesemissionlimitsforNRMMenginesbasedondifferentpowerrangesandapplications.Italsolaysdowntheproceduresenginemanufacturers have to follow in order to obtain order to obtain type-approval oftheirengines–whichisaprerequisiteforplacingtheirenginesontheEUmarket.Thisisexactlywherebatteriescanstepinasanalternativeenergysourcetoreduceemissions.

25

Location of Batteries in the Electricity System


Large numbers of motive power batteries can be aggregated to change theircharging timeaccording tofluctuatingelectricityprices, reducing theburdenonthegrid.Indeed,invehicle-to-gridmodebatteriescouldalsoinjectpowerintothegridandprovideseveralancillaryservices,including:

• valleyfilling(chargingatnightwhendemandislow)• peakshaving(sendingpowerbacktothegridwhendemandishigh)• bufferstoring(bufferingrenewableenergygeneratedbystochasticsourcesas

solarandwindpower)• regulationservices(keepingvoltageandfrequencystable)• providingspinningreserves(meetingsuddendemandsforpower)

Tobeabletoprovidetheseservices,someregulatorybarriersshouldbeaddressedby theEuropeanCommission’sproposedcleanenergypackage4. For instance, a properdefinitionofenergystorageasaseparateassetcategoryoftheelectricitysystemshouldbeproposedtosolvetheissueofdoublegridfees(payingnetworkfeesbothforcharginganddischarging).Indeed,aproperframeworkforaggregatorsshouldbedevelopedtoclarifytheirrights,dutiesandrequirements.

Noise Reduction as a driver for electrification4.3

Noise is identified by the EuropeanCommission as a“one of themost pressingproblems”inurbanareas5.ThatiswhyDirective2000/14/ECaimstoharmoniseEUMemberStatespolicyonnoiseemissionlimitsofconstructionandotherequipmentusedoutdoors.TheDirectivenotonlyremovestechnicalbarrierstotradeandbutitalsocontrolsnoiseemissionsintotheenvironment.

The electrification of motive power applications using batteries can ensure thatequipmentmeetsthenoiselimitsthataresetout.Abattery-drivenapplicationdoesnotproduceexhaustorenginenoise,significantlyreducingnoiseoutput,sincetheengine is thedominantsourceofnoise formostconstructionequipment (Wilson,Ihrig&Associates,20146).

4http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/news/commission-proposes-new-rules-consumer-centred-clean-energy-transition

5http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/mechanical-engineering/noise-emissions6CaltrainPeninsulaCorridorElectrificationProjectNoiseandVibrationTechnicalReport,February2014,Wilson,Ihrig

&Associates,http://www.caltrain.com/Assets/Caltrain+Modernization+Program/DEIR/Appendix+C+Noise+Study.pdf

©En

erSy

s

274/ Relation between electrification of Motive Power and EU objectives

Circular Economy: recycling of Motive Power

Batteries

4.4

1. Lead-based batteries:

TherecyclingofMotivePowerbatteriesfollowsthealreadymatureprocesssetupforautomotivebatteries.Thecollectionandrecyclingofbatteriesisanefficientandcosteffectiveprocessthatoperatesinawell-establishedinfrastructure.WithintheEU,closeto100%oflead-basedbatteriesarecollectedbyspecialisedcompaniesandrecycledwithinspecializedrecyclingfacilities(secondaryleadsmelters)inaclosedloopsystemoperatingunderstrictenvironmentalregulations.Fromanend-of-life perspective, this process dramatically reduces the need for production ofadditionalvirginmaterialssuchasprimaryleadandplastics–themostimportantcauseofenvironmentalimpactinthecyclelifeoftheproduct7.

2. Lithium-based batteries:

Li-ionbatteriescanberecycledeitherbypyrometallurgyor/andbyhydrometallurgy.Aclosed-looprecyclingprocess,withhighinstalledcapacityhasbeendeveloped.End-of-lifecellsandmodules,aswellasproductionscrapsarenotcrushed,theyaredirectlytreated.Fromthesebatteries,valuablemetalsarerecoveredsothattheycanbeconvertedintoactivecathodematerialsfortheproductionofnewrechargeablebatteries.Large industrial or EV/HEV Li-ion battery systems are first discharged, thendismantled and recycled according to the following fractions: Modules/cells,ElectronicsandPCBs,Outercasingandcables.Li-ionbatteriescontainonlyasmall fractionof lithium(<2%w/w). IntrinsicvaluefortheLi-ionrecyclingbusinesscurrentlycomesfromthevaluablemetalsthataremorehighlypricedthanlithium.Recycledlithiumisasmuchasfivetimesthecostof lithiumproduced from the least costlybrinebasedprocess.Though lithium isrecyclable,currently,itisnotcompetitiveforrecyclingcompaniestoextractlithiumfromslagandalmostnoneofthelithiumusedtodayinLi-ionbatteriesiscompletelyrecoveredandseparatedfromtheslag.However,thelithiumcontentoftheinertslaggivesspecificpropertiestothisslagmainlyusedforquicksettingcement.

3. Sodium-based batteries:

Recycling isno issue forsodiumnickelchloridebatteries.Thebasicmaterialsofa sodiumnickelchloridecellarenickel, iron,commonsaltandceramic.Thecellcaseandthebatteryboxaremadeofsteelandthermalinsulationisprovidedbyasilica-basedmaterial.Allcommonmaterialsareunaffectedbypossibleshortagesandareeasilyrecyclable.Anexhaustedbatteryisrecycledinsteelproduction;themetallic boxes, the nickel and the iron content becomepart of the final product,and the salt and ceramicwill form the slag in aprocess-consistentway,with theslagnormallyusedbyconstruction industry.The recyclingprocess is setupandavailableat industrial level.Apossible improvementcouldbe toearnvalue fromthermalinsulationmaterialthroughsecondaryuses.

7EUROBAT,ILA,ACEA,JAMAandKEMA,AreviewofbatterytechnologiesforAutomotiveApplicationsforAutomotive

Applications,(2014)


4. Nickel-based batteries:

Aspartof the requirementsof thebatteriesdirective (2006/66/EC),anExtendedProducer Responsibility regime has been set up for spent industrial batteries,wherebyProducersmusttakebackandrecyclesuchspentproductsfreeofcharge.Thiscategoryofproductsincludes,interalia,industrialNi-Cdbatteries.

Partnerships between Producers, logistical companies specializing in thetransportationofhazardouswaste,andfullypermittedrecyclersensurethatindustrialenduserscaneasilydisposeoftheirspentindustrialNi-Cdbatteriesinawaywhichensuresproperrecyclingof theusedaccumulator, thereuseof theircomponentsto manufacture new batteries or other industrial goods, whilst protecting theenvironmentfromthehazardsofimproperwastetreatment.

Therecyclingprocessisconductedatthefacilityoffullypermittedrecyclers.Thereare fourNi-Cdbattery recyclers inEuropeable to receiveandprocessusedNi-Cdbatteriescollected.The recycling involves thesafeextraction (bymeansofadistillation process) of the cadmium, which is then reused to make new batteryelectrodes.Theferro-nickelresidueisthensegregatedtobeusedasanadditivetomanufacturestainlesssteel.Thesemetalfractioncanbereusedindefinitelyastheircharacteristicsarenotdegradedintherecyclingprocess.Moreover,somefacilitiesuse the alkali electrolyte as a reactant to neutralize andprecipitate acidicwaste,andreuseplasticfractionsfornewplasticand/orensuretheyareincineratedwithenergyrecovery.

©Ex

ide

294/ Relation between electrification of Motive Power and EU objectives

TheEuropeanUnion’sInnovationUnionstrategyaimstocreateaninnovation-friendlyenvironment.InnovationplaysakeyrolefortheEuropeanUniontobecompetitiveintheglobaleconomy.

Alltypesofmotivepowerbatterieshavebeenconstantlyimprovedovertime,andinnovations will continue to be introduced. Batteries have always been used toprovidetractionpower.Theconstructionofthefirstelectricmotorsandrechargeableleadacidbatteriesbothdatefromthe1800s.Sincethenthetwotechnologieshavebeen closely linked toprovidewhat is nowknownasmotivepower. In this field,progressinenergystoragegoeshand-in-handwiththedesignofnewmachinery,leadingtohigherproductivityatlowerhumanandenvironmentalcost.

The innovation process observed in the development of motive power batterieshasnothappenedin isolation.Rather, it isan importantpartofabroaderchangeofthinkingaboutenergyinmodernsocieties.Batterytechnologyhasalottoofferwithregard to improvingbothsustainabilityandqualityof life.Motivepowerhasanimportantroletoplay,sinceitispresentinnearlyallsectorsofindustryandtheeconomy,eitherdirectlyorthroughmaterialhandlingapplicationsthatarecentraltologistics.

Innovation4.5

©FZ

Soni

ck

30

. Points of contact

Point of contact

EUROBATWebsite:www.eurobat.orgTwitter:@eurobat_orgEmail:[email protected]:+3227611653

René [email protected]

Alfons [email protected]

Francesco [email protected]

Stefan [email protected]

Erwin [email protected]

Veerle [email protected]

6 / Results

32

�e great variety of motive power applications are covered by dierent battery technologies, which all have their own specifications to ensure all the specific needs of applications are covered. All types of motive power batteries have been constantly improved over time, and innovations will continue to be introduced, so that indeed they can continue to contribute to EU objectives.

book

des

ign

Documents

EUROBAT is the association for the European manufacturers ...€¦ · FLOODED LEAD BATTERIES : ENHANCED FLOODED Even a well-established battery system like lead-acid has to answer