European Symbols

Modules for a European Schoolbook

Euroclassica 2011 Paris 2682011

Project Description bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo for Students of Classical Languages modules for a European schoolbook Schedule

30042009 deadline for electronic manuscript of first edition Send e-manuscript to the coordinators Peter Glatz peterglatzeduhiat und Andreas Thiel athieleduhiat

30062009 Finish of layout and draft print of the first version 16082009 edition of the first version of bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo 27-3082009 presentation at the Euroclassica 2009 in Skopje 20092010 emendation extension of contributions and improvement of concept 3-592010 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2010 in Madrid 25-2882011 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2011 in Paris 2011- 2013 final layout and ultimate version of bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo

Current project members - September 2008 ndash August 2011

Austria Glatz Peter Thiel Andreas

peterglatzeduhiat athieleduhiat

Belgium Christian Laes ChristianLaesuaacbe Czechia Barbara Pokorna barbarapokornaupolcz Croatia Bagaric Jadranka jadranka_bagaricyahoocom

Denmark Jens R Poulsen Margit K Joslashrgensen

jrborgerdyddk mjsilkeborg-gymdk

Germany Helmut Meissner hmeissnergmxde Great Britain James Neville jwn2tutoropenacuk Greece Antony Makrinos amakrinosuclacuk Lithuania Mantas Adomenas ianuariumgmailcom The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

Dimovska Vesna vesnadimovskagmailcom

The Netherlands Tijsseling Egge tijsslingfelisenumnl

felitijsxs4allnl Portugal Oliveira Francisco euroclassicciucpt Romania Cretia Gabriela gabrielacretiayahooro Russia Elena Ermolaeva ml304mailru Spain Joseacute Luis Navarro NAVARRAKISterraes

Sweden Tarandi Eva Scough evatarandiutbildningstockholmse evatarandise

Switzerland Christine Haller Aellig christine_hallerhotmailcom

photo titlepage source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipediacommons334800px-Europa_und_der_Stier_Cjpg Valentin Aleksandrovich Serov The Rape of Europe [09082009] printed by GTI 2011

bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo ndash A European Schoolbook for Students of Classical Languages The point of this project is to create a European schoolbook which may be used by pupils in all countries of Europe The fascinating idea of the European Union should be represented in this common schoolbook for all European students of the classical languages showing the common cultural roots of Europe Each European country is invited to contribute four pages showing the reception of classical culture and thinking in politics social norms art literature philosophy law etc corresponding to the chosen genuine national symbol a truly relevant popular text or person of national interest and popularity The population of the country should be ready to identify on a broad national consensus with the choice The ideal choice is not taken from classical antiquity but rather from later times or the present The texts meet the target competences of the ECCL (httpwwwanderslernennetec) at PALATIUM level which asks for the introduction of authentic texts on Europa Latina figures and characters from mythology and history Roman roots and ruins in the respective mother country orand THESAURUS level which also caters for authentic texts including eg texts by Erasmus Comenius lyric poetry and texts on the impact of Latin language and literature All texts are expected to be introduced commented and supplied with suitable illustrations or pictures Special effort is taken in finding sufficient well-considered questions of interpretation to go with the texts The level applied for designing the comments on morphology and syntax should also correspond to the level of PALATIUM orand THESAURUS in the ECCL Annotations and reference to vocabulary will be adapted to the respective levels as soon as the ECCL word lists are available There should be no reference to either national curricula or any national books The texts are also offered online by wwweuroclassicaeu in a special project community (httpcommunityschuleatindexphpcid=9630) and each individual teacher may adapt the product to their individual needs Translations teacher handbooks and further online materials are offered there as well As English is taught as the first foreign language in most countries of Europe the language of the schoolbook is English thus catering for optional bilingual teaching in each European country but of course also allowing traditional treatment of the central European texts in the mother tongue In the first two years of the project the following countries have taken an active part in the project and have contributed material concerning a national symbol Austria Belgium Croatia Germany Greece Lithuania The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia The Netherlands Portugal Romania Russia Sweden and Switzerland As this project was approved by the general assembly of Euroclassica in Ohrid in 2009 all other European nations are very welcome to join in The project should be finished within the next 2 years

As follows you can find the Austrian part of the European schoolbook presenting the Karlskirche of Vienna as a beautiful example of Habsburg architecture based on the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the Belgian part on Erasmusrsquo Panegyric for a Prince as a joyous entry into political culture the Croatian contribution on the father of Croatian literature the Croatian Dante Marcus Marulus Germanyrsquos part on Melanchtonrsquos impact the Greek contribution on C P Cavafyrsquos mythologoical-didactic poem Ithaca the Lithuanian part on the cathedral of Vilnius the Lithuanian Parthenon the contribution of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia on Grigor Prlichev and his Greek epic on the freedom fighter Skanderbei which bears clear allusions to Homerrsquos Iliad the Dutch contribution on Desiderius Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly which reflects his lasting impression on European thoughts and views the Portuguese part on the University of Coimbra the Romanian contribution on Dimitrie Cantemirrsquos Descriptio Moldaviae the Russian contribution on Sigismund von Herbersteinrsquos Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii which report on his experiences in Russia in the 16th century the Swedish contribution on the Wasa warship whose hull and beak are full of figures from Greek and Roman myths and the Swiss contribution on the freedom fighter Wilhelm Tell These contributions are meant as preliminary versions waiting for real classroom testing around Europe evaluation and amendment before the final edition Andreas Thiel and Peter Glatz administrators of wwweuroclassicaeu August 2011

European Symbols 1

AUSTRIA Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy by Peter Glatz and Andreas Thiel Austria The Vienna Karlskirche one of the most eminent sacral Baroque buildings in Europe was built between 1716 and 1737 in fulfilment of a solemn vow taken by Emperor Charles VI in 1713 when the plague had visited Vienna for the second time within two decades and roughly 10000 people had died The magnificent church was constructed in honour of Charlesrsquo name saint and the patron saint of the plague St Charles Borromeo by the architect Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and later by his son Joseph Emanuel The significance of the Vienna Karlskirche as a Baroque votive offering is clearly overshadowed by the obvious spirit of imperial propaganda expressed by manifold architectural allusions devised in Carl Gustav Heraeusrsquo iconocraphical program of the church The exterior of this most spectacular Baroque cathedral north of the Alps is an eclectic jumble with an oval dome perched atop a Classical colonnade reminiscent of St Peterrsquos in Rome and a main portal resembling a Greek temple flanked by two replicas of Trajans column in Rome alluding to Boaz and Jachin two columns which stood in the porch of Salomonrsquos Temple in Jerusalem and the ancient Pillars of Hercules in the Strait of Gibraltar Heraeus Carl Gustav Brevis explicatio numismatum aliquot ex iis quae in imperatoris Carolis VI historia numismatica aeternitati Augusti dicantur oOoJ (OumlNB 45F23) Discussing the medal cast to commemorate the cornerstone ceremony of the Vienna Karlskirche Charles VIrsquos iconographer describes the buildingrsquos unique exterior

1

5

10

Templi in suburbio1 prospectum2 augustiorem3

reddunt Columnae Colossicae quae intus4 cochlide5

aditum praebent ad minores Campanas6 extra7 Sancti

Caroli Borromaei in utraque fortuna8 Constantiam et

Fortitudinem exhibent Opere Anaglyptico9 imitantes

in Trajani Antoninique Monimentis formam non

laudes Caesaris quas Ejus modestia ad Divum suum

deprecatorem10 retulit11 ita ut Columnae muta et

secundaria12 tantum significatione Fundatoris

Symbolum13 loquantur14

1 suburbium -i n suburb 2 pros-pectus -us m view 3 augustus 3 majestic 4 intus adv within inside on the inside 5 cochlis -idis f spiral shell conch 6 campana -ae f bell 7 extra adv outside on the outside 8 in utraque fortuna both in fortune and misfortune 9 anaglypticus 3 carvedembossed in lowbas relief 10 deprecator -oris m one pleading for mercy go-between champion advocate 11 refero -ferre -tuli -latus to assign to transfer 12 secundarius 3 of secondary significance 13 symbolum -i n here motto 14 loquor 3 locutus sum here to declare

Comments 3 Sanctus Carolus Borromaeus (1538 ndash 1584) son of Giberto II Borromeo and Margherita dersquo Medici Italian cardinal and patron saint of the plague 4 Constantia et Fortitudo constancy and strength were Charles VIrsquos motto and echo the symbolism of the two ancient pillars Boaz (strength) and Jachin (unity) of the Salomonic Temple in Jerusalem

source Tempel Salomos reconstruction taken from Volz Paul Die biblischen

Altertuumlmer Calw + Stuttgart 1914 29

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileKarlskirche_Vienna_Frontjpg CC-BY-SA-20-DE [3152009]

European Symbols 2

6 Traianus -i (52 ndash 117) Roman Emperor 98 ndash 117 expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent deified and buried beneath Traianrsquos Column in Rome Antoninus -i (121 ndash 180) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Roman Emperor 161 ndash 180 and Stoic philosopher fought against Germanic tribes and Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome

Questions and Tasks 1 In which different ways is the symbolism of the

Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda 2 What is the connection between Spainrsquos national motto

plus ultra and Charles VIrsquos Constantia et Fortitudo What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb non plus ultra

3 Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl

Gustav Heraeus

Traianrsquos Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town Hall of Seville (photo Ignacio Gavira httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileColumnas_Plus_Ultrapng licence GFDL[3052009]

The Coat of Spain (source SanchoPanzaXXI httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileEscudo_de_EspaC3B1a_(mazonado)svg licence GFDL [3152009]

Marcus Aureliusrsquo Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Theresias Szenen aus dem Oumlsterreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745 Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers in neun Buumlchern lateinisch und deutsch Heinz Martin Werhahn Neuss 1995 Charles VIrsquos daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her fatherrsquos death in 1740 In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had been designed to guarantee Maria Theresiarsquos inheritance of the crown France Prussia Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia Maria Theresiarsquos accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic literature1 Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale This is largely due to numerous well chosen allusions to Virgilrsquos Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it In the 8th book of the Theresias after several of Maria Theresiarsquos brother-in-law Charles of Lorrainersquos defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia the poet lets her find comfort when her father the late emperor Charles VI appears in her dream2

1 Elisabeth Klecker Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik fuumlr Maria Theresia in Franz M Eybl (Hrsg) Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis Beitraumlge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht des theresianischen Zeitalters Wien 2002 (Jahrbuch der Oumlsterreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts 17) 233-247 2 The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker Maria Theresia und Aeneas Vergilrezeption zur Bewaumlltigung der weiblichen Erbfolge in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

Project Description bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo for Students of Classical Languages modules for a European schoolbook Schedule

30042009 deadline for electronic manuscript of first edition Send e-manuscript to the coordinators Peter Glatz peterglatzeduhiat und Andreas Thiel athieleduhiat

30062009 Finish of layout and draft print of the first version 16082009 edition of the first version of bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo 27-3082009 presentation at the Euroclassica 2009 in Skopje 20092010 emendation extension of contributions and improvement of concept 3-592010 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2010 in Madrid 25-2882011 presentation of the status quo at the Euroclassica 2011 in Paris 2011- 2013 final layout and ultimate version of bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo

Current project members - September 2008 ndash August 2011

Austria Glatz Peter Thiel Andreas

peterglatzeduhiat athieleduhiat

Belgium Christian Laes ChristianLaesuaacbe Czechia Barbara Pokorna barbarapokornaupolcz Croatia Bagaric Jadranka jadranka_bagaricyahoocom

Denmark Jens R Poulsen Margit K Joslashrgensen

jrborgerdyddk mjsilkeborg-gymdk

Germany Helmut Meissner hmeissnergmxde Great Britain James Neville jwn2tutoropenacuk Greece Antony Makrinos amakrinosuclacuk Lithuania Mantas Adomenas ianuariumgmailcom The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

Dimovska Vesna vesnadimovskagmailcom

The Netherlands Tijsseling Egge tijsslingfelisenumnl

felitijsxs4allnl Portugal Oliveira Francisco euroclassicciucpt Romania Cretia Gabriela gabrielacretiayahooro Russia Elena Ermolaeva ml304mailru Spain Joseacute Luis Navarro NAVARRAKISterraes

Sweden Tarandi Eva Scough evatarandiutbildningstockholmse evatarandise

Switzerland Christine Haller Aellig christine_hallerhotmailcom

photo titlepage source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipediacommons334800px-Europa_und_der_Stier_Cjpg Valentin Aleksandrovich Serov The Rape of Europe [09082009] printed by GTI 2011

bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo ndash A European Schoolbook for Students of Classical Languages The point of this project is to create a European schoolbook which may be used by pupils in all countries of Europe The fascinating idea of the European Union should be represented in this common schoolbook for all European students of the classical languages showing the common cultural roots of Europe Each European country is invited to contribute four pages showing the reception of classical culture and thinking in politics social norms art literature philosophy law etc corresponding to the chosen genuine national symbol a truly relevant popular text or person of national interest and popularity The population of the country should be ready to identify on a broad national consensus with the choice The ideal choice is not taken from classical antiquity but rather from later times or the present The texts meet the target competences of the ECCL (httpwwwanderslernennetec) at PALATIUM level which asks for the introduction of authentic texts on Europa Latina figures and characters from mythology and history Roman roots and ruins in the respective mother country orand THESAURUS level which also caters for authentic texts including eg texts by Erasmus Comenius lyric poetry and texts on the impact of Latin language and literature All texts are expected to be introduced commented and supplied with suitable illustrations or pictures Special effort is taken in finding sufficient well-considered questions of interpretation to go with the texts The level applied for designing the comments on morphology and syntax should also correspond to the level of PALATIUM orand THESAURUS in the ECCL Annotations and reference to vocabulary will be adapted to the respective levels as soon as the ECCL word lists are available There should be no reference to either national curricula or any national books The texts are also offered online by wwweuroclassicaeu in a special project community (httpcommunityschuleatindexphpcid=9630) and each individual teacher may adapt the product to their individual needs Translations teacher handbooks and further online materials are offered there as well As English is taught as the first foreign language in most countries of Europe the language of the schoolbook is English thus catering for optional bilingual teaching in each European country but of course also allowing traditional treatment of the central European texts in the mother tongue In the first two years of the project the following countries have taken an active part in the project and have contributed material concerning a national symbol Austria Belgium Croatia Germany Greece Lithuania The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia The Netherlands Portugal Romania Russia Sweden and Switzerland As this project was approved by the general assembly of Euroclassica in Ohrid in 2009 all other European nations are very welcome to join in The project should be finished within the next 2 years

As follows you can find the Austrian part of the European schoolbook presenting the Karlskirche of Vienna as a beautiful example of Habsburg architecture based on the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the Belgian part on Erasmusrsquo Panegyric for a Prince as a joyous entry into political culture the Croatian contribution on the father of Croatian literature the Croatian Dante Marcus Marulus Germanyrsquos part on Melanchtonrsquos impact the Greek contribution on C P Cavafyrsquos mythologoical-didactic poem Ithaca the Lithuanian part on the cathedral of Vilnius the Lithuanian Parthenon the contribution of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia on Grigor Prlichev and his Greek epic on the freedom fighter Skanderbei which bears clear allusions to Homerrsquos Iliad the Dutch contribution on Desiderius Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly which reflects his lasting impression on European thoughts and views the Portuguese part on the University of Coimbra the Romanian contribution on Dimitrie Cantemirrsquos Descriptio Moldaviae the Russian contribution on Sigismund von Herbersteinrsquos Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii which report on his experiences in Russia in the 16th century the Swedish contribution on the Wasa warship whose hull and beak are full of figures from Greek and Roman myths and the Swiss contribution on the freedom fighter Wilhelm Tell These contributions are meant as preliminary versions waiting for real classroom testing around Europe evaluation and amendment before the final edition Andreas Thiel and Peter Glatz administrators of wwweuroclassicaeu August 2011

European Symbols 1

AUSTRIA Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy by Peter Glatz and Andreas Thiel Austria The Vienna Karlskirche one of the most eminent sacral Baroque buildings in Europe was built between 1716 and 1737 in fulfilment of a solemn vow taken by Emperor Charles VI in 1713 when the plague had visited Vienna for the second time within two decades and roughly 10000 people had died The magnificent church was constructed in honour of Charlesrsquo name saint and the patron saint of the plague St Charles Borromeo by the architect Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and later by his son Joseph Emanuel The significance of the Vienna Karlskirche as a Baroque votive offering is clearly overshadowed by the obvious spirit of imperial propaganda expressed by manifold architectural allusions devised in Carl Gustav Heraeusrsquo iconocraphical program of the church The exterior of this most spectacular Baroque cathedral north of the Alps is an eclectic jumble with an oval dome perched atop a Classical colonnade reminiscent of St Peterrsquos in Rome and a main portal resembling a Greek temple flanked by two replicas of Trajans column in Rome alluding to Boaz and Jachin two columns which stood in the porch of Salomonrsquos Temple in Jerusalem and the ancient Pillars of Hercules in the Strait of Gibraltar Heraeus Carl Gustav Brevis explicatio numismatum aliquot ex iis quae in imperatoris Carolis VI historia numismatica aeternitati Augusti dicantur oOoJ (OumlNB 45F23) Discussing the medal cast to commemorate the cornerstone ceremony of the Vienna Karlskirche Charles VIrsquos iconographer describes the buildingrsquos unique exterior

1

5

10

Templi in suburbio1 prospectum2 augustiorem3

reddunt Columnae Colossicae quae intus4 cochlide5

aditum praebent ad minores Campanas6 extra7 Sancti

Caroli Borromaei in utraque fortuna8 Constantiam et

Fortitudinem exhibent Opere Anaglyptico9 imitantes

in Trajani Antoninique Monimentis formam non

laudes Caesaris quas Ejus modestia ad Divum suum

deprecatorem10 retulit11 ita ut Columnae muta et

secundaria12 tantum significatione Fundatoris

Symbolum13 loquantur14

1 suburbium -i n suburb 2 pros-pectus -us m view 3 augustus 3 majestic 4 intus adv within inside on the inside 5 cochlis -idis f spiral shell conch 6 campana -ae f bell 7 extra adv outside on the outside 8 in utraque fortuna both in fortune and misfortune 9 anaglypticus 3 carvedembossed in lowbas relief 10 deprecator -oris m one pleading for mercy go-between champion advocate 11 refero -ferre -tuli -latus to assign to transfer 12 secundarius 3 of secondary significance 13 symbolum -i n here motto 14 loquor 3 locutus sum here to declare

Comments 3 Sanctus Carolus Borromaeus (1538 ndash 1584) son of Giberto II Borromeo and Margherita dersquo Medici Italian cardinal and patron saint of the plague 4 Constantia et Fortitudo constancy and strength were Charles VIrsquos motto and echo the symbolism of the two ancient pillars Boaz (strength) and Jachin (unity) of the Salomonic Temple in Jerusalem

source Tempel Salomos reconstruction taken from Volz Paul Die biblischen

Altertuumlmer Calw + Stuttgart 1914 29

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileKarlskirche_Vienna_Frontjpg CC-BY-SA-20-DE [3152009]

European Symbols 2

6 Traianus -i (52 ndash 117) Roman Emperor 98 ndash 117 expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent deified and buried beneath Traianrsquos Column in Rome Antoninus -i (121 ndash 180) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Roman Emperor 161 ndash 180 and Stoic philosopher fought against Germanic tribes and Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome

Questions and Tasks 1 In which different ways is the symbolism of the

Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda 2 What is the connection between Spainrsquos national motto

plus ultra and Charles VIrsquos Constantia et Fortitudo What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb non plus ultra

3 Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl

Gustav Heraeus

Traianrsquos Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town Hall of Seville (photo Ignacio Gavira httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileColumnas_Plus_Ultrapng licence GFDL[3052009]

The Coat of Spain (source SanchoPanzaXXI httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileEscudo_de_EspaC3B1a_(mazonado)svg licence GFDL [3152009]

Marcus Aureliusrsquo Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Theresias Szenen aus dem Oumlsterreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745 Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers in neun Buumlchern lateinisch und deutsch Heinz Martin Werhahn Neuss 1995 Charles VIrsquos daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her fatherrsquos death in 1740 In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had been designed to guarantee Maria Theresiarsquos inheritance of the crown France Prussia Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia Maria Theresiarsquos accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic literature1 Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale This is largely due to numerous well chosen allusions to Virgilrsquos Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it In the 8th book of the Theresias after several of Maria Theresiarsquos brother-in-law Charles of Lorrainersquos defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia the poet lets her find comfort when her father the late emperor Charles VI appears in her dream2

1 Elisabeth Klecker Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik fuumlr Maria Theresia in Franz M Eybl (Hrsg) Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis Beitraumlge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht des theresianischen Zeitalters Wien 2002 (Jahrbuch der Oumlsterreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts 17) 233-247 2 The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker Maria Theresia und Aeneas Vergilrezeption zur Bewaumlltigung der weiblichen Erbfolge in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

bdquoEuropean Symbolsldquo ndash A European Schoolbook for Students of Classical Languages The point of this project is to create a European schoolbook which may be used by pupils in all countries of Europe The fascinating idea of the European Union should be represented in this common schoolbook for all European students of the classical languages showing the common cultural roots of Europe Each European country is invited to contribute four pages showing the reception of classical culture and thinking in politics social norms art literature philosophy law etc corresponding to the chosen genuine national symbol a truly relevant popular text or person of national interest and popularity The population of the country should be ready to identify on a broad national consensus with the choice The ideal choice is not taken from classical antiquity but rather from later times or the present The texts meet the target competences of the ECCL (httpwwwanderslernennetec) at PALATIUM level which asks for the introduction of authentic texts on Europa Latina figures and characters from mythology and history Roman roots and ruins in the respective mother country orand THESAURUS level which also caters for authentic texts including eg texts by Erasmus Comenius lyric poetry and texts on the impact of Latin language and literature All texts are expected to be introduced commented and supplied with suitable illustrations or pictures Special effort is taken in finding sufficient well-considered questions of interpretation to go with the texts The level applied for designing the comments on morphology and syntax should also correspond to the level of PALATIUM orand THESAURUS in the ECCL Annotations and reference to vocabulary will be adapted to the respective levels as soon as the ECCL word lists are available There should be no reference to either national curricula or any national books The texts are also offered online by wwweuroclassicaeu in a special project community (httpcommunityschuleatindexphpcid=9630) and each individual teacher may adapt the product to their individual needs Translations teacher handbooks and further online materials are offered there as well As English is taught as the first foreign language in most countries of Europe the language of the schoolbook is English thus catering for optional bilingual teaching in each European country but of course also allowing traditional treatment of the central European texts in the mother tongue In the first two years of the project the following countries have taken an active part in the project and have contributed material concerning a national symbol Austria Belgium Croatia Germany Greece Lithuania The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia The Netherlands Portugal Romania Russia Sweden and Switzerland As this project was approved by the general assembly of Euroclassica in Ohrid in 2009 all other European nations are very welcome to join in The project should be finished within the next 2 years

As follows you can find the Austrian part of the European schoolbook presenting the Karlskirche of Vienna as a beautiful example of Habsburg architecture based on the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the Belgian part on Erasmusrsquo Panegyric for a Prince as a joyous entry into political culture the Croatian contribution on the father of Croatian literature the Croatian Dante Marcus Marulus Germanyrsquos part on Melanchtonrsquos impact the Greek contribution on C P Cavafyrsquos mythologoical-didactic poem Ithaca the Lithuanian part on the cathedral of Vilnius the Lithuanian Parthenon the contribution of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia on Grigor Prlichev and his Greek epic on the freedom fighter Skanderbei which bears clear allusions to Homerrsquos Iliad the Dutch contribution on Desiderius Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly which reflects his lasting impression on European thoughts and views the Portuguese part on the University of Coimbra the Romanian contribution on Dimitrie Cantemirrsquos Descriptio Moldaviae the Russian contribution on Sigismund von Herbersteinrsquos Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii which report on his experiences in Russia in the 16th century the Swedish contribution on the Wasa warship whose hull and beak are full of figures from Greek and Roman myths and the Swiss contribution on the freedom fighter Wilhelm Tell These contributions are meant as preliminary versions waiting for real classroom testing around Europe evaluation and amendment before the final edition Andreas Thiel and Peter Glatz administrators of wwweuroclassicaeu August 2011

European Symbols 1

AUSTRIA Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy by Peter Glatz and Andreas Thiel Austria The Vienna Karlskirche one of the most eminent sacral Baroque buildings in Europe was built between 1716 and 1737 in fulfilment of a solemn vow taken by Emperor Charles VI in 1713 when the plague had visited Vienna for the second time within two decades and roughly 10000 people had died The magnificent church was constructed in honour of Charlesrsquo name saint and the patron saint of the plague St Charles Borromeo by the architect Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and later by his son Joseph Emanuel The significance of the Vienna Karlskirche as a Baroque votive offering is clearly overshadowed by the obvious spirit of imperial propaganda expressed by manifold architectural allusions devised in Carl Gustav Heraeusrsquo iconocraphical program of the church The exterior of this most spectacular Baroque cathedral north of the Alps is an eclectic jumble with an oval dome perched atop a Classical colonnade reminiscent of St Peterrsquos in Rome and a main portal resembling a Greek temple flanked by two replicas of Trajans column in Rome alluding to Boaz and Jachin two columns which stood in the porch of Salomonrsquos Temple in Jerusalem and the ancient Pillars of Hercules in the Strait of Gibraltar Heraeus Carl Gustav Brevis explicatio numismatum aliquot ex iis quae in imperatoris Carolis VI historia numismatica aeternitati Augusti dicantur oOoJ (OumlNB 45F23) Discussing the medal cast to commemorate the cornerstone ceremony of the Vienna Karlskirche Charles VIrsquos iconographer describes the buildingrsquos unique exterior

1

5

10

Templi in suburbio1 prospectum2 augustiorem3

reddunt Columnae Colossicae quae intus4 cochlide5

aditum praebent ad minores Campanas6 extra7 Sancti

Caroli Borromaei in utraque fortuna8 Constantiam et

Fortitudinem exhibent Opere Anaglyptico9 imitantes

in Trajani Antoninique Monimentis formam non

laudes Caesaris quas Ejus modestia ad Divum suum

deprecatorem10 retulit11 ita ut Columnae muta et

secundaria12 tantum significatione Fundatoris

Symbolum13 loquantur14

1 suburbium -i n suburb 2 pros-pectus -us m view 3 augustus 3 majestic 4 intus adv within inside on the inside 5 cochlis -idis f spiral shell conch 6 campana -ae f bell 7 extra adv outside on the outside 8 in utraque fortuna both in fortune and misfortune 9 anaglypticus 3 carvedembossed in lowbas relief 10 deprecator -oris m one pleading for mercy go-between champion advocate 11 refero -ferre -tuli -latus to assign to transfer 12 secundarius 3 of secondary significance 13 symbolum -i n here motto 14 loquor 3 locutus sum here to declare

Comments 3 Sanctus Carolus Borromaeus (1538 ndash 1584) son of Giberto II Borromeo and Margherita dersquo Medici Italian cardinal and patron saint of the plague 4 Constantia et Fortitudo constancy and strength were Charles VIrsquos motto and echo the symbolism of the two ancient pillars Boaz (strength) and Jachin (unity) of the Salomonic Temple in Jerusalem

source Tempel Salomos reconstruction taken from Volz Paul Die biblischen

Altertuumlmer Calw + Stuttgart 1914 29

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileKarlskirche_Vienna_Frontjpg CC-BY-SA-20-DE [3152009]

European Symbols 2

6 Traianus -i (52 ndash 117) Roman Emperor 98 ndash 117 expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent deified and buried beneath Traianrsquos Column in Rome Antoninus -i (121 ndash 180) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Roman Emperor 161 ndash 180 and Stoic philosopher fought against Germanic tribes and Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome

Questions and Tasks 1 In which different ways is the symbolism of the

Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda 2 What is the connection between Spainrsquos national motto

plus ultra and Charles VIrsquos Constantia et Fortitudo What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb non plus ultra

3 Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl

Gustav Heraeus

Traianrsquos Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town Hall of Seville (photo Ignacio Gavira httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileColumnas_Plus_Ultrapng licence GFDL[3052009]

The Coat of Spain (source SanchoPanzaXXI httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileEscudo_de_EspaC3B1a_(mazonado)svg licence GFDL [3152009]

Marcus Aureliusrsquo Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Theresias Szenen aus dem Oumlsterreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745 Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers in neun Buumlchern lateinisch und deutsch Heinz Martin Werhahn Neuss 1995 Charles VIrsquos daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her fatherrsquos death in 1740 In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had been designed to guarantee Maria Theresiarsquos inheritance of the crown France Prussia Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia Maria Theresiarsquos accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic literature1 Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale This is largely due to numerous well chosen allusions to Virgilrsquos Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it In the 8th book of the Theresias after several of Maria Theresiarsquos brother-in-law Charles of Lorrainersquos defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia the poet lets her find comfort when her father the late emperor Charles VI appears in her dream2

1 Elisabeth Klecker Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik fuumlr Maria Theresia in Franz M Eybl (Hrsg) Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis Beitraumlge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht des theresianischen Zeitalters Wien 2002 (Jahrbuch der Oumlsterreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts 17) 233-247 2 The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker Maria Theresia und Aeneas Vergilrezeption zur Bewaumlltigung der weiblichen Erbfolge in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 1

AUSTRIA Imperial Propaganda in the Habsburg Monarchy by Peter Glatz and Andreas Thiel Austria The Vienna Karlskirche one of the most eminent sacral Baroque buildings in Europe was built between 1716 and 1737 in fulfilment of a solemn vow taken by Emperor Charles VI in 1713 when the plague had visited Vienna for the second time within two decades and roughly 10000 people had died The magnificent church was constructed in honour of Charlesrsquo name saint and the patron saint of the plague St Charles Borromeo by the architect Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and later by his son Joseph Emanuel The significance of the Vienna Karlskirche as a Baroque votive offering is clearly overshadowed by the obvious spirit of imperial propaganda expressed by manifold architectural allusions devised in Carl Gustav Heraeusrsquo iconocraphical program of the church The exterior of this most spectacular Baroque cathedral north of the Alps is an eclectic jumble with an oval dome perched atop a Classical colonnade reminiscent of St Peterrsquos in Rome and a main portal resembling a Greek temple flanked by two replicas of Trajans column in Rome alluding to Boaz and Jachin two columns which stood in the porch of Salomonrsquos Temple in Jerusalem and the ancient Pillars of Hercules in the Strait of Gibraltar Heraeus Carl Gustav Brevis explicatio numismatum aliquot ex iis quae in imperatoris Carolis VI historia numismatica aeternitati Augusti dicantur oOoJ (OumlNB 45F23) Discussing the medal cast to commemorate the cornerstone ceremony of the Vienna Karlskirche Charles VIrsquos iconographer describes the buildingrsquos unique exterior

1

5

10

Templi in suburbio1 prospectum2 augustiorem3

reddunt Columnae Colossicae quae intus4 cochlide5

aditum praebent ad minores Campanas6 extra7 Sancti

Caroli Borromaei in utraque fortuna8 Constantiam et

Fortitudinem exhibent Opere Anaglyptico9 imitantes

in Trajani Antoninique Monimentis formam non

laudes Caesaris quas Ejus modestia ad Divum suum

deprecatorem10 retulit11 ita ut Columnae muta et

secundaria12 tantum significatione Fundatoris

Symbolum13 loquantur14

1 suburbium -i n suburb 2 pros-pectus -us m view 3 augustus 3 majestic 4 intus adv within inside on the inside 5 cochlis -idis f spiral shell conch 6 campana -ae f bell 7 extra adv outside on the outside 8 in utraque fortuna both in fortune and misfortune 9 anaglypticus 3 carvedembossed in lowbas relief 10 deprecator -oris m one pleading for mercy go-between champion advocate 11 refero -ferre -tuli -latus to assign to transfer 12 secundarius 3 of secondary significance 13 symbolum -i n here motto 14 loquor 3 locutus sum here to declare

Comments 3 Sanctus Carolus Borromaeus (1538 ndash 1584) son of Giberto II Borromeo and Margherita dersquo Medici Italian cardinal and patron saint of the plague 4 Constantia et Fortitudo constancy and strength were Charles VIrsquos motto and echo the symbolism of the two ancient pillars Boaz (strength) and Jachin (unity) of the Salomonic Temple in Jerusalem

source Tempel Salomos reconstruction taken from Volz Paul Die biblischen

Altertuumlmer Calw + Stuttgart 1914 29

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileKarlskirche_Vienna_Frontjpg CC-BY-SA-20-DE [3152009]

European Symbols 2

6 Traianus -i (52 ndash 117) Roman Emperor 98 ndash 117 expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent deified and buried beneath Traianrsquos Column in Rome Antoninus -i (121 ndash 180) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Roman Emperor 161 ndash 180 and Stoic philosopher fought against Germanic tribes and Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome

Questions and Tasks 1 In which different ways is the symbolism of the

Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda 2 What is the connection between Spainrsquos national motto

plus ultra and Charles VIrsquos Constantia et Fortitudo What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb non plus ultra

3 Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl

Gustav Heraeus

Traianrsquos Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town Hall of Seville (photo Ignacio Gavira httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileColumnas_Plus_Ultrapng licence GFDL[3052009]

The Coat of Spain (source SanchoPanzaXXI httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileEscudo_de_EspaC3B1a_(mazonado)svg licence GFDL [3152009]

Marcus Aureliusrsquo Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Theresias Szenen aus dem Oumlsterreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745 Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers in neun Buumlchern lateinisch und deutsch Heinz Martin Werhahn Neuss 1995 Charles VIrsquos daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her fatherrsquos death in 1740 In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had been designed to guarantee Maria Theresiarsquos inheritance of the crown France Prussia Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia Maria Theresiarsquos accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic literature1 Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale This is largely due to numerous well chosen allusions to Virgilrsquos Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it In the 8th book of the Theresias after several of Maria Theresiarsquos brother-in-law Charles of Lorrainersquos defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia the poet lets her find comfort when her father the late emperor Charles VI appears in her dream2

1 Elisabeth Klecker Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik fuumlr Maria Theresia in Franz M Eybl (Hrsg) Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis Beitraumlge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht des theresianischen Zeitalters Wien 2002 (Jahrbuch der Oumlsterreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts 17) 233-247 2 The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker Maria Theresia und Aeneas Vergilrezeption zur Bewaumlltigung der weiblichen Erbfolge in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 2

6 Traianus -i (52 ndash 117) Roman Emperor 98 ndash 117 expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest extent deified and buried beneath Traianrsquos Column in Rome Antoninus -i (121 ndash 180) Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus Roman Emperor 161 ndash 180 and Stoic philosopher fought against Germanic tribes and Sarmatians commemorated by a colossal column in Rome

Questions and Tasks 1 In which different ways is the symbolism of the

Karlskirche an expression of imperial propaganda 2 What is the connection between Spainrsquos national motto

plus ultra and Charles VIrsquos Constantia et Fortitudo What is the origin and the meaning of the Latin proverb non plus ultra

3 Which qualities of Charles VI are expressed by Carl

Gustav Heraeus

Traianrsquos Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Emblems of Charles I of Spain in the Town Hall of Seville (photo Ignacio Gavira httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileColumnas_Plus_Ultrapng licence GFDL[3052009]

The Coat of Spain (source SanchoPanzaXXI httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileEscudo_de_EspaC3B1a_(mazonado)svg licence GFDL [3152009]

Marcus Aureliusrsquo Column (photo Andreas Thiel)

Theresias Szenen aus dem Oumlsterreichischen Erbfolgekrieg 1741-1745 Epos eines unbekannten Lothringers in neun Buumlchern lateinisch und deutsch Heinz Martin Werhahn Neuss 1995 Charles VIrsquos daughter Mara Theresia succeeded to the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands after her fatherrsquos death in 1740 In spite of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had been designed to guarantee Maria Theresiarsquos inheritance of the crown France Prussia Bavaria and Saxony reneged and contested her claims on Austrian lands and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession in which Austria lost Silesia to Prussia Maria Theresiarsquos accession to the throne and the ensuing acts of war triggered an abundance of encomiastic literature1 Among the epic verse panegyrics of the time the anonymous Theresias in 9 books successfully attempts to transform Maria Theresia into a heroine of epic scale This is largely due to numerous well chosen allusions to Virgilrsquos Aeneid and the panegyric elements in it In the 8th book of the Theresias after several of Maria Theresiarsquos brother-in-law Charles of Lorrainersquos defeats in the armed conflict with Prussia the poet lets her find comfort when her father the late emperor Charles VI appears in her dream2

1 Elisabeth Klecker Tradition und Moderne im Dienst des Herrscherlobes Beispiele lateinischer Panegyrik fuumlr Maria Theresia in Franz M Eybl (Hrsg) Strukturwandel kultureller Praxis Beitraumlge zu einer kulturwissenschaftlichen Sicht des theresianischen Zeitalters Wien 2002 (Jahrbuch der Oumlsterreichischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts 17) 233-247 2 The choice and composition of the following texts ows much to Elisabeth Klecker Maria Theresia und Aeneas Vergilrezeption zur Bewaumlltigung der weiblichen Erbfolge in Camaenae Hungaricae 2 (2005) 111-126

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 3

Theres 8 640-646

640

645

Ter conata1 patris collo dare bracchia circum

ter frustrata2 videns simul evanescere3 vultus

O pater exclamat pater o da4 jungere dextram

teque nec amplexu5 nec votis subtrahe6 nostris

Dixerat et subito jam prompta7 dare oscula dextrae

par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno

aspicit8 aufugiat9 cari genitoris10 imago

1 The PPA conata refers to Maria Theresia 2 frustror 1 to deceive dupe trick disappoint 3 evanesco 3 -nui to vanish disappear pass away 4 do 1 + Inf to grant to permit 5 amplexus -us m embrace 6 subtraho 3 -traxi -tractus here + Abl to evade sth 7 promptus 3 refers to Maria Theresia prepared ready 8 aspicio 3M + subjunctive to watch ashellip9 aufugio 3M -fugi to flee escape disappear 10 genitor -is m father

Comments 640sqq Ter conata patrishellip The whole scene is modelled on Aeneasrsquo encounter with his father Anchises in the underworld in book 6 of the Aeneid Just as Aeneas tries to embrace his fatherrsquos shadow to no avail Maria Theresiarsquos three attempts at hugging her father prove futile Compare Aen 6 700f ter conatus ibi collo dare brachia circum

ter frustra comprensa manus effugit imago 642sq da jungere dextram Compare Aen 6 697f Da iungere dextram

da genitor teque amplexu ne subtrahe nostro 645sq par levibus ventishellip Compare Aen 6 702 par levibus ventis volucrique simillima somno simillima somno In the Theresias Aeneasrsquo katabasis into the Underworld is replaced by a dream appearance which is traditional in Neo-Latin literature as the imagination of a Christian leaderrsquos descent into the Underworld which was considered to be hell had to be avoided In Ioannes Battista Nigroniusrsquo Bellum Pannonicum Utini typis Nicolai Schiratti 1666 Leopold I meets his father Ferdinand III in a dream Maximilian I appears to his grandson Charles V in Ioannes Pedioneus Rhaetus De bello germanico liber Ingolstadt Alexander Weissenhorn 1547 Theres 8 615 In Virgilrsquos Aeneid the underworld encounter with Anchises aims at providing Aeneas with an extensive account of Romes future glory particularly in the glorification of Augustus Virgil renders Augustus the epitome of the Roman Empire the promised ruler who presides over the Golden Age Maria Theresiarsquos dream in the 8th book of the Theresias serves quite a similar purpose After predicting Francis Stephen of Lorrainersquos crowning as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Charles VI seems to almost quote Virgilrsquos catalogue of heroes

615

620

Gloria quanta tuos maneat1 quoque sanguine natos

progeniem2que tuam nostrosque tuosque nepotes

illustres3 animas Lothari4que in nomen ituras

expediam5 paucis6 Parvus tuus ille Iosephus7

quem mihi nascentem Di posse videre negarunt8

hic puer hic vir erit Francisco Caesare patre9

qui Romanorum regum qui stirpis10 avitae11

Caesareum augebit numerum totumque per orbem

heroes12 magnosque viros numerabitur inter

Hoc divum genus et sanguis tuushellip

1 maneo 2 mansi here to expect to wait for 2 progenies -ei f offspring 3 illustris -e illustrious noble 4 Lotharus -i m Lothar founder of the Lorraine dynasty 5 expedio 4 to explain 6 paucis scil verbis 7 Iosephus -i m Joseph Maria Theresiarsquos son then archduke of Austria later Holy Roman Emperor 8 negarunt = negaverunt 9 Francisco Caesare patre ldquoafter his father Emperor Francis Irdquo 10 stirps -is f stock family or branch of a family line of descent 11 avitus 3 ldquofrom his grandfatherrdquo 12 heros -ois m hero refer to inter

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 4

Comments 615sqq Gloria quanta tuoshellip Compare Aen 6 756ff Nunc age Dardaniam prolem quae deinde sequatur

gloria qui maneant Itala de gente nepotes inlustris animas nostrumque in nomen ituras expediam dictis

620sq hic puer hic vir erit Compare Aen 6 791f hic vir hic esthellip

Augustus Caesar divi genus The House of Habsburg-Lorraine is the reincarnation of the Julian dynasty The anaphoric hic puer hic vir transfers Virgilrsquos central panegyric for Augustus to Joseph Theres 8 631 Josephrsquos imperial virtues and idealised government show him as the reviver of the imperium Romanum which corresponds to Anchisesrsquo prophesy of Romersquos mission in Virgilrsquos Aeneid

631

hellippacis servabit pacta fidemque

nec violare sinet quae si quis laeserit ille

terribilem hunc bello aspiciet victusque benignum1

1 benignus 3 kind generous helpful

Comments 631sqq hellip pacis servabit pacta fidemque Compare Aen 6 852 hae tibi erunt artes pacisque imponere morem

parcere subiectis et debellare superbos

Just as Augustus is prefigured by his ancestor Aeneas in Virgilrsquos epic the Theresias focuses on the future emperor Joseph ndash the new Augustus ndash through his heroic mother Maria Theresia Elisabeth Klecker suitably adapts the late Virgil commentary by Servius who wrote about Virgilrsquos intention Homerum imitari et Augustum laudare a parentibus to the design of the author of the Theresias Vergilium imitari et Josephum laudare a matre Theresia In deliberate allusion to Virgilrsquos panegyric for Augustus the anonymous poet of the Theresias conveys the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo the ldquotransfer of rulerdquo This idea represents an eschatological interpretation of global history the power of each supreme ruler is transferred to a subsequent ruler The conceptrsquos origin rests in Hieronymusrsquo exegesis of the Book of Daniel whose four kingdoms the Church Father interpreted as Babylonia Persia Greece and the Roman Empire The fall of the last empire will ring in the end of the world That is why medieval people desired to extend the last empire by proclaiming the Holy Roman Empire In the Middle Ages the concept of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo only gradually gained wider recognition through a retrospective interpretation of history The imperium had been transferred to the Church or rather the Byzantine Empire then after Charles the Greatrsquos coronation in 800 AC to the Franks and via the East Frank emperors to the Holy Roman Emperors of the German Nation Moreover the doctrine of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo served the purpose of legitimating many claims to the throne by postulating the ultimate position in the Roman line of succession In modern times the aspiring great powers of Spain (16th century) France and England (17th century) and obviously also the House of Habsburg saw themselves in the mirror of the ldquotranslatio imperiirdquo Another remarkable idea in the philosophy of history is that supreme global power tends to move to the west (ex oriente lux) and that the USA is the current Roman Empire (cf the Capitol the US claim to world rule and its dedication as a bringer of world peace) Extending this idea it has already been predicted that there will be a further shift of power to the west (China India) Questions and Tasks 1 The Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War triggered a much greater variety of epic

literature than both the Thirty Yearsrsquo War and the defeat of the Turkish siege of Vienna What is surprising about that and what is probably the reason

2 In how far do the given text extracts from the Theresias compare with the corresponding passages from

Virgilrsquos Aeneid in terms of intention perspective and setting

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 5

Belgium Panegyric for a Prince -Erasmusrsquo Joyous Entry into Political Culture by Maarten Vermeir Free University of Brussels

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam painted by Hans Holbein

Philip the Fair painted by the Master of the Magdalena Legend

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 You are reading a fragment of Erasmusrsquo Panegyricus one of the earliest political writings of this great European thinker This work was first printed in February 1504 by Dirk Martens in Antwerp as a revised version of the oration spoken out in the ducal palace of Brussels on the feast of the Epiphany one month before Erasmus orated there his Panegyricus as part of a welcoming ceremony offered by the Estates of Brabant to their sovereign Philip the Fair Duke of Burgundy and Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands including the Duchy of Brabant from 1430 They arranged this ceremony to celebrate Philiprsquos return to Brussels after a long stay in Spain home country to his wife Joanna of Castile

Itidem1 tu ne postulas quidem a tuis ut tibi pareatur2 nisi

parueris ipse legibus neque protinus maiestatem lesam3

existimas si quis verbo refragetur4 quin gaudes magis

admoneri religionis et iurisiurandi5 quo temet in suscipiendo

principatu obstrinxisti6 Non ignoras quantum oneris cum

purpura7 susceperis eoque non ista8 ulla in re te facit

licentiorem sed sollicitiorem in omnibus Neque te clam est9

imperium haut vitae strepitu et colligendis vectigalibus

contineri sed munus esse publicum sic administrandum ut

si non aliis certe tibi ipsi repetenti certe deo repetundarum

1 itidem in the same way 2 parere + dative to obey 3 maiestas laesa legravese majesteacute 4 refragari to resist 5 religionis et iusiurandi this is an instance of a so-called genitivus criminis 6 se obstringere to bind oneself 7 purpura -ae f the purple ie high dignity or office 8 ista refers to lsquopurpurarsquo 9 te clam est + inf it is unknown to you 10 repetundarum agere to demand

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 6

acturo10 queas rationem reddere11 in summa hanc esse

propriam principis laudem ut maximum esse sese quasi12

nesciat optimum vero esse oportere semper meminerit

satisfaction 11 rationem reddereto render account 12 quasi almost

In 1502 Erasmus moved to Louvain which like Brussels Antwerp and lsquos-Hertogenbosch was a major city in the Duchy of Brabant (now part of Belgium except for the Dutch province of Northern Brabant) intending to study there at the only University in the Low Countries at that time But he found himself among educated men who were also very familiar with political life in Brabant and the Netherlands His host in Louvain Jean Desmarez or Paludanus was a former courtier and now public orator at the University This man commissioned Erasmus to compose a Latin oration for Philip resulting in the Panegyricus that Erasmus eventually delivered on January 6 1504 in presence of the Estates of Brabant These Estates assembled deputies of the Clergy the Nobility and the four lsquoCapitalsrsquo to speak for the people of the Duchy and discuss with their prince or sovereign the Duke of Brabant Also for the Duke these discussions were not completely free of obligations The Dukes of Brabant were from a legal perspective bound by their solemn oath on their lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo the Brabantine constitution named so for the first time in 1356 A lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo was written sealed and affirmed by oath at the beginning of every new regency With their solemn oath all Dukes of Brabant recognized their princely duty to serve the common interest and the right of the people to replace a duke who has neglected this commitment The trendsetting constitutionalism of Brabant was often in conflict with political reality The lsquoJoyous Entriesrsquo were the result of a permanent struggle of the lsquothe peoplersquo represented by the Estates of Brabant To this oath and duty Erasmus referred in addressing Philip lsquoYou do not think it legravese-majesteacute if someone questions you in word Rather you rejoice to be reminded of your obligation and of the oath by which you bound yourself in accepting your principate (as Duke of Brabant)rsquo But Erasmusrsquo politically experienced entourage found his Panegyricus too flattering In their opinion he had praised the prince more than was necessary lsquoAccompanied by a splendid procession of court nobles you stood out by so far as the day-star outshines the other lights of heaven rsquo Erasmus explained his aim was not to flatter the prince but to admonish him under the appearance of flattery The criticism of his friends in Brabant however affected our Christian humanist and influenced probably the appreciation of his own work In a letter to his English friend John Colet he admitted lsquoI was so reluctant to compose the Panegyricus that I do not remember ever doing anything more unwillingly for I saw that this kind of thing could not be handled without some flatteryrsquo To Paludanus he wrote ten months before in February 1504 rsquoAt the same time I have a considerable respect for the two remaining classes of my attackers they consist of those who naively and foolishly describe all this enthusiasm of mine for celebrating the prince as flattery and those who have a smattering of letters and seem to find some things objectionable or rather perhaps a few things missing in a work which is virtually unfinished as yet Of these two criticisms the first has hurt me rather keenly because it seeks to cast an aspersion on my character the other has less effect because it assails only my intelligence and does not stain my reputation as well Consequently I have to appease the latter critics as best I can while the former must be answered more sharplyrsquo Eleven years later Erasmus didnrsquot waste the perfect chance to do so After the sudden death of Philip the Fair in 1506 and a period of tutelage his 15-year old son the later Emperor Charles V came into power as Ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1515 On this occasion Erasmus wrote a less flattering mirror of princes his famous and widely spread political work Institutio Principis Christiani This lsquoEducation of a Christian Princersquo had to serve as a manual for the young Prince Charles and was commissioned by the former chancellor of Brabant Jean Le Sauvage who ordered Erasmus also to write a third major political work Querela Pacis or lsquothe Complaint of Peacersquo The first edition of the Institutio Principis Christiani was published in May 1516 by Froben in Basel a second one three months later by his old friend Dirk Martens who now had moved to Louvain Erasmus used a revised version assimilated to the Institutio of his older Panegyricus as introduction to his new book So the Prince of Humanists could now finally legitimise his first political work It seemed to be the indispensable stepping stone towards new heights of political theory In fragments of his Institutio Principis Christiani like the following you can read a panegyric not for a prince but for a political culture he became very familiar with and for friends who paid honour to him with their honesty and their true criticism

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 7

Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 136

In nauigatione non ei committitur clauus1 qui natalibus2 aut

opibus aut forma caeteris antecellit sed qui peritia

gubernandi qui vigilantia3 qui fide superat Ita regnum ei

potissimum est committendum qui regiis dotibus anteit

reliquos nempe sapientia iusticia animi moderatione

prouidentia studio commodi publici4 Imagines aurum

gemmae nihilo plus habent momenti ad ciuitatis

administrationem quam eadem nauclero conductura5 sint ad

nauim gubernandam Quod unum oportet spectare principem

in administrando id unum oportet spectare populum in

principe deligendo nimirum6 publicam commoditatem

procul ablegatis7 priuatis affectibus

1 clavus i m helm 2 natales -ium m birth origin lineage 3 vigilantia -ae f being alert 4 studium commodi publici concern for the public well-being 5 conducere -o to be important to 6 nimirum adv surely truly 7 ablegare to remove

Picture of the town hall of Brussels build in the 15th century

Painting of the ducal palace of Brussels destroyed by fire in 1731

Questions and Tasks 1 Which four cities were the capitals of Brabant

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 8

2 Why is the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo called the lsquoJoyous Entryrsquo

3 Where in Brussels can you find rests of the old ducal Palace (search on internet via Google lsquoPalace of Brussels + Charles Vrsquo)

4 What was the name of this Palace (search on internet)

5 Did Erasmus think he had flattered Philip too much

6 Who were the parents of prince Charles the later emperor Charles V

7 What was the nick-name of Joanna of Castile (search on internet)

8 In which European Countries can you find provinces named after the old Duchy of Brabant (search in text and on internet)

9 What is the difference in territory between the Low Countries (or the Netherlands) at the beginning of the 16th century and the Netherlands nowadays

Sources Secondary Literature James D Tracy The Politics of Erasmus a Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu University of Toronto Press 1978 Toronto Buffalo London p 17-22 James D Tracy Erasmus the Growth of a Mind Librairie Droz 1972 Genegraveve p 88-89 Primary Sources - Latin edition fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus Opera Omnia Des Erasmi Roterodami Tomus IV-1 O Herding and F Schalk

edd North-Holland Publishing Company 1974 Amsterdam p 64 and 136 Translation fragments Panegyricus and Institutio Principis Christiani - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 27 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 44 and 206 Latin edition Letters - Desiderius Erasmus Opus epistolarum Des Erasmi Roterodami in Percy S Allen Helen M Allen and

Heathcote W Garrod edd 1906-1958 Oxford to (Jean Desmarais) Iohannes Paludanus vol I nr 180 p 399 l 29-38 to John Colet vol I nr 181 p 405 l 54-56

Translation letters - Desiderius Erasmus collected works of Erasmus vol 2 University of Toronto Press 1974-1988

Toronto Buffalo London p 80 81 and 87 I want to thank the Latin and History Filiations of the lsquoVrije Universiteit Brusselrsquo specially professors Hugo Soly Rudolf De Smet and Christian Laes Their expertise on Erasmus and the History of Northern Renaissance opened a wide horizon of intellectual and personal wisdom to me I will benefit from their challenging education for the rest of my life

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 9

Croatia Marko Marulić ndash the Father of Croatian Literature by Sime Demo Croatia After nearly 1000 years of Middle Ages during which the highest achievements of Classical culture had been almost forgotten during the 14th and 15th century the Europeans started to rediscover the works of ancient authors They became aware that the human mind could create the works of immeasurable value and be active in shaping the world The medieval conception according to which the God governs the world autonomously without human taking part in the process was replaced with a new image in which the man is the very subject who can give form to the reality around himself That is why this cultural movement has been named humanism (lat humanus human worthy of man) Many humanists were devoted believers who followed the word of Bible and the Magisterium but also searched for inspiration in wise thoughts of ancient writers and glorious events from ancient history and mythology Having believed in the predominance of Christian belief over paganism but also having accepted the language and stylistic refinement of Classical antiquity through their works they made a bridge between the Medieval and Modern Europe The greatest Croatian humanist was Marko Marulić (Marcus Marulus 1450-1524) who wrote in Latin Croatian and Italian language and because of the importance of his works in Croatian language he has been

called the father of Croatian literature and Croatian DanteAs opposed to the large majority of Croatian humanists who were working in Italy Marulić spent almost whole his life in his native town Split which emerged as a Greek colony Aspaacutelathos and its todays center was built by Diocletian who made his magnificent palace there Like other humanists Marko Marulić had diverse interests He carried on research in the field of history translated from foreign languages wrote mythological short poems and theological learned essays satire and panegyric poems biblical epics and letters to contemporaries The duality of the position in which the intellectuals of his time were found in the southern Europe could be observed through his personality On the one hand the supreme authority of the Church determined their attitude towards religious themes and on the other newly discovered ancient writers called them to reach for immense treasure of pagan world

An Archaeologist Dedicatio ad Dominicum Papalem from Inscriptiones Latinae antiquae Salonis repertae a Marco Marulo Spalatensi collectae et illustratae (a fragment of In epigrammata priscorum commentarius) curavit S Ljubić in Rad JAZU Zagreb (1876) book 36 37 pp 83-102 Aspiring like other humanists to establish as firm as possible connections with the ancient civilization Marulić was lucky to live in the region where Romans had been governing the province Illyricum for centuries in which they had left numerous traces of their culture Moreover the emperor Diocletian an Illyrian himself built his residence in Illyricum Marulić found together with his friend Dominik Papalić numerous inscriptions in stone in the vicinity of his native town specifically in the ruins of Salona in old days an important ancient town which he listed and translated for the same friend These discoveries induced him to recall wistfully of glorious past of that city in his introductory text

1

5

Dominice Papalis carissime nunc maiorum nostrorum

aperiemus1 monumenta quae saepe tecum per

Salonarum rudera2 parietinas3que vagatus passim4

iacentia spectavi5 et interdum6 patrii7 soli8 nostri

quanta quondam9 gloria fuit mecum revolvens10

Vergilianum11 illud repetebam12

1 aperio 4 rui rtum to open to recount 2 rudus deris n a piece of stone or grass 3 parietinae arum f old walls ruins 4 passim adv here and there everywhere 5 specto 1 to observe to look at 6 interdum adv sometimes now and then 7 patrius 3 fathers ancestral 8 solum -i n ground soil patrii soli nostri attribute of gloria (extracted from the dependent clause) 9 quondam adv once 10 revolvo 3

source wwwnskhrHeritageDetailsaspxid=144 [2472009]

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 10

10

15

20

25

30

35

Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens13 gloria

Teucrorum

Qualis enim quantave urbs ista exstiterit14 quae a

Gothis solo8 aequata15 esse desiit non modo

reliquiae16 eius testantur17 verum18 et veteris historiae

scriptorum indicat19 auctoritas20 Nam et Strabo in suo

Geographiae libro Dalmatarum emporium21 Salonas

esse asserit22 ac de ipsis Dalmatis Ea gens inquit

annos complures23 adversus Romanos bella gessit

Plinius quoque Secundus ait Salona colonia24 ab

Iadra C millia pass25 Petunt26 in ea iura iuribus

descriptis27 in decurias28 CCCLXII Dalmatae quos

ibi nominatim29 recenset30hellip Praeter haec31 in

Caesaris Commentariis relatum legimus quod32 M

Octavius cum navibus Salonas pervenerit33 ubi

concitatis34 Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a

Caesaris amicitia avertit35 conventum36que

Salonensem37 quum38 neque pollicitationibus39 neque

denunciatione40 periculi promovere41 posset

oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum inquit et

loci natura et colle42 munitum43 hellip

Huc accedit44 quod Diocletianus Imperator Salonis

natus virtute rebusque gestis45 ad Romanorum

Imperium meruit46 promoveri41 Deposito deinde

Imperio privatam vitam peregit47 in patria et quum48

Romam ad pristinam49 dignitatem revocaretur50

maluit hic consenescere51 privatus quam52 Romā

imperare ndash usque adeo53 ceperat eum amoenitas54 loci

et tranquillum55 in secessu ovium56

Exstat57 aedificium eius Salonis proximum58 quod

maiores nostri post urbis eversionem59 incolere

coeperunt nunc nostrum natale solum8 est quod

Spalatum appellant

vi utum to consider 11 Vergilianus 3 Vergilian Vergilianum illud sc proverbium 12 repeto 3 tivi titum to repeat 13 ingens ntis adi huge enormous 14 exsisto 3 stiti to be to exist 15 aequo 1 to make even solo aequo to level with the ground 16 reliquiae arum f remains remnants 17 testor 1 to testify to bear witness 18 non modo hellip verum et conict not only hellip but also 19 indico 1 to show to indicate 20 auctoritas tatis f authority reputation 21 emporium ii n a market town 22 assero 3 rui rtum to state to claim 23 complures ium adi many a fair number 24 colonia ae f a colony 25 pass abbr passus us m a step a pace 26 peto 3 tivi titum to attack to ask for to reach towards peto iura in+Ab to have a place as an administrative center 27 decuria ae f a division 28 describo 3 scripsi scriptum to write down to establish 29 nominatim adv by name 30 recenseo 2 ui itum to enumerate to count 31 Praeter haec apart from that 32 quod conict that 33 pervenio 4 veni ventum to reach to arrive 34 concito 1 to rouse up to incite 35 averto 3 verti versum to turn away from 36 conventus us m an agreement an assembly 37 Salonensis e of Salona 38 quum cum (here causale) 39 pollicitatio ionis f a promise 40 denuntiatio ionis f an announcement a threat 41 promoveo 2 movi motum to cause to advance to move forward 42 collis -is m a hill 43 munio 4 to fortify to protect to defend 44 accedo 3 cessi cessum to approach huc accedit quod add to this that 45 res gestae rerum gestarum f deeds affairs 46 mereo 2 ui itum to deserve to merit 47 perago 3 egi actum to carry through to the end 48 quum cum (here historicum) 49 pristinus 3 ancient initial 50 revoco 1 to call back to recall 51 consenesco 3 senui to grow old 52 quam than (comparative) 53 usque adeo adv in such a manner 54 amoenitas atis f enchantment 55 tranquillum i n a calm state 56 ovis is f a sheep 57 exsto 1 to be to exist 58 proximus 3 former oldtime 59 eversio ionis f a destruction an overturning

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 11

Comments 1 Dominicus Papalis (Dmine Papalić)

Marulićs friend with whom he explored ancient inscriptions from Salona and to whom Marulić dedicated his work on the inscriptions

3 Salonae -arum f ancient port in Dalmatia and the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian today Solin near Split

7 Vergilius Aeneis II325-326 Fuimus Troeumls fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum Troy is past Ilium is past and the great glory of the Trojans (translated by A S Kline) 10 Gothi -orum m Goths a Germanic people

that prevailed in Italy after the Romans 12 Strabo Geographia VII5 Then comes the seaboard of the Dalmatians and also their sea-port Salo This tribe is one of those which carried on war against the Romans for a long time (translated by H L Jones) 16 Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia II22 Salona colonia ab Iader CXII Petunt in eam iura viribus discriptis in decurias CCCXLII Delmatae The colony of Salona 112 miles from Iader Salona is the centre for jurisdiction of the Delmataei divided in 342 decuriae (translated by H Rackham) 17 Iadra -ae f Jader ancient city in Dalmatia today Zadar 20 Caesar Commentarii de bello civili III91 Discessu Liburnarum ex Illyrico M Octavius cum eis quas habebat navibus Salonas pervenit Ibi concitatis Dalmatis reliquisque barbaris Issam a Caesaris amicitia avertit conventum Salonis cum neque pollicitationibus neque denuntiatione periculi permovere posset oppidum oppugnare instituit Est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle munitum But after the departure of the Liburnian fleet Marcus Octavius sailed from Illyricum with what ships he had to Salona and having spirited up the Dalmatians and other barbarous nations he drew Issa off from its connection with Caesar but not being able to prevail with the council of Salona either by promises or menaces he resolved to storm the town But it was well fortified by its natural situation and a hill (translated by W A Macdevitt) 27 Diocletianus -i m Diocletian Roman Emperor (reigned 284-305) born in Salona 39 Spalatum -i n Spalatum a city in Dalmatia today Split Questions and Tasks 1 Compare the original extracts from ancient works and Marulićrsquos quotations Did Marulić stick to

original text Did he always quote or he sometimes also adapted the text 2 In what kind of situation were Aeneas and his fellows when they uttered the quoted Virgils verses

Why did they use perfect forms fuimus fuit Why did Marulić quote those verses 3 Which circumstances were there at the arrival of Romans to Illyricum (see Strabon Caesar) and which

during the reign of Diocletian (350 year after Caesar) Who were the invaders and who defenders in the first period and who in the second What kind of conclusion can you draw from it

4 Find the place in the text which describes Salona as a place pleasant for living A Christian Humanist Marci Maruli Davidias curavit V Gortan Zagreb 1974 (I 1-11) In his large-scale epic poem Davidias Marulić celebrated the life of Old Testament king David However although he dealt with a Christian theme he used an ancient verse ndash hexameter and very often ancient imagery and names as well Hence this Marulićrsquos work too shows that the contemporary poets were inspired

Diocletians Palace in Split (source httpwwwcroatiancultureinfopics11_diocletians_palacejpg [2472009]

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 12

simultaneously with both ancient civilization tradition and Christianity which was predominant in Europe during the entire Middle Ages For instance Marulić like ancient epic poets used the so-called invocation in which a deity is invoked to help the poet at his work However he proclaimed that a Christian poet was not allowed to invoke the Olympic gods as it had been done by his pagan predecessors

1

5

10

Davidis memorare pii1 gesta2 inclyta3 regis

Instituo Quis nunc dignas in carmina4 uires

Suppeditet5 Non Cyrrheae6 de uertice7 rupis8

Descendens9 lauro10que caput praecinctus11 Apollo

Non Nysae numen12 furiata13 mente14 Lyaeus

Pieridumque chorus15 Nam non ego dicere16 Troiae

Excidium17 Thebasve paro16 nec sparsa18 cruore19

Thessala20 Romano bellis civilibus21 arva22

Sed caelo cognatum23 opus arcanis24que sacratum

Mysteriis25 Quorum26 qui solus crederis auctor

Solus magne Deus mihi iam cantanda27 ministres28

1 pius 3 faithful righteous pious godly 2 gestum i n deeds exploits 3 inclytus 3 famous glorious 4 in carmina for the poem 5 suppedito 1 to supply 6 Cyrrhaeus 3 Cyrrhaean 7 vertex ticis n a top a peak 8 rupes is f a cliff a rock 9 descendo 3 scendi scensum to descend to go down 10 laurus i f laurel laurel crown)11 praecingo 3 cinxi cinctum to gird caput praecinctus with head wreathed (Greek acc of respect 12 numen minis n a divinity a god 13 furiatus 3 mad 14 furiata mente insane 15 chorus i m a multitude a chorus 16 paro 1 to prepare to plan non dicere paro I dont plan to write about 17 excidium ii n destruction an overthrow 18 spargo 3 sparsi sparsum to sprinkle 19 cruor oris m blood 20 Thessalus 3 Thessalian 21 bellis civilibus temporal abl 22 arvum i n land 23 cognatus 3 kindred 24 arcanus 3 secret hidden 25 mysterium ii n a divine mystery 26 Quorum translate with a demonstrative pronoum 27 cantanda things that i should sing about28 ministro 1 to furnish to supply ministres subjunctive used as an imperative

Comments 3 Cyrrhea rupes Cyrrhean cliff is a name for the Delphian

oracle because Cyrrha was its seaport 5 Nysae numen Dionysus who was born in the mythical

land Nysa Lyaeus one of Dionysus names 6 Pierides one of Muses names because they live at the

Mount Pierus 7 Troiae excidium Trojan war Thebae referes to the mythical warfare of the Seven

against Thebes 8 Thessala arva decisive battle of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey was at Pharsalus in Thessaly Questions and Tasks 1 Which deities does Marulić NOT invoke and which

does he invoke 2 Marulić introduces the grounds for his decision with the

word nam Which are these grounds 3 Which ancient hero had the epithet pius like David

here Consequently which epic poet did Marulić read for sure Why exactly him

Marulićrsquos handwriting (photo Sime Demo)

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 13

GERMANY Melanchthon the Teacher of Germany ldquoCombine Greek and Latin literaturerdquo

by Helmut Meissner Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) has a special position among the great humanists of the 16th century Like no other humanist he embodies the classic ideal of linking intellectual education and practical work for the common welfare Above all Melanchthon dedicated his organisational and political activities to two concerns the restructuring of the educational system in Germany and the reformation of the church In the restructuring of the school and higher education system in Germany he rendered such meaningful service that he was called Praeceptor Germaniae (the Teacher of Germany)

He was later involved in founding the universities of Marburg (1527) and Koumlnigsberg (1544) As vice chancellor of the Witten-berg University (152324) he established new study regulations and reorganised the university administration in order to better support the intellectual progress of the students He later parti-cipated in the reformation of the universities of Tubingen (1535) Leipzig (1539) Frankfurt on Oder (1540) and Heidelberg (1557) He founded Latin schools in various cities such as Eisleben Magdeburg Goslar Luumlneburg and Nuremberg He promoted the natural sciences and introduced the school subject of geography He formulated principles for ensuring the quality of school work Philipp Melanchthonlsquos name is now less famous for his work in the area of education policy than for his other main concern Martin Lutherrsquos Reformation Melanchthon was the closest collaborator of the reformer He was the person who encouraged Luther to translate the Bible a work that Luther already began in 15211522 at Wartburg in Thuringia Since Melanchthon was one of the best Greek scholars of his era Luther used his scholarly advice while translating

At the Imperial Diet of Augsburg (1530) Melanchthon advocated the cause of the Reformation In order to reach an agreement between Lutherrsquos supporters and those of the Pope he presented a paper the so-called Augsburg Confession in which he had formulated the Lutheran principles in a mild conciliatory tone His efforts failed But the Augsburg Confession (Confessio Augustana) is still binding for Lutheran ministers After the death of Luther (1546) Melanchthon became the leader of the Reformation during the last fourteen years of his life Melanchthon was born in Bretten (in the modern state of Baden-Wuerttemberg) in 1497 His name was originally Philipp Schwartzerdt When he was 11 years old both his father and his grandfather died within a few weeks He moved from Bretten to Pforzheim a distance of about 20 kilometres This is where he met the humanist Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522) who became aware of the boyrsquos extraordinary intellectual talent As a sign of his acknowledgement Reuchlin gave the twelve-year-old a valuable Greek grammar book with a Latin dedication in which he

translated the name Schwartzerdt into Greek Melanchthon (melan- for the German word ldquoschwarzrdquo meaning ldquoblackrdquo and -chthon for the German word ldquoErderdquo meaning ldquoearthrdquo Schwarz-erd lt Schwartzerdt) Melanchthon was only12 years old when he began his studies at the University of Heidelberg At the age of 15 he acquired the Baccalaureus artium degree When he was 15 he changed to the University of Tubingen and passed the exam for the Masterrsquos degree at the age of 16 Thereafter he dedicated himself to teaching and wrote his first important works

Melanchthon had a critical attitude towards the university teaching programmes of that era His concept for reforming academic studies and teaching already matured when he was not yet 20 years old He considered

Portait of Philipp Melanchthon by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1543) source httpcommonswikimedia orgwikiFilePhilippMelanchthonjpgPD [3172011]

Portait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529) source httpcommonswikimediaorg wikiFileMartin_Luther_by_ Lucas_Cranach_der_C384 lterejpegPD [3172011]

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 14

the intellectual standards at the universities of that time to be unsatis-factory He was convinced that it was indispensible to have suitable preliminary studies to sharpen onersquos discernment in order for the studies to be successful Melanchthon believed that anyone who wanted to study the basic theological questions without first learning about grammar logic and the ancient languages was in danger of zealotry Pietas and Eruditio (faith and education) were an inalienable unit for him Like Erasmus Melanchthon also advocated a reinstitution of the original Christianity through a return to the sources (ad fontes) At the early age of 21 Melanchthon was appointed to the University of Wittenberg and assumed the chair in Greek there A few days after his arrival he held his famous inaugural speech on 28 August 1518 De corrigendis adolescentiae studiis in which he described his concept for education The following text is an excerpt from this speech (Corpus Reformatorum 11 22-23) 1

5

10

15

Fontes artium haurire Fontes ipsos artium1 ex optimis auctoribus hauritis2

Hic3 nativum4 ac sincerum5 Aristotelem ille3

Quintilianum rheacutetorem hic3 Plinium ndash tantum non6

ditissimum7 paedeiae8 ac veluti quoddam copiae

cornu9 ndash ille3 argutias10 sed arte temperatas11 docet

Accedunt sine quibus nemo potest eruditus12 censeri

mathematica item poeumlmata13 oratores professoribus

non proletariis14 ndash Haec si cognoveritis quo ordine

tractanda sint certo scio15 et facilia et admirandi

profectus16 videbuntur

Quasi viaticum comparare Puerilia17 studia quae appellant προγυμνάσματα18

ndash grammatica dialectica rhetorica19 ndash eatenus20

discenda sunt qua ad dicendum ac iudicandum

instructus fastigia21 studiorum non temere22

affectes23

Iungendae Graecae litterae Latinis ut philosophos

theologos historicos oratores poetas lecturus24

quaqua25 te vortas26 rem ipsam assequare27 non

umbram rerum velut Ixion cum Iunone

1 artes ium f sciences 2 haurire haurio hausi haustum to draw (water 3 hic hellip ille hellip hic hellip ille one hellip the next hellip yet another hellip still another 4 natiacutevusaum born original 5 sinceacuterusaum genuine 6 tantum non almost 7 ditssimum = divitissimum 8 paedeia education 9 copiae cornu cornucopia 10 argutiae arum f expressive presentation 11 arte temperatus artfully moderate 12 erudiacutetusaum educated 13 poeumlma tis n poem plural poetry 14 proletariusaum inferior of inferior quality 15 certo scire to be sure 16 profectus us m progress 17 pueriacutelise boyish meant for boyhood 18 progymnasmata (Greek preliminary exercises 19 bdquogrammar dialectics rhetoricldquo 20 eaacutetenus hellip qua to an extent that 21 fastigium i n summit 22 teacutemere haphazardly 23 affectare to seek to reach 24 bdquowhen reading the works of philosophers theologians orators and poetsldquo 25 quaqua wherever 26 vortas = vertas 27 assequare = assequaris

28 coacutengredi ior gressus sum to

Johannes Reuchlin source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFile Johannes_ReuchlinJPG PD [3172011]

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 15

20

25

30

35

40

45

congressurus28 in nubem29 incidit30

Philosophiam accedere

Hoc quasi viatico31 comparato per compendia καὶ

εὐπετῶς32 ut Plato ait philosophiam accede

Nam in ea sum plane33 sententia ut qui velit insigne

aliquid vel in sacris vel foro34 conari parum35

effecturum ni animum antea humanis disciplinis36

(sic enim philosophiam voco prudenter et quantum

satis est exercuerit

Nolo autem philosophando37 quemquam nugari38 ita

enim fit ut communis etiam sensus39 tandem

obliviscare Sed ex optimis40 optima selige41 eaque42

cum ad scientiam naturae tum ad mores formandos43

attinentia44

In primis45 hic eruditione46 Graeca opus est quae

naturae scientiam universam complectitur47 Ut de

moribus apposite48 ac copiose49 dicere queas50

plurimum valent Aristotelis Moralia51 Leges

Platonis poetae atque ii sane qui et optimi sunt et

in hoc legi possunt ut animos erudiant52 Homerus

Graecis fons omnium disciplinarum53 Vergilius ac

Horatius Latinis

Historia

Necessaria est omnino ad hanc rem historia54 cui si

ausim55 me hercle56 non invitus uni contulero

quidquid emeretur57 laudum universus artium1 orbis

Haec quid sit pulchrum quid turpe quid utile quid

non plenius ac melius Chrysippo et Crantore58 dicit

Hac nulla vitae pars neque publica neque privata

vacare potest Huic administratio rerum urbanarum59

domesticarumque60 debet61

meet 29 nubes is f cloud 30 inciacutedere iacutencido iacutencidi to get into 31 viaacuteticum i n travelling-money 32 per compendia kaigrave eupetotildes bdquostraightforwardly sbquoand blithelyrsquoldquo 33 plane plainly 34 vel in sacris vel foro bdquoin either the church or the stateldquo 35 parum to little 36 humanae disciplinae bdquothe general educational subjectsldquo

37 philosophari philosophize 38 nugari to trifle 39 communis sensus (accplur common sense 40 ex optimis scil auctoribus 41 seliacutegere seacuteligo seleacutegi selectum to select 42 isque eaque idque and that 43 ad mores formandos bdquoto moral educationldquo 44 aacutettinens ntis relating to 45 in primis above all 46 eruditio onis f erudition 47 complecti complector complexus sum to comprise 48 appoacutesite appropriately properly 49 copiose copiously 50 queo quivi to be able 51 Moralia Ethical works 52 erudire io iacutevi iacutetum to educate 53 discipliacutena ae f discipline science 54 histoacuteria ae f historiography history 55 si ausim bdquoif I may dareldquo 56 me hercle by Hercules indeed 57 emereacuteri emeacutereor emeacuteritus sum to deserve 58 Chrysippus Crantor Greek philosophers 59 urbanusaum belonging to the city city- 60 domesticusaum belonging to the house domestic 61 debere deacutebeo ui itum to be indebted to to depend on

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 16

Questions and Tasks

Lines 1-10 1 Melanchthon mentions three authors whom he reckons among the best Who are they 2 According to Melanchthon the students should observe a certain order when approaching the different

subjects of study Why should they do so Lines 11-20 3 According to Melanchthon for young students the primary subjects of study should be grammar

dialectics and rhetoric What is the objective of these so called progymnasmata 4 Melanchthon recommends the combination of Latin and Greek literature What would according to

Melanchthon happen if scholars studied without being able to read original Greek literature Lines 21-48 5 Whoever wants to undertake something significant in either the church or the state needs according to

Melanchthon preparation which is provided by a special kind of studies What kind of studies does he mean

6 According to Melanchthon philosophy comprises two parts Which parts 7 In medieval times historiography did not belong to the curriculum Melanchthon recommends the

introduction of historiography as a new subject of study What are his arguments in favour of this subject

Sources

- Richard Nuumlrnberger (Ed) Melanchthons Werke Band III Guumltersloh 1961 - Uwe Birnstein Der Humanist Was Philipp Melanchthon Europa lehrte Wichern Berlin 2010 - Martin Greschat Philipp Melanchthon Theologe Paumldagoge und Humanist Guumltersloh 2010 - Horst Jesse Leben und Wirken des Philipp Melanchthon Dr Martin Luthers theologischer

Weggefaumlhrte Muumlnchen 2005 - Martin H Jung Philipp Melanchthon und seine Zeit Goumlttingen 2010 - Guumlnther R Schmidt Philippus Melanchthon (1497ndash1560) In Henning Schroumler Dietrich Zilleszligen

(Ed) Klassiker der Religionspaumldagogik FrankfurtM 1989 - Hans-Ruumldiger Schwab Philipp Melanchthon Der Lehrer Deutschlands Ein biographisches Lesebuch

Muumlnchen 1997 - Michael Beyer Stefan Rhein Guumlnther Wartenberg Melanchthon deutsch Band I Leipzig 1997 - Heike Schmoll Gelehrter und Lehrer In Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung of April 17th 2010 - Josef Dolch Lehrplan des Abendlandes Darmstadt 1982 - Heinrich August Winkler Geschichte des Westens Muumlnchen 2009 - www Melanchthondeleben March 21st 2011 - dewikipediaorgwikiMartin_Luther March 22nd 2011 - enwikipediaorgwikiJohann_Reuchlin March 23rd 2011

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 17

GREECE The journey to Ithaca Cavafyrsquos readings of the human soul by A Makrinos

Where Homer decided to halt and put a full stop it is difficult and dangerous for anyone else to wish to continue But it is in the difficult and dangerous tasks that great craftsmen are successful

C P Cavafy on Ithaca Constantine Petrou Cavafy was born into a rich Greek family on 29 April 1863 in Alexandria a city with high numbers of Greek population at the time Cavafyrsquos parents originated from Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and moved to Alexandria in 1855 Cavafy was the ninth and last child In 1870 his father died and two years later Cavafy moved together with his family to England where he was educated and learnt excellent English After five years in Liverpool and London in 1878 he returned to Alexandria and finished his studies in the famous Greek college ldquoHermesrdquo In 1882 because of the explosive political condition in Egypt Cavafyrsquos family moved to Constantinople However three years later they returned permanently to Alexandria The poet lived all his life in Alexandria apart from short trips in 1897 to Paris and London and four visits to Greece (1901 1903 1905 1932) In 1892 because of financial problems Cavafy was forced to take a job in the Egyptian Governmentrsquos Irrigation Office where he was employed for more than 30 years His life in Alexandria was monotonous and lonely Initially he stayed with one of his brothers but later on he lived alone In the last years of his life he enjoyed the appreciation of his Alexandrian friends but overall he preferred loneliness and isolation He never studied in a university but his personal studies (mainly of History) enabled him to acquire deep knowledge of French and English literature He spoke English French and Italian His acquaintance with the cosmopolitan centres of his time (London Constantinople Alexandria) equipped him with significant life experience In the summer of 1932 he was diagnosed with larynx cancer and he then visited Athens in order to be treated although he stayed in Greece for four months his condition worsened and finally he died in a hospital of Alexandria on his birthday 29 April 1933 Cavafy was an eccentric strange and difficult character Throughout his life he remained eclectic and ascetic as he struggled to reconcile with his sensuous eroticism and his homosexuality He frequently felt tormented by the guilt of a conservative and hostile society which was incapable to accept his eroticism and a Christian religious background which was not compatible with his passions Loneliness and isolation were the main features of his everyday life and they are transformed into melancholic pessimism and sometimes desperation in his poetry Cavafy felt that he had to preserve his humanity by resisting whatever causes the moral decline of the human being and by preserving his heroic dignity against failure and death He is often characterised as the ldquopoet of the old agerdquo because he has produced his masterpieces and acquired his distinct poetic features after he has reached the age of maturity He was not born a poet he became one

He managed to find his poetic voice after 1911 and he printed his poems in a few copies which he offered only a few friends without ever publishing them in a collection The complete works of Cavafy (154 poems in total) were published for the first time in 1935 under the title Poems later on an edition of his repudiated hidden and unfinished poems has also been prepared Cavafy is a dramatic poet who summarises in his 280 poems the anxiety of the human soul when faced with the greatest obstacles of life loneliness isolation sorrow despair danger corruption destruction of love vanity old age and death His poetry is centred on the human being His protagonists do not bleed and are not crashed by the difficulties but preserve their dignity and bravery and face failure with courage Whilst producing poetry Cavafy wrote a lot but published little Although he is influenced by romanticism and symbolism (especially in his early poems) his writing is original and possesses classical quality His verse is free iambic without rhyming his language is the demotic Greek of the people of Alexandria with colloquialisms His style is prose with clarity of

expression and precision and without complicated decorative elements (adjectives or figures of speech) Other features of his poetry are his irony his didactic and reflexive tone the building of dramatic

source httpuploadwikimediaorgwikipedia commonseecCavafy1900-portraitjpg PD [3172011]

Greek stamp with Cavafy (1983) source httpcavafiscompupressgr cavafy54htm [3172011]

1

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 18

atmosphere the use of symbols and the theatricality of his settings Most of his themes are taken from the Greek historical past (especially from the Hellenistic and Roman periods but also from Ancient Greece and Byzantium) and the real world (a part of these experiences originate from his homosexuality) His protagonists are either real or fictional and the unknown details of their lives stimulate Cavafyrsquos poetic imagination His inspiration is triggered by the world of memories Cavafy usually takes from the ldquodrawersrdquo of his mind an image or a set of memories and transforms them into a poetic idea He has divided his poems into historical allegorical (philosophical) and erotic but this categorisation is conventional most of the poems belong to several of those categories Cavafyrsquos work was initially received in Greece with scepticism There have been many reactions and strong criticism by established intellectuals such as Psycharis1 or Palamas2 because his poetry opposed the conventional poetic rules in Athens at the time and the movement of demoticism3 Cavafy became known in Greece because of Gr Xenopoulos4 who praised him in an article in the magazine Panathinaia Since then modern Greek poets musicians and other artists have been influenced by Cavafyrsquos poetry and refer to him as their teacher He is considered to be one of the most important Modern Greek poets with international recognition and his work has been translated in more than 200 languages all over the world Ithaca was written in 1911 and was published in the Alexandrian magazine Grammata The first version of the poem was written in 1894 and was entitled The Second Odyssey It belongs to the category of mythological-didactic poems and Cavafy draws inspiration from Homerrsquos Odyssey Petroniusrsquo Exhortatio ad Ulissem Dantersquos Divine Comedy and Tennysonrsquos Ulysses The central idea of the poem is that people setting out for a purpose in their life acquire knowledge and experience which are superior to this cause

1 5 10 15

ΙΘΑΚΗ1 (1911) Σὰ βγεῖς στὸν πηγαιμὸ2 γιὰ τὴν Ἰθάκη νὰ εὔχεσαι νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος γεμάτος περιπέτειες3 γεμάτος γνώσεις4 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν θυμωμένο Ποσειδῶνα μὴ φοβᾶσαι τέτοια στὸν δρόμο σου ποτέ σου δὲν θὰ βρεῖς ἄν μένrsquo ἡ σκέψις5 σου ὑψηλή ἄν ἐκλεκτὴ συγκίνησις6 τὸ πνεῦμα7 καὶ τὸ σῶμα8 σου ἀγγίζει Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόνας καὶ τοὺς Κύκλωπας τὸν ἄγριο9 Ποσειδῶνα δὲν θὰ συναντήσεις ἄν δὲν τοὺς κουβανεῖς μὲς στὴν ψυχή10 σου ἄν ἡ ψυχή σου δὲν τοὺς στήνει ἐμπρός σου Νὰ εὔχεσαι11 νἆναι μακρὺς ὁ δρόμος Πολλὰ τὰ καλοκαιρινὰ πρωϊὰ νὰ εἶναι ποῦ μὲ τὶ εὐχαρίστηση μὲ τὶ χαρὰ θὰ μπαίνεις σὲ λιμένας12 πρωτοειδωμένους∙13 νὰ σταματήσεις σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα14 Φοινικικά

1 Ἰθάκη ἡ of uncertain etymology Perhaps it originates from the Phoenician word ldquoUticardquo (colony) another view suggests it is related to a nickname of Prometheus A third view relates the first component of the word (‐i) to the Phoenician word for the ldquoislandrdquo whilst the second part is without explanation 2 πηγαιμός ὁ (gen ndashου) going somewhere the route to a certain destination 3 περιπέτεια ἡ a sudden change of fortune (ancient Greek) adventure (modern Greek) The poet is aware of both meanings 4 γνώσις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb γιγνώσκω) knowledge wisdom 5 σκέψις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb σκέπτομαι) perception by the senses consideration reflexion thought 6 συγκίνησις ἡ (gen ndashεως) (from the verb συγκινέω) emotion 7 πνεῦμα τὸ (gen ndashατος) spirit 8 σῶμα τὸ (gen ndashος) body 9 ἄγριος‐α ‐ον wild 10 ψυχή ἡ (gen ndashης) the soul of a man in Homer only a departed soul spirit ghost which still retained the shape of its living owner11 εὔχομαι to pray 12 λιμήν ὁ (gen ndashένος) a harbour 13 πρωτοειδωμένος ‐η ‐ον participle from πρῶτα (first of all in the first place) and εἰδωμένος (from the verb ὁράω to see) 14 ἐμπορεῖον τὸ (gen ndashου) a trading place

1 Ioannis Psycharis (1854‐1929) was a philologist of Greek origin author and promoter of Demotic Greek His most well‐known work is My Journey (1888) which established him as the mentor of the Demotic side in the Greek language question 2 Kostis Palamas (1859‐1943) was the Greek poet who composed the Olympic Hymn He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the co‐founders of the so‐called New Athenian School 3 Demoticism a linguistic movement which favoured the use of Demotic Greek in all levels of written and oral speech and its adaptation as the official language of the Greek state 4 Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867‐1951) was a Greek novelist journalist and author of theatrical plays He was the founder and editor of the Nea Estia magazine which is still published and he became a member of the Academy of Athens in 1931

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 19

20 25 30 35

καὶ τὲς καλὲς πραγμάτειες15 νrsquo ἀποκτήσεις σεντέφια καὶ κοράλλια κεχριμπάρια κrsquo ἔβενους16 καὶ ἡδονικὰ17 μυρωδικὰ κάθε λογῆς ὅσο μπορεῖς πιὸ ἄφθονα ἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲς πολλὲς νὰ πᾶς νὰ μάθεις18 καὶ νὰ μάθεις ἀπrsquo τοὺς σπουδασμένους Πάντα στὸν νοῦ19 σου νἄχεις τὴν Ἰθάκη Τὸ φθάσιμον20 ἐκεῖ εἶνrsquo ὁ προορισμός σου Ἀλλὰ μὴ βιάζεις21 τὸ ταξεῖδι διόλου Καλλίτερα χρόνια πολλὰ νὰ διαρκέσει∙ καὶ γέρος22 πιὰ νrsquoἀράξεις στὸ νησί πλούσιος23 μὲ ὅσα κέρδισες στὸ δρόμο μὴ προσδοκῶντας πλούτη νὰ σὲ δώσει ἡ Ἰθάκη Ἡ Ἰθάκη σrsquo ἔδωσε τrsquo ὡραῖο ταξεῖδι Χωρὶς24 αὐτὴν δὲν θἄβγαινες στὸν δρόμο Ἄλλα δὲν ἔχει νὰ σὲ δώσει πιά Κι ἄν πτωχικὴ25 τὴν βρεῖς ἡ Ἰθάκη δὲν σὲ γέλασε Ἔτσι σοφὸς26 ποῦ ἔγινες μὲ τόση πεῖρα ἤδη θὰ τὸ καταλάβες ἡ Ἰθάκες27 τὶ σημαίνουν28

15 πραγμάτεια (gen ndashας) a trade ware16 ἔβενος ὁ (gen ndashου) very hard black wood 17 ἡδονικός‐α ‐ον sensuous delightful pleasant (from the word ἡδονή ἡ pleasure enjoyment pleasure) 18 νὰ μάθεις ndash from the verb μανθάνω to learn 19 νοῦς ὁ (gen ndashνοός) mind 20 φθάσιμον τὸ the arrival (from the verb φθάνω to come before to reach) 21 βιάζω to force to constrain to carry by force (ancient Greek) to rush (modern Greek) 22 γέρος ὁ (gen ndashου) an old man (from the ancient Greek γέρων ὁ (gen ndashοντος) 23 πλούσιος ‐α ‐ον rich wealthy (from the noun πλοῦτος ὁ) see also next line 24 χωρίς (preposition) without 25 πτωχικός ‐ή ‐όν poor (from πτωχός ‐ή ‐όν) 26 σοφός ‐ή ‐όν wise 27 ἡ Ἰθάκες Cavafy starts with the article in singular nominative (ἡ) and continues with the noun in plural nominative (Ἰθάκες) in order to show that there is not only one purpose in the peoplersquos minds but many 28 σημαίνω to signify to mean

Comments 1-3 Σὰ βγεῖςhellip γνώσεις These verses have a central position in the poem Ithaca symbolises our personal journey of life The poet uses the 2nd person singular to give advice and make his poem didactic Line 3 is directly linked to the Homeric story of the return of Odysseus to Ithaca after the Trojan War This return was full of adventures full of knowledge Compare these lines with the following passage from the Odyssey Homer the Odyssey 11-5

Ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε1 Μοῦσα πολύτροπον2 ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη3 ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον4 ἔπερσε∙5 πολλῶν δrsquo ἄνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα6 καὶ νόον ἔγνω7 πολλὰ δrsquo ὅ γrsquo ἐν πόντῳ8 πάθεν9 ἄλγεα10 ὃν κατὰ θυμόν11 ἀρνύμενος12 ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον13 ἑταίρων14

1ἐννέπω poetic form of ἐνέπω to tell to describe to relate2 πολύτροπος ‐η ‐ον much‐travelled wandering turning many ways versatile ingenious ( from πολύς τρέπω) 3 πλάζομαι to wander to go astray πλάγχθη is epic passive aorist without augment 4 πτολίεθρον τὸ (gen ndashου) a city diminutive of πτόλις but used like πόλις 5 πέρθω to wage to ravage to sack to destroy 6 ἄστυ τὸ (gen ndashεος) a city town 7 γιγνώσκω to know ἔγνω is 3rd person singular indicative active second aorist 8 πόντος ὁ (gen ndashου) the sea esp the open sea the high sea 9 πάσχω to suffer or to be affected by anything whether good or bad πάθεν is second aorist without augment 10 ἄλγος τὸ pain whether of body or mind sorrow grief distress 11 θυμός ὁ (gen ndashου) the soul the life breath heart (from the verb θύω) 12 ἄρνυμαι to receive for oneself gain earn carry off as a prize defect Dep used only in present and imperfect lengthened form of αἴρομαι 13 νόστος ὁ (gen ndashου) a return home or homeward travel journey (from the verb νέομαι) 14 ἑταίρος ὁ (gen ndashου) epic and Ionic for ἕταρος ὁ (ἕτης) a companion comrade or companion in arms

These first verses of Ithaca stimulate our imagination and urge the reader to visualise the Homeric world of the past and our own world of the future 4-5 Τοὺς Λαιστρυγόναςhellip Ποσειδῶνα in the Odyssey the Laestrygonians and the Cyclops Polyphemus are the mythical monsters which fight Odysseus and his companions and obstruct their return to Ithaca Polyphemus is blinded by Odysseus and asks for revenge from his father Poseidon the god of the sea Poseidon employs bad weather and rough sea to destroy Odysseusrsquo hope of return In Ithaca the Laestrygonians the Cyclopes and angry Poseidon lose their Homeric meaning and are transformed into

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 20

universal symbols They represent the obstacles that we face in our lives and that prevent us from achieving our goals Note that these symbols are repeated in lines 9-10 13 Νὰ εὔχεσαιhellipὁ δρόμος Repetition of line 2 With this repetition Cavafy reverses the Homeric myth In Homer Odysseus prayed for a fast return to Ithaca whilst Cavafyrsquos advises us to pray for a long trip which will offer knowledge and experience For Cavafyrsquos Odysseus it is the journey that counts so the poet wishes that the journey is full of adventures However the Homeric hero wishes to see even the smoke frp Ithaca and then to die Odysseus in Homer faces material obstacles Cavafyrsquos hero faces his own fears Homer the Odyssey 155-59

hellipδύστηνον1 ὀδυρόμενον2 κατερύκει3 αἰεὶ δὲ μαλακοῖσι4 καὶ αἱμυλίοισι5 λόγοισι θέλγει6 ὅπως Ἰθάκης ἐπιλύσεται∙7 αὐτὰρ Ὀδυσσεύς ἱέμενος8 καὶ καπνὸν ἀποθρῴσκοντα9 νοῆσαι ἧς γαίης θανέειν ἱμείρεταιhellip10

1 δύστηνος ‐ος ‐ον wretched unhappy unfortunate 2 ὀδύρομαι to bewail mourn for lament 3 κατερύκω to hold back detain 4 μαλακός ‐η ‐ον soft gentle mild 5 αἱμύλιος ‐ος ‐ον flattering winning wily (see also αἱμύλος) 6 θέλγω to charm enchant spell‐bind 7 ἐπιλανθάνω to make to forget 8 ἱέμενος to send send away let go dismiss (pres part passive of ἵημι) 9 ἀποθρῴσκω to spring or leap off from rise from 10 ἱμείρω to long for yearn for or after desire

16 λιμένας πρωτοειδωμένους the poet wants to underline the joy and beauty of the first time we experience something in life 17 σrsquo ἐμπορεῖα Φοινικικά the Phoenicians have developed a maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean during the period 1550-300 BC Cavafy uses them as the symbol of the sensuous pleasures the pleasures of the body 18-21 καὶ τὲς καλὲςhellipἡδονικὰ μυρωδικά the poet tries to stimulate our senses with the ldquoprecious stonesrdquo and the ldquohedonistic perfumesrdquo that we should experience in life these verses are an invitation to us and to himself to taste the life of senses as intensely as possible 22-23 σὲ πόλεις Αἰγυπτιακὲςhellip σπουδασμένους Ancient Egypt is the symbol of knowledge and learning Cavafyrsquos beloved city was famous in antiquity for its Library which gathered an immense number of books in combination to renowned researchers who studied discussed and commented on the ancient authors (like Cavafy) The repetition of the word νὰ μάθεις (to learn) underlines the significance of knowledge Egypt symbolises the world of the mind 24-25 Πάνταhellipπροορισμός σου These verses advise us not to forget our personal Ithaca our destination Many times people forget their target in life and Cavafy advises us that we must always keep our mind the reason of our trip It is again underlined that it is better if the journey is long because of the experience gained along the way 30-31 μὴ προσδοκῶντας hellipταξεῖδι Ithaca has nothing to offer us anymore the purpose of our life seems empty after we have achieved it There is certain pessimism in this message which does not however reach the point of surrender The true value of Ithaca was the ldquowondrous voyagerdquo For Odysseus it is the purpose (Ithaca) that defines the significance of his being but for the Cavafian hero it is the journey and the experience and knowledge acquired that make our life worth living 36 ἤδηhellipτὶ σημαίνουν the implication is that Ithacas are the targets the ambitions and the dreams we have in life

Questions and Tasks 1 Read the passage from the Odyssey 11-5 and compare it with the first lines of Ithaca What are the

similarities and the difference of the Homeric hero Odysseus with the Cavafean hero (the reader) 2 Compare line 1 to lines 23-24 and analyze their meaning 3 Do you think that Cavafyrsquos message in Ithaca is optimistic or pessimistic and why 4 What is the role of knowledge in human life according to the poet 5 Explain why the poet uses the article ἡ in singular with the plural Ἰθάκες in the last line of the poem 6 ldquoCavafy advises the reader through his symbolsrdquo Discuss

Sources - The edition used here is C P Cavafy The Collected Poems Oxford Worldrsquos Classics Oxford 2008 - The official website of the Cavafy archive with update bibliographies photos manuscripts letters

notes etc in Greek httpwwwcavafygr and in English httpwwwcavafycom - Bibliography and Discography on Cavafy httpcavafiscompupressgrpublichtm - Information about Giannis Smaragdisrsquo film Cavafy(1996) httpwwwimdbcomtitlett0115849 - The Kavafis project httpwwwkavafiseu

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 21

LITHUANIA Mysteries of the Lithuanian Parthenon by Barbora Petronytė Titas Vilkaitis Onutė Baumilienė and Mintautas Čiurinskas

Just as the Greek Parthenon is one of the greatest cultural monuments of the world the Cathedral of Vilnius is one of the most wonderful pearls of Lithuanian culture The history of both these temples is similar the buildings have been damaged and rebuilt on more than one occasion and are closely related to their regions history The old Greek Parthenon was dedicated to the goddess Athena and the Lithuanian Parthenon to two saints St Stanislovas and St Vladislovas In reality the Vilnius Cathedral honours many famous names and many well-known historical figures and therefore this cultural monument is a symbol of the spirit of the Lithuanian nation

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdasParthenon_

from_westjpg PD [3172011]

The beginning of the history of the Lithuanian Parthenon ndash the Cathedral of Vilnius ndash dates back to the 13th century It is thought that the building was originally King Mindaugasrsquo Cathedral and then became a pagan temple after Mindaugasrsquo death Later in 1419 the old cathedral burnt down and in its place the Grand Duke Vytautas built a new larger aisled gothic cathedral The building caught fire many times ndash once in 1530 and again in 1610 After each fire the temple was rebuilt in accordance with specific canons of that epoch but the holy place remained the same The last reconstruction of the Lithuanian Parthenon was carried out in the 18th century following the project of the architect Laurynas Gucevičius commissioned by the bishop of Vilnius I J Masalskis L Gucevičius rebuilt the cathedral in a new classical style imitating architectural forms of the Antiquity The cathedral was rebuilt keeping in mind both past traditions and antique architecture ndash this is represented well in the plan of the cathedral which resembles both the Greek Parthenon and the traditional layout of Lithuanian churches from the baroque and gothic periods although with some differences Instead of towers the architect planned grand chapels to be put in the corners He put twelve doric columns under the pipe organ gallery and decorated the grand altar with a doric portico of four columns The pediment is adorned with three monumental sculptures St Stanislovas St Elena and St Kazimieras The cathedral represents L Gucevičius architectural philosophy the harmonic and moderate approach to art during the antique period was the ideal that L Gucevičius followed

The Cathedral of Vilnius has seen many great rulers in 1529 the Lithuanian Duke1 Žygimantas Augustas was crowned in the Cathedral and since 1993 the presidents of our country have been inaugurated here Just like the Greek Parthenon the building has also served as a necropolis2 for famous people of Lithuania ndash the temple holds the remains of Vytautas the Great and his wife his brother Žygimantas Kęstutaitis Švitrigaila Žygimantas Kęstutaitis son Mykolas St Kazimieras and his brother Alexander the ruler of Lithuania and Poland and an urn with the heart of Duke Vladislovas IV Vaza the bishops and members of the chapter of Vilnius and the two wives of Žygimantas Augustas Elisabeth of Austria and Barbora Radvilaitė The latter is related to one of the most romantic love stories of Europe

Question How is the Cathedral of Vilnius similar to the Greek Parthenon How are they different

1 Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Feudal Lithuanian country that existed between the 13th and 18th centuries Largest country in Europe during the 15th century 2 Necropolis (from the Greek νεκρόπολις) - historic burial ground or cemetery

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 22

The Cathedral of Vilnius Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

source httpenwikipediaorgwikiFileAcropolis-panorama-nightjpg CC BY-SA 30 [3172011]

Barbora Radvilaitė was the offspring of the Radvilos one of the most famous Lithuanian noble families of the 16th century Widowed early the extraordinary beautiful Barbora enchanted the leader of Lithuania Žygimantas Augustas The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania disregarded Barboras family warnings and even laid out a secret path from his castle to the Radvilos manor just so he could visit his beloved one without anyones interference The love affair was soon crowned with a secret wedding Žygimantas parents ndash Žygimantas the Old and Bona Sforza ndash did not even want to consider a public wedding as Barbora Radvilaitė was not of royal blood Even the Polish nobles were dismissive of the lovers union as they were afraid of the already large influence of the Radvilos family However love knows no bounds ndash in 1548 when inheriting rule over Poland Žygimantas Augustas announced his wedding and demanded that Barbora was crowned the queen of Poland Thus Žygimantas defeated all who opposed him even his mother Bona Sforza and in December 7th of 1550 Barbora Radvilaitė was crowned the queen in Krakow then capital of Poland However Barbora was already very ill Ruling for a total of 5 months she died in her husbands arms in May 5th 1551 in Krakow Her last wish was to be buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius and Žygimantas Augustas fulfilled this wish The king was incredibly shaken by the death of Barbora ndash he had the walls of his living quarters painted black the entire palace was in mourning and during the procedure that carried Barboras remains to Vilnius Žygimantas followed on foot The king although he married again later as he wanted children never forgot his love ndash Barbora Radvilaitė And so Barbora who enjoyed her love only briefly and her rule for an even shorter amount of time rests eternally in the Cathedral of Vilnius

Questions and tasks 1 How was the history of Žygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaitės love unconventional 2 Find Greek myths resembling the royal pairs love story

Žygimantas Augustas resided in Vilnius along with his court ndash the main proponent of Renaissance culture in Lithuania Among the court members especially close to Žygimantas Augustas was Pedro Ruiz de Moros poet and jurist of Spanish descent Having received a typical bdquoiuris utriusque doctorisldquo3 in the University of Bologna Pedro invited by the queen Bona Sforza ended up in the manor of Žygimantas Augustas Pedro Ruiz was a man of wide interests who did many important things to help Lithuanian culture he participated in creating the Second Statute of Lithuania and published a book on Lithuanian law which became popular in the rest of Europe and was used up until the beginning of the 18th century Ruiz was a humanitarian well versed in both law and antique culture but he participated in court life not only as a jurist but also as a poet who wrote very artistic epigrams and epitaphs4

3Doctorate degree of roman (civil) and canonical (ecclesiastical) law 4 Epigram (from the Greek ἐπίγραμμα) short (usually a single strophe) clever poetic work usually of a satirical nature highlighting the flaws of a certain person or group of people Epitaph (from the Greek ἐπιτάφιος - bdquoon a tombldquo) text on a tomb or a special plaque usually rhymed honouring the deceased

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 23

Lucas Cranach the Elder Barbora Radvilaitė source httpltwikipediaorgwikiVaizdas Barbradziwill1520jpg PD [3172011]

The Cathedral of Vilnius Epitaph for Queen Barbora Photograph by Bernadeta Petronytė

In the Cathedral of Vilnius there are 22 epitaphs written in the Latin language one of them dedicated to Barbora Radvilaitė5 This text was discovered in 1931 while cleaning the catacombs of the cathedral on a plaque attached to the queens coffin As during the Antiquity the epitaph is anonymous although after comparing the text in the cathedral with well know works by Ruiz there is no second guessing the author Compare the anonymous epitaph in the Cathedral with one of Ruiz epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora

Barbara quae tegitur1 tumulo2 regina sub isto Augusti conjux altera3 regis erat Commoda multa tulit multis incommoda nulli A qua se laesum dicere nemo potest Immatura4 obiit decima trieteridi capta5

Bis viduos fatis linquere jussa6 thoros Occidit ante diem et quamvis anus illa fuisset Diceret AUGUSTUS obiit ante diem (epitaph found in the Cathedral)

1 tego 3 texi tectum here is guarded (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 in the grave (tumulus ī m grave) 3 altera ndash here the second 4 immātūrus 3 immature early 5 decima trieteride capta taken thirty years old (trietēris idis f three years) 6 jubeo 2 jussī jussum order (partcipium perfecti passivi)

Barbara quae condor1 tumulo regina sub isto Augusti coniux altera regis eram Immatura cado decima trieteride coepta Regales fatis linquere iussa toros Vixi2 grata minus populo3 sed noxia nulli4 Augusto laus est me placuisse5 meo (Ruiz epitaph)

1 condo 3 idī itum here am buried (praesens indicativi passivi) 2 vivo 3 vīxī vīctum to live 3 grata minus populo disliked by the people 4 noxia nulli did not offend anyone (noxius 3) 5 laus est (verbum regens) me placuisse (acc cum infinitivo) deserved glory for pleasing

5 Ruiz is the author of nine epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora Radvilaitė although only one of them is publicized in the Cathedral of Vilnius

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 24

Questions and Tasks 1 How is Ruiz epitaph similar to antique epitaphs 2 What facts does the epitaph reveal 3 Does the epitaph reveal the individuality of the late queen

All the epitaphs in the cathedral are dated between the 16th and 19th century so the writings dedicated to Barbora is one of the earlier examples Overall epitaphs are valuable not only for their information but also for their artistic merit ndash epitaphs are after all a form of short literature It should be noted that these Christian epitaphs are quite similar to pagan ones The epitaphs in the Cathedral of Vilnius are of Roman tradition (Greek tomb writings usually lack individuality) as they kept certain structural canons while representing the individuality of the deceased The epitaphs dedicated to Queen Barbora as per Roman tradition indicate her name and age while her extraordinarily short reigning period is usually told in metaphors and litotes Overall nine epitaphs for Barbora are attributed to Pedro Ruiz Here are some other texts

Barbara Sauromatum1 cubat hic regina potenti De Radivilorum nobilis orta2 domo Dat mortem3 quae sceptra dedit Cracovia4 regis Quae dederat thalamum Vilna dedit tumulum5 Barbara Sauromatum regina hoc6 clausa7 sepulcro est De Radivilorum8 femina nata domo Augusto nupsit9 regi dulcissima coniunx10 Cui fuit in terris carius ante nihil Occubuit11 iuvenis quae si longaeva12 fuisset Defunctam13 Augustus ipse negaret anum

1 Sauromatum = Sarmatarum Sarmatians Here this ethnonym dating back to the Antiquity is used to refer to the entire population of Poland and Lithuania 2 orior 4 ortus sum to comeoriginate from (partcipium perfecti passivi) 3 mortem dare to die 4 Cracovia Krakow 5 iteration Roiz says what Krakow the king and Vilnius gave to the Queen 6 hoc sepulcro sg Abl in the tomb 7 claudo 3 clausī clausum to close here is buried 8 of the Radvilos 9nūbo 3 nūpsī nūptum to marry 10 coniunx = conjūx jugis m f spouse here Barbora 11 occumbo 3 cubuī cubitum to die 12 longaevus 3 very old 13 dēfungor 3 fūnctus sum to end to die

So as it is required by the canon the epitaphs describe Barboras heritage and duties In addition to that reading the epitaphs like with Roman tomb writings the places of birth and death of the deceased are revealed Overall the epitaphs reveal their epochs (in this case the Renaissances) worldview ndash the sense of free will confidence in ones own strength dominance of emotions and justice Although the genre according to antique tradition is associated with honouring the dead and ignoring their flaws to the point of sacralisation Ruiz epitaphs for Barbora are an exception which was apparently based in the authors streightfoward character and the dramatic extraordinary love story of Žygimantas Augustas and his wife Barbora Radvilaitė Ruiz did not have to create anything fantastic ndash the actual situation was more astonishing than any sort of artistically decorated reality

Questions and tasks

1 Which tradition do the epitaphs in the Cathedral follow ndash Greek or Roman Why do you think so 2 The remaining epitaphs for Barbora by Ruiz show the structural canons of the genre indicating the

name age duration of reign origin and received royal duties Confirm or deny using the text 3 What new things about Barboras personality did you learn from Ruiz epitaphs 4 The renaissance era is the rebirth of the Antiquity How do the epitaphs for Barbora reveal the

worldview of the Renaissance 5 In what aspect do Ruiz epitaphs differ from antique epitaphs Why

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 25

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Grigor Prlichev by Sofija Bejkovska Vasil Bukovski and Jovica Grozdanovski

Gregorius Prlichev natus est Achridae anno MDCCCXXX post Christi natum Habuit pueritiam duram quia pater eius defunctus erat ipso Gregorio puerulo In loco natali instructus est a Demetrio Miladinov viro illustris ingenii ac collectore noto carminum popularium qui iuvenem Gregorium ad magnum amorem erga patriam populumque Macedonicum incitavit Postea profectus est Athenas ad medicinam studiendam non tam sua quam matris voluntate Qua de causa studia sua parvi habebat eaque negligebat se flagranter operi poetico tradens Ad hoc accedebat quod Prlichev linguam Graecam valde diligebat eamque magna cum cura studiebat praesertim verens carmina Homeri Haec diligentia fructum suavem peperit non longum sed bene compositum ac praeclarum poema O Armatolos scriptum lingua Graeca expolita nomine cathareuousa (ie expurgata) Cum hoc libello certamine sollemne poetico anno MDCCCLX Athenis habito primum praemium consecutus est Hic eventus est culmen ac apex eius vitae

Audita morte fratrum Miladinovi regressus est in Achridam quo intendebat populum suum erudire ac illustrare Illo enim tempore Macedonia gensque Macedonum subiectae regno Turcarum dolebant atque Macedonibus scholae ac doctrina Macedonice defuerunt Desiderabat etiam linguam Panslavonicam generare ie linguam communem omnibus populis Slavonicis verba variarum linguarum Slavonicarum in se continentem Sed hoc consilium Gregorii Prlichev quamvis benignus non multum valuit cum esset susceptum a paucis et reiectum a multis imprimis a grammaticis Bulgaricis

Decessit Prlichev Achridae anno MDCCCXCIII post Christi natum Scriptor est duorum poematum epicorum O Armatolos ac

Scanderbegus12 unius narrationis vitae suae titulo Autobiographia unius disceptationis titulo Criticus et interpres ac variorum carminum atque articulorum diurnalium

In carmine epico O Armatolos dimicationem herois Cosmae protectoris populi Macedonici cum latronibus Albanis incursus crebros in Macedoniam occidentalem facientibus depinxit

In carmine epico secundo longiore sed non expolitiore quam primum atque ipsum ut O Armatolos lingua cathareuousa scriptum titulo Scanderbegus pugnam Georgii Castrioti cognomine Scanderbegi (i e Alexandri Magni) contra Turcas depinxit

In ambobus poematibus suis adeo excellenter imitatus est Prlichev stylum Homeri abunde verba poematum Iliadis Odysseaeque utens ac similia modo illius poetae antiqui excudens ut illo certamine poetico Athenis cognomine Homeri secundi appellatus sit

Autobiographia autem non solum est testimonium valens vitae ipsius Prlichev sed etiam indicium facit de condicione Macedoniae ac de vita cotidiana eius incolarum in XIX saeculo atque partim de condicione totius regni Turcarum id temporis

Quid possimus uno verbo de Prlichev dicere Erat enim ille doctus ac illustris vir magnus cultor ac

amans linguae litterarumque antiquorum Graecorum desiderabat etiam linguam Slavonicam communem generare atque multum eius intererat de moribus ac de modo vivendi aliorum populorum Huius ultimi exemplum bonum invenias in eius poematibus epicis in quibus multa loca sunt indicia de gente Albanorum continentia

12 Quindecimsyllabo civili scripta (--------) Read according to Byzantine tradition (as in Modern Greek)

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 26

ΙΛΙΑΣ 3 328-38

330

335

αὐτὰρ1 ὅ γ ἀμφ ὤμοισιν2 ἐδύσετο3 τεύχεα4 καλὰ

δῖος5 Ἀλέξανδρος Ἑλένης πόσις6 ἠϋκόμοιο7

κνημῖδας8 μὲν πρῶτα περὶ κνήμῃσιν9 ἔθηκε

καλάς ἀργυρέοισιν10 ἐπισφυρίοις11 ἀραρυίας12middot

δεύτερον αὖ13 θώρηκα14 περὶ στήθεσσιν15 ἔδυνεν

οἷο κασιγνήτοιο16 Λυκάονοςmiddot ἥρμοσε17 δ αὐτῷ

ἀμφὶ δ ἄρ ὤμοισιν βάλετο18 ξίφος19 ἀργυρόηλον20

χάλκεον21 αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα σάκος22 μέγα τε στιβαρόν23 τε

κρατὶ24 δ ἐπ ἰφθίμῳ25 κυνέην26 εὔτυκτον27 ἔθηκεν

ἵππουριν28middot δεινὸν29 δὲ λόφος30 καθύπερθεν31 ἔνευεν32middot

εἵλετο33 δ ἄλκιμον34 ἔγχος35 ὅ οἱ παλάμηφιν36 ἀρήρει37

Statue of Paris holding the golden apple (British Museum)

1αὐτάρ conj - but at the same time however 2 ὦμος ὁ - shoulder (-οισι is dat) 3 δύ(ν)ω - make way into sink set (a heavenly body) put on (clothes) 4 τεῦχος τὸ - instrument utensil useful weapon armament armor 5 δῖος 3 - heavenly divine noble excellent 6 πόσις ὁ - husband owner 7 εὔκομος 2 - lovely-haired (-οιο is gen) 8 κνημίς -ῖδος ἡ - greave legging 9 κνήμη ἡ - part between knee and ankle leg shank 10 ἀργύρεος 3 - of silver 11 ἐπισφύρια τά - leg-guards ankle-pieces 12 ἀραρίσκω - joinfit together furnishfit withhellip 13 αὖ conj - again further next 14 θώραξ -ακος ὁ - corslet 15 στῆθος τό - chest οἷο = οὗ (gen of rel pron) 16 κασιγνήτος ὁ - brother 17 ἁρμόττω - adapt fit wellhellip 18 βάλετο - no augment 19 ξίφος ὁ - sword 20 ἀργυρόηλος 2 - silver-studded 21 χάλκεος 3 - of copper or bronze brazen 22 σάκ(κ)ος τό - shield 23 στιβαρός 3 - strong stout sturdy 24 κράς κρατός ndash head 25 ἴφθιμος 3 - strong powerful 26 κυνέη ἡ - helmet 27 εὔτυκτος 2 - well-made well-wrought 28 ἱππούρις -ιδος ἡ - horse-tail (here as adj) 29 δεινός 3 - fearful terrible (here as adv) 30 λόφος ὁ - back of the neck crest (of a hill ridge helmet) 31 καθύπερθεν adv - from above 32 νεύω - incline nod 33 αἱρέω - take grasp 34 ἄλκιμος 2 3 - stout brave 35 ἔγχος τό - spear 36 παλάμη ἡ - palm of the hand (-φι is a genampdat sgamppl suff to nouns) 37 ἀρήρει (ἀραρίσκω) - plpf with impf meaning

Sources Прличев Григор Скендербеј - Σκενδέρμπεης (препев на Михаил Д Петрушевски) Скопје Македонска книга 1974 and Митевски Витомир Хомер и Прличев влијанието на хомерската епска поезија на bdquoАрматолосldquo и bdquoСкендербејldquo од Григор С Прличев Скопје Ѓурѓа 1995

Poster for the film Troy (Orlando Bloom as Paris)

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 27

ΣΚΕΝΔΕΡΜΠΕΗΣ 2361-2401

2365 2370 2375 2380 2385 2390 2395 2400

Ὁ δ ἥρως ἐνεδύετο τὰ περιβόλαιά1 του λαμβάνων πάντα ἐκ χειρὸς Δωρίκης τῆς ἀνάσσης2 χιτῶνα μὲν χρυσόκομβον3 περὶ τὰ στήθη πρῶτον ἔνθα ἱστὸν4 δὲν ἔβλεπε τοῦ θεατοῦ το ὄμμα ὅλον δ ἐκάλυπτε χρυσός ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ χιτῶνος πρὸς τὸν εὐώνυμον5 μαζόν6 τοῦ βίου τὴν ἑστίαν ἔνθ ἀϊδίως7 ὕπωθεν δονεῖται8 ἡ καρδία χρυσοῦν ἐστήλωσε9 σταυρὸν διαπρεπῆ10 καὶ μέγαν ὃν ἐδωρήσατο αὐτῷ ὁ τουρκομάχος Πῖος Πῖος ὃν δεύτερον καλεῖ Κλειὼ ἡ εὐθυῤῥήμων11 Πῖος ὁ μέγας ὕπατος12 ἀρχιερεὺς13 τῆς Ῥώμης ὃν εὐαγῶς14 ἐλάτρευε15 Σκενδέρμπεης ὁ θοῦρος16

ὥσπερ οὐσίαν τοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ εὔσωμον17 εἰκόνα ὅτι πολλὰς ἀπήμβλυνε18 πυρπνόων19 ὅπλων σφαίρας ἕλκων20 αὐτὰς ἐφ ἑαυτοῦ ἐν κραταιᾷ δυνάμει καὶ ἤμυνε21 τὸν ὄλεθρον22 Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου ἀναξυρίδα23 ἔπειτα καλὴν περὶ τὰ σκέλη24 ἔγχρυσον ἔνερθεν25 στενήν26 ὕπερθεν27 δὲ εὐρεῖαν28 περὶ τοὺς πόδας πέδιλα29 ἐκ δέρματος βοείου σκυτίνην30 περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν31 χρυσῷ ποικίλην ζώνην ἀλεξητήριον32 σφαιρῶν κενὴν πυρπνόων ὅπλων ἐμίσει δὲ Σκενδέρμπεης τὰ ὅπλα τὰ πυρπνόα περὶ τοὺς ὤμους ἄλκιμον ῥομφαίαν33 τουρκοφόνον ἧς πᾶσαν τὴν ὑφήλιον34 ἐκάλυψεν ἡ φήμη ἥτις ἐπτόει35 τοὺς λαοὺς ἐν μάχαις μιγνυμένη36 καὶ ἀσεβῶν ἐπλήρωσε τοῦ ῾Άϊδου τοὺς κευθμῶνας37 κόρυθα38 τέλος ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του σκυτίνην σιδηρόφρακτον39 σοφοῦ τεχνίτου ἔργον ἥν ποτ ἐδώρησεν αὐτῷ ὁ ἄναξ Φερδινάνδος οὐ μόνην ἀλλὰ μετ αὐτῆς πολλὰ καὶ ἄλλα δῶρα καὶ ἅμα τρεῖς λαοπληθεῖς40 εὐρυαγυίους41 πόλεις Σιποῦντά τε καὶ Τράνειαν καὶ Σάντον Ἰωάννην ἵνα ὁ ἥρως νέμηται42 αὐτὰς κ οἱ ἔγγονοί του ὅθ ὑπερπόντιος43 ἐλθὼν πρὸς τὴν φωνήν του πάλαι τῆς Ἰταλίας ἔξωσε44 τοὺς μεγαθύμους Κέλτας οὓς ἦγεν ἄρχων συνετὸς45 ὁ ἥρως46 Πικινῖνος νίκην ἀράμενος διπλῆν ἐν Βάρῃ καὶ Νοκέρᾳ κ ἐστήριξε47 τοῦ ἄνακτος κλονούμενον48 τὸν θρόνον ταύτην ὁ ἥρως ἥρμοσε περὶ τὴν κεφαλήν του ἦν δὲ πτερὸν ἐρωδιοῦ49 ἐπὶ τὸν ἄκρον λόφον ἀρχαῖον σύμβολον σεμνὸν Σκενδέρμπεη τοῦ θούρου

1 περιβόλαιος 2 - encircling subs covering garment 2 ἄνασσα ἡ - queen lady 3 κόμβος ὁ - knot fastening button 4 ἱστός ὁ - beam of a loom warp fixed to the beam the web 5 εὐώνυμος 2 - of good name fortunate euphem left 6 μαζός ὁ - breast 7 ἰδίως adv ndash peculiarly 8 δονέω ndash shake 9 στηλόω - set (up) 10 διαπρεπής -ές ndash distinguished 11 εὐθυῤῥήμων -ον (gen -ονος) - plain-spoken 12 ὕπατος 3 2 - highest supreme 13 ἀρχιερεύς -έως ὁ -chief-priest pontiff pope 14 εὐαγής -ές - free from pollution pure guiltless 15 λατρεύω ndash serve 16 θοῦρος 2 - rushing impetuous furious 17 εὔσωμος 2 - sound in body 18 ἀπαμβλύνω - blunt or dull the edge of 19 πύρπνοος 2 - fire-breathing 20 ἕλκω - draw drag 21 ἀμύνω - keep off ward off 22 ὄλεθρος ὁ - ruin death 23 ἀναξυρίδες -ίδων αἱ (pl tant) ndash trousers 24 σκέλος τό - leg from the hip downwards 25 ἔνερθεν adv - from beneath beneath below 26 στενός 3 ndash narrow 27 ὕπερθεν adv - from above above 28 εὐρύς εὐρεῖα εὐρύ - wide broad 29 πέδιλον τό - any covering for the foot 30 σκύτινος 3 - made of leather 31 ὀσφύς -ύος ἡ - loin(s) lower part of the back 32 ἀλεξητήριον τό - remedy medicine protection 33 ῥομφαία ἡ - large broad sword 34 ὑψήλιος 3 - that is under the sun 35 πτοέω -terrify scare 36 μείγνυμι - join bring together mix up 37 κευθμῶν -ῶνος ὁ - hiding place hole 38 κόρυς -υθος ἡ - helmet 39 σιδηρόφρακτος 3 - protected with iron 40 λαοπληθής -ές - full of people crowded 41 εὐρυάγυια Hom fem adj - with wide streets 42 νέμω - distribute med distribute among themselves and have as ones portion 43 ὑπερπόντιος 2 3 - over the sea from beyond the sea 44 ἐξωθέω - force out expel drive out 45 συνετός 3 - intelligent wise 46 ἀείρω - lift raise up med carry of win (part of aor) 47 στηρίζω - support confirm 48 κλονέω - drive tumultuously or in confusion pass be harassed shaken 49 ἐρῳδιός ὁ - heron

Comment Using the theme of armament Grigor Prlichev is getting really close to Homer The way Prlichev creates the composition clearly shows us the Homeric background The description of the armament of Alexander is the simplest of all descriptions of that theme in the Iliad so it is easy to witness the six

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 28

constructive elements Hence it is the most adequate for comparison with the portrayal of the armament of the hero Skenderbei in Prlichevrsquos Skenderbei

If we compare the armament of Alexander in the Iliad with the one of Skenderbei we will clearly notice not only that they are composed of the six constructive elements1 but also that they have the same sequence of relation2 which represents a kind of ritual sequence in the formula depending on the tradition of typical battle scenes This is the most discussed theme between the analysts because it is considered to be a typical theme of epic poetry

If we take a closer look at the whole composition we will surely find three parts that every armament consists of preface light-motif and free standard form The preface in the case of

Alexander is contained in the first two verses where his armament is announced (3289) the light-motif is found in the next three verses in which Alexander puts on his body protection (3302) and the rest of the verses show us free process of the standard elements In the case of Skenderbei we recognize the preface in verses 23612 and the light-motif in verses 2377 and 237980 The rest resembling Homerrsquos epics contains free form of expression

Consisting of the main elements the typical theme is rather simple and sometimes boring which explains why every epic poet has to put something individual in it Even in the simple form of the armament of Alexander there are some specific details and descriptions making the theme look more interesting and individual Trying to escape the typical Prlichev adds one more constructive element in the theme of armament ndash the cross Here we sense the free standard form where the writer explains with just one specific detail the idea of battle the time when the battle occurs and the revolt of the hero In that manner the theme obtains a function of real and psychological preparation for battle That is the introduction of a new thematic complex ndash the manifestation of heroism

Aside from the fact that Prlichev as a poet followed Homer in his writings we can also say that he mastered the art of composing from his teacher had deep sensations in poetry and did something that only few had done before ndash a masterpiece of epic poetry written in non-maternal language

Questions and Tasks 1 Who is Grigor Prlichev where did he live

and in what century did he write 2 Number some of his famous writings 3 What else can we learn from his

Autobiography beside his life 4 Who can Prlichev be compared with 5 What is the main theme of Skenderbei 6 Why is the part of armament important in

epic poetry 7 How many constructive elements are there

in both descriptions of armament (Alexander ndash Iliad Skenderbei ndash Skenderbei) Enumerate them

8 How many parts can we separate from the whole composition of armament

9 According to your opinion why is the cross so important in the armament of Skenderbei

10 Learn four verses by heart and try to recite them in meter

The Church of Sts Clement and Panteleimon (reconstructed) on Plaoshnik

Lake Ohrid from the amphitheater of ancient Lychnidos

1 The six constructive elements are clothes for the upper part of the body clothes for the lower part of the body protection for the body and chest offensive arm and protection for the head 2 It means that every hero arms himself in the same sequence Firstly the clothes then the shield etc

Bronze sculpture of Skenderbei in Skopje

Scanderbegus (1444)

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 29

The Netherlands Erasmusrsquo Praise of Folly by Egge TysselingThe Netherlands The greatest of the northern humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (Rotterdam the Netherlands 1466-1536) Both his parents died before he was twenty and this it seems prevented him from going straight on to a university His guardians sent him to a monastic school instead and in due course he joined an Augustinian monastery The result of these early experiences engendered in him a lasting hatred for the severe and unimaginative scholasticism that had been inflicted on him At the end of 1499 he went for a short visit to England where he met Thomas More Upon his return to the continent he took up Greek to good effect When he visited Italy in 1506 he took his doctorate at Turin but found no one to excel him in Greek In 1516 he publishes the first edition of the New Testament in Greek to appear in print Of his books the best remembered is ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo a satire composed at Morersquos house in London in 1511 The Greek title is a pun on Morersquos name Erasmus wrote the work in one week and dedicated it to his host Instantly it made him famous all over the world 40 editions saw the light in Erasmusrsquo lifetime In this work Folly itself is speaking personified as a woman To this Lady all human beings are equal and nobody escapes from her playful criticism popes knights bishops merchants All peoplersquos degree of folly is tested This turns accurate scholars and scientists into nitwits and power into impotence Behind this satire the contents are moralizing For instance the real Christian is not interested in something material and lifts himself by being a humble person which the world thinks is a folly Still Erasmus realistically realizes no one can do without material matters but modesty and self control with respect to material matters make people sensible Like with Socrates also with Erasmus irony is a means to come to self-knowledge In ldquoThe Praise of Follyrdquo Erasmus puts forward bitter attacks on the degradation of religious institutions and their ministers In spite of his outspoken criticisms he did not when the time came declare openly for the Reformation He held the essentially Protestant view that man stands in direct relation with God and that theology was superfluous But at the same time he would not be drawn into religious controversies arising in the wake of the Reformation movement He was more interested in his scholarly pursuits and his publishing and felt in any case that the schism was unfortunate While in some measure it is true enough that controversies of this kind are a nuisance these issues could not be ignored In the end Erasmus declared for Catholicism but at the same time became less important The stage was held by men of stronger mettle It is in education that the influence of Erasmus came to leave its most lasting impression The humanist learning which until recently was the core of secondary education wherever Western European views prevailed owes much to his literary and teaching activities In his work as a publisher he was not always concerned with exhaustive critical examination of texts He aimed at a wider reading public rather than at academic specialists At the same time

Desiderius Erasmus (Holbein)

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 30

he did not write in the vulgar tongue He was on the contrary intent on strengthening the position of Latin Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 20 No marriages without Folly

1

5

10

15

20

Porro quod de amicitia dictum est id multo magis de

coniugio1 sentiendum2 quod quidem nihil est aliud

quam individua3 vitae coniunctio Deum immortalem

quae non divortia4 aut etiam divortiis deteriora5 passim

acciderent nisi viri feminaeque domestica consuetudo6

per adulationem7 per iocum per facilitatem8 errorem9

dissimulationem10 meum utique11 satellitium12 fulci-

retur13 alereturque Papae14 quam pauca coirent15

matrimonia si sponsus16 prudenter exquireret quos

lusus17 delicata18 illa sicuti videtur ac pudens virgun-

cula19 iam multo ante nuptias20 luserit

Tum quanto pauciora cohaererent21 inita22 nisi plurima

uxorum facta per viri vel negligentiam vel stuporem23

laterent24 Atque haec quidem merito stultitiae

tribuunturverum ea25 interim praestat26 ut marito

iucunda sit uxor uxori iucundus maritus ut tranquilla

domus27 ut maneat affinitas28 Ridetur29 cuculus30

curruca31 et quid non vocatur cum moechae32 lacrimas

labellis33 exorbet34

At quanto felicius35 sic errare quam zelotypiae36 diligen-

tia cum sese conficere tum37 omnia miscere tragoediis38

1 coniugium -i n marriage 2 sentio 4 to consider 3 individuus 3 unbreakable 4 divortium -i n divorce 5 deterior -oris worse 6 consuetude -inis f intercourse 7 adulatio -onis f flattery 8 facilitas -atis f indulgence 9 error -oris m error mistake 10 dissimulatio -onis f pretence 11 utique in short 12 satellitium -ii n followers 13 fulcio 4 to support 14 Papae (my) goodness 15 coeo -is -ire -ii -itum to be contracted 16 sponsus -i m bridegroom 17 lusus -us m game 18 delicatus 3 sweet tender 19 virguncula -ae f little bride 20 nuptiae -arum f wedding 21 cohaereo -es -ere -haesi to last 22 inita sc matrimonia 23 stupor -oris m stupidity 24 lateo -es -ere -ui to be concealed 25 ea sc stultitia 26 praesto -as -are -stiti -stitus to achieve that 27 domus -us f house 28 affinitas -atis f love 29 rideo -es -ere risi risum to laugh at 30 cuculus -i m mug fool 31 curruca -ae f donkey 32 moecha -ae f unfaithful wife 33 labellum -i n lip 34 ex(s)orbeo -es -ere -ui to absorb 35 quanto felicius sc est 36 zelotypia -ae f jealousy 37 cum hellip tum not just but also 38 miscere tragoediis to turn into a tragedy

Questions and Tasks

1 Is folly necessary for a good marriage or not Explain

your answer

2 What is Erasmusrsquo thought about a woman before her wedding

3 Is the husband in Erasmusrsquo view smarter or more stupid than his wife Explain

4 Write down at least 3 advantages of stupidity with respect to marriage

5 What is the error in the last 2 lines

part of the text

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 31

Laus Stultitiae (The Praise of Folly) chapter 49 Those unfortunate teachers

1

5

10

15

Adeo sibi placent1 dum pavidam turbam minaci2

vultu voceque territant dum ferulis3 virgis4 lorisque5

conscindunt6 miseros dumque modis omnibus suo

arbitratu7 saeviunt asinum8 illum Cumanum

imitantes

Interim sordes9 illae merae10 munditiae11 videntur

paedor12 amaricinum13 olet14 miserrima illa servitus15

regnum esse putatur adeo ut tyrannidem suam nolint

cum Phalaridis16 aut Dionysii17 imperio commutare18

Sed longe etiam feliciores sunt nova19 quadam

doctrinae20 persuasione21 Siquidem22 cum mera

deliramenta23 pueris inculcent24 tamen dii boni

quem non illi Palaemonem24 quem non Donatum25

prae26 sese contemnunt

Idque nescio quibus praestigiis27 mire efficiunt ut

stultis materculis et idiotis28 patribus tales videantur

quales ipsi se faciunt

1 adeo sibi placent they are so pleased with themselves 2 minax -cis grim 3 ferula -ae f rod 4 virga -ae f twig 5 lorum -i n whip 6 conscindo -is ndashere -scidi -scissus to flog 7 suo arbitratu at random 8 asinus -i m donkey 9 sordes -ium (f pl) dirt 10 merus 3 pure mere 11 munditiae -arum (f pl) neatness 12 paedor -oris m filth 13 amaricinus -i m marjoram 14 oleo -es -ere -ui (+ acc) to smell like 15 servitus -utis f slavery 16 Phalaris -idis m a tyrant 17 Dionysius -ii m a tyrant 18 commuto 1 to exchange 19 novus 3 unknown 20 doctrina -ae f erudition 21 persuasio -onis f conviction 22 siquidem for 23 deliramentum -i n nonsense 24 inculco 1 to drum into 24 Palaemon -onis m famous linguist 25 Donatus -i m famous linguist 26 prae compared to 27 praestigiumm -i n trick magic means 28 idiotus 3 simple stupid

Comments 4 asinus Cumanus according to a story this donkey dressed in a lionrsquos skin terrified people Questions and Tasks

1 How do the teachers feel about the way they treat their pupils

2 Write down the other 3 words that

Erasmus uses for the tyranny of teachers

3 Why donrsquot the teachers consider themselves as tyrants (10-14)

4 What is the reason for Erasmusrsquo

astonishment (15-17)

schoolmaster

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 32

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 33

PORTUGAL Coimbra University City by Susana MarquesFrancisco de Oliveira Coimbra sang by several Portuguese authors throughout the time (ie Luiacutes de Camotildees Antoacutenio de Cabedo Manuel Alegre) finds in its University an inescapable ex libris (cf images 1 5 6 7) Close to the town it has been founded by the King D Dinis in the end of the 13th century and it is one of the oldest Universities in Europe having since always received students of several origins among whom there are well-known people linked to areas as diverse as Literature Law Medicine or Politics A dominant centre of the Portuguese culture during successive centuries Coimbra is suggestively designated as the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo

(lsquothe Portuguese Athensrsquo) both because it is situated on a hill and also because it has become a reference of knowledge (cf image 2 the symbolic presence of the Sapientia in the University logo) The Greek-Roman matrix is therefore well present in Coimbrarsquos architectural patrimony namely in the Forum Cryptoporticus of Aeminium1 mdash the Roman city that would change its name into Conimbrica and later to the current name of lsquoCoimbrarsquo mdash in the Minerva Stairs in the ceilings with classical allegories in the Joanine Library (cf image 4) in the statues in front of the Faculty of Letters (cf image 3) sculpted by the Portuguese artist

Barata Feyo Demosthenes Aristotle Herodotus and Sappho representative figures of Eloquence Philosophy History and Poetry respectively

Image 3 ndash Statues sculpted by Barata Feyo

Image 4 ndash Detail in the ceiling of the Joanine Library

Several names of the Portuguese Renaissance praised the lsquolusa Atenasrsquo in their poems recurring to rhythms used by the Classical Antiquity The Humanist Diogo Pires (1517-1599) evokes the city of the Mondego river in an epigram celebrating the foundation of the Arts School of Coimbra (Coleacutegio das Artes) created by D Joatildeo III in the 16th century with the aim of developing the pre-university studies Its curricula guaranteed a classical background that included the study of Greek and Latin considered important for all those who wished to continue their studies in a Faculty

1 The Cryptoporticus is incorporated in the Machado de Castro National Museum

Image 1 ndash University Tower

Image 2

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 34

Comments

1uetus regum sedes Coimbra has been the capital of the Portuguese Kingdom (12th century) and the residence of several Portuguese kings (particularly between the 12th and the 13th centuries) 4 Aonides the Muses named Aonides because the Mount Helicon in the Boeotia or Aonia had been consecrated to them 5 Academiae Lycaei names commonly used by the Humanists to refer to superior schools (cf A C Ramalho 1994 209) 6 constructis porticibus allusion to the Arts School (Coleacutegio das Artes) with an architecture of classical inspiration 8 laurea Bay symbol of Apollo and of knowledge is also the symbol of the Arts Schoolrsquos students 9 Aristoteles the conflict with the Classical Antiquity for the praise of the contemporary people is a particularly common procedure in the Renaissance 13 Monda the city of Coimbra is built over the most important river entirely Portuguese the Mondego in Latin Munda or Monda maris uicini excurret in undas the sea is about 40 kilometres far from Coimbra 14 Ioannis Regis D Joatildeo III founder of the Arts School

Questions and Tasks

1 Explain the insistence of the use of adjectives as inclytus doctus nobilis

2 Clarify the meaning of the use of the cause conjunction nam deftly placed in the beginning of verse 3

3 Describe the Arts Schoolrsquos young students according to Diogo Piresrsquos verses

4 Clarify the pertinence of the anaphoric repetition in the verses 5-6 (hic)

5 Justify the inclusion in the poem of the Cumaean Sibylrsquos speech

1

5

10

Cernis ut illa uetus regum Conimbrica sedes

ante alias urbes exserat una caput

Nam cum fida diu templis suspenderit arma

Aonidum lucos et iuga summa colit

Hic Academiae hic sunt loca nota Lycaei

hic schola constructis inclyta porticibus

Instat et ipsa sibi laudis studiosa iuuentus

interea docta laurea fronde uiret

Adsit Aristoteles doctas miretur Athenas

et locus hic dicat plus pietatis habet

Adsit et interpres Diuum Cumaea Sibylla

plena Deo uates ore futura canat

donec Monda maris uicini excurret in undas

stabit Ioannis nobile Regis opus

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 35

Also the Humanist Inaacutecio de Morais (death 1580) described in his Conimbricae Encomium a particular moment of Coimbrarsquos academic life the Doctorate degreersquos insignia imposition (cf image 8)

Comments

1-24 These verses recreate the habitual celebrations in the Doctorate insignia imposition which included music as well as an entourage 15-16 Reference to the representation of school theatre in the 16th century which was compulsory in certain academic acts such as the degreersquos ceremonies 23 spatiosum theatrum the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos) stage of several academic ceremonies 24 ordo patrum members of the University with a sit in the ceremonies including the Professors of the area Palladiusque chorus probable reference to an academic Choir currently the musical element is under the charge of the Charamela a small orchestra of wind instruments that plays musical works during certain solemn ceremonies that take place in the Capelos Room (Sala dos Capelos)

1

5

10

15

20

Adde quod et populum laetis Conimbrica ludis

exhilarat crebro quos celebrare solet

Nam quoties quisquam studiis sua praemia poscit

et lauri emeritum cingere fronde caput

antiquo canitur laetus de more triumphus

pergit et ad doctas ordine pompa Scholas

Incedit rector comitatus fascibus aureis

Atque comes sequitur densa caterua uirum

Turba it doctorum redimitaque tempora sertis

textaque quisque suo tincta colore gerunt

Plebs stupefacta ruit studio diffusa uidendi

et reboant festo tympana pulsa sono

Miscet et alterno strepitu tuba rauca sonorem

argutos fundunt et caua buxa modos

Tum personatis iuuenes discurrere gaudent

uultibuset lepidos ore referre iocos

Sic cum Romanus domito dux hoste triumphum

atque olim niueos uictor agebat equos

laurigerum magno excipiebat honore senatus

et populus plausum uoce sonante dabat

Tota igitur gaudet clamore Academia festo

donatur lauru dum quis Apollinea

Attalica exornant spatiosum aulaea theatrum

ordo sedet patrum Palladiusque chorus

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 36

Questions and Tasks

1 Register words that allude to different participant in the Doctorate insignia imposition celebrations

2 Identify wordsphrases that suggest different sensations

3 Justify the use of uidendi in verse 11

4 Clarify the reason of the alliteration particularly of the occlusives nasals vibrant and sibilant in the

verses 13-14

5 Clarify the meaning of the comparison present in the verses 17-22

Image 6 - Porta Feacuterrea

Image 7 - Via Latina

Image 8 ndash Doctorate insignia impositionrsquos entourage

Sources

- (2002) Fernando Aguiar-Branco-Doutor Honoris Causa em Letras (sinopse dos factos relativos ao Doutoramento) Doutores Honoris Causa em Letras de 1926 a 2001 (sinopse das suas biografias) Porto

- Ramalho A C (1998) Para a Histoacuteria do Humanismo em Portugal I Lisboa - Ramalho A C ed (21994) Latim Renascentista em Portugal (Antologia) Coimbra

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 37

Romania Dimitrie Cantemir a Humanist and a Latinist by Gabriela Creţia DIMITRIE CANTEMIR (1673-1723) HIS LIFE AND WORKS

Son of a prince from Moldova (nowadays a region of Romania) and later a ruler in his own right Dimitrie was sent as a young boy to Constantinople as a guarantee of his fatherrsquos good faith towards the Sublime Porte He studied at the school of the Patriarchy where in accordance with the curriculum of the famous University of Padova the following subjects were taught Greek Latin History Geography Literature Philosophy but also the Art of Governance Thus the young student-hostage has turned into a sophisticated humanist formed in the spirit of the Western values but who was nevertheless attracted at the same time by the peculiarities of the Oriental environment in which he lived (he has learned Arabic Persian and Turkish has studied and written about the Muslim faith and the Turkish music) Due to his learned works on history philosophy and politics written in Latin Romanian Turkish and Russian he has acquired great fame in the scholarly circles being elected a member of the Berlin Academy (1714) At the same time he had close relations with the most important diplomats of the age becoming intimate

with the arcane political manoeuvres of the four great powers of his day ndash The High Porte France Austria and Russia He has understood as a consequence of this that after the disastrous failure of the Ottomans to take Vienna (Kahlenberg 1683) the balance of forces shifted to their detriment Thus begun a process of decline that Cantemir hoped would free his own country from their domination Indeed as soon as he was elected ruler of Moldova (1710) he has signed a treaty with Peter the Great which guaranteed the independence of his principality However adverse military developments soon compelled him to seek refuge in Russia (1713) where he would become a secret counsellor to Peter the Great It was there that he died in 1723 ldquoAn enlightened voivode a man of the world as well as an ascetic scholar Berlin academician and Russian prince at the same time as Romanian chronicler he reminds one of Lorenzo dersquo Medicirdquo commented George Călinescu a famous literary critic Scion of Machiavelli and precursor of Montesquieu by his lucid evaluation of government types and marked by the experience of exile much like other great creators (Ovid Dante or Petrarca) Dimitrie Cantemir emerges as a pivotal personality at the intersection of the 17th century East and Baroque West His main works are Imago sacrae scientiae metaphysica (Latin) The system of the Islamic faith (Russian) Incrementa atque decrementa Aulae Othomanicae (Latin) Istoria ieroglifică (Romanian) and Descriptio Moldaviae The last title is a work of maturity written during his exile in Russia at the behest of the Berlin Academy Descriptio Moldaviae is a complex monograph reminding one of Tacitusrsquo Germania Its content including elements of geography history politics military arrangements as well as ethnography delineates a well-articulated portrait of this Oriental region which had started to arouse the interest of Europe The information presented is rigorous and the facts exact within the limits of the knowledge of his days However one can easily perceive the love and nostalgia that the author felt for his native land which he sometimes surrounds with the aura of an earthly Heaven Nevertheless his critical spirit and his academic honesty compel him to mention aspects which are less commendable such as political intrigues and outdated mentalities Upon the authorrsquos death the manuscript was lost only to reemerge almost miraculously a century later We can now enjoy a colourful and uniquely pleasant text as you can judge for yourselves from the following fragments

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 38

ORIGO MOLDAVAE NOBILITATIS Descriptio Moldaviae II 15

1 5 10

Nemo neget1 cives militesque Romanos fuisse quos Traianus postquam2 Decebalum devicisset2 totumque Dacicum regnum subvertisset3 in Daciam ceu4 novas colonias5 deduxerat6 Mortuo Traiano Hadrianus [hellip] Moldaviam retinuit7 ne millia Romanorum civium qui ibi erant perderet Per tot saecula quae Traianum et nos intercedunt8 Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum9 conservatum10que fuit unicum dubitaturis11 obiicimus12 argumentum13 dialectum14 Moldavicam quae propius15 ullā aliā16 ad Romanum sermonem accedit evidenter [hellip] gentis nostrae conditores17 arguit18

1 nego 1 to deny 2 postquam [] devicisset after having defeated 3 subvertisset having destroyed 4ceu as in the form of 5 colonia -ae f colony colonist 6 deduco 3 ndashduxi -ductum to send 7 retineo 2 -tinui -tentus to keep 8 intercedo 3 -cessi -cessum to separate 9 propago 1 to expand 10 conservo 1 to maintain 11 dubitaturi m (future participle lt dubito 1) those who would doubt 12 obiicio 3 -ieci -iectum to offer 13 argumentum -i n evidence 14 dialectus -i f language 15 propius closer 16ullā aliā than any other 17 conditor -oris m founder18 arguo 3 -ui -utum to demonstrate

Comments

2 Traianus the first Roman emperor of provincial extraction (Hispania) reigned between AD 98 and 117 Exceptional soldier and administrator ndash he was given the title optimus princeps ndash he succeeded in pushing the borders of the Empire to their maximum extension 3300000 km2 Decebalus king of the Dacian tribes which lived in the region of Dacia (nowadays part of Romania) 5 Hadrianus (AD 117-138) Trajanrsquos successor a prudent and highly sophisticated emperor He was forced to abandon some Roman provinces and adopt a defensive policy For political reasons some historiographers have questioned not so much the Latin origin of Romanians as their continuous occupation of the area around the Carpathians and the Danube The words Romanum genus in Dacia propagatum conservatumque fuit hints at this argument which is answered with the irrefutable linguistic evidence which follows Questions and Tasks

1 The wars between the Romans and the Dacians (AD 101-102 and AD 105-106) have ended with the conquest of Dacia and marked the beginning of the Romanisation process The attached images represent the two ldquochronicles in stonerdquo of these wars Can you identify and place them on the map

2 The first monument 138 metres tall used to be crowned with Trajanrsquos statue in gilded bronze Degraded by the passage of time it was restored in 1587 on the initiative of Pope Sixtus V and has ever since supported the statue of another Do you know who that was and why this has happened

3 Find out the name of the Dacian capital and the greatest natural resource that may be found in the region

4 What other Romanic languages could you name OPULENTIA POMORUM ET VINORUM Descriptio Moldaviae I 5-6

Ab occasu ubi Transylvaniā et Valachiā contermina1 est Moldavia undique2 fere altissimis cingitur3 montibus reliqua eius pars orientem versus4 fertilissimis campis patet5 Montes arboribus frugiferis6 [hellip] naturā consiti sunt7 quibus

1 conterminus 3 neighbouring 2 undique on all sides 3 cingo 3 cinxi cinctum to surround 4 orientem versus towards the East 5 pateo 2 -ui to stretch 6 frugifer 3 bearing fruits

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 39

interpositi8 subinde9 a montium culminibus10 iucundo sussuro ruentes11 limpidissimi rivuli12 speciem13 amoenissimi loci conciliant14 [hellip] At omnes reliquas terrae dotes15 longe superant egregia vineta16 maximā fecunditate Generosissimum vinum nascitur Cotnari [hellip] quod omnibus Europaeis vinis nec ipso Tocaiensi excepto17 praestantius18 et nobilius esse affirmare ausim19 [hellip] Colorem habet singularem20 viridem nimirum21

7 consero 3 -sevi -situm to plant 8 interpono 3 -posui -positum to place between 9subinde often 10 culmen -inis n mountaintop 11 ruo 3 rui rutum to rush down 12 rivulus i m small river 13 species -ei f sight 14 concilio 1 to offer 15 dos -tis f dowry 16 vinetum -i n vineyard 17 nec [hellip] excepto ldquomaking no exception not even for the wine of Tokajirdquo 18 praestans -tis distinguished 19 ausim I would dare 20 singularis -e peculiar 21 nimirum namely

Comments

Looking at the map one may notice that the author simplifies the geographic relations between the three provinces Walachia currently known as Muntenia lies in fact to Moldovarsquos South-West The three regions now form Romania but in Cantemirrsquos days they were independent Moldova and Muntenia under Ottoman influence while Transylvania was under the rule of the Hapsburg Empire Questions and Tasks

1 Cantemir who had been exiled from his country for many years obviously misses the landscape of his native land However this description of a grove with trees and rivers as an ideal resting place may in fact be the reflection of a topos the locus amoenus Compare with Theocritus XXII36 Lucretius II29 Vergil Georg II467

2 Which is the country of origin for the Tokaji wine Could you name other famous European wines

ANIMALIA MIRABILIA Descriptio Moldaviae I 7

Longe ab ltdomesticis ovibusgt diversae sunt oves silvaticae1 quae labium superius2 ad duas palmas in terram protensum3 habent et hanc ob causam cum pascunt4 retrocedentes5 victum6 quaerere coguntur In collo nullae vertebrae neque adeo ad dextram aut sinistram caput deflectere possunt [] In occidentalibus montibus aliud est animal quod proprium esse nostrae regioni fere ausim7 Zimbr a Moldavis vocatur magnitudine bovem domesticum aequat8 caput tamen minus et oblongum collum et ventrem graciliorem pedes altiores cornua tenuiora9 et erectiora10 habet Animal est ferox11 et velox Huius caput symbolum Moldaviae est

1 silvaticus 3 wild 2 superior -ius (comparative) upper 3 protendo 3 -tendi -tensum to hang 4 pasco 3 pavi pastum to graze 5 retrocedo 3 -cessi -cessum to walk backwards 6 victus -us m food 7 ausim I would dare 8 aequo 1 to be equal to 9 tenuis -e slim 10 erectus 3 straight 11 ferox -ocis savage violent

Comments

Caesar in his Bellum Gallicum VI 25-28 while describing the fauna of the Hercynian Forest takes time to describe a large bull the urus (bos primigenius) The Germanic populations called this animal aurochs Still prosperous in the Middle Ages ndash it was Charlemagnersquos favourite hunt ndash the species is nowadays extinct

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 40

So is the bour named by Cantemir whose relative the wisent may be found today only in reservations as an endangered species Animals of extreme force ferocity and majesty these wild bulls often made their appearance on flags and coats of arms Questions and Tasks

1 In the chapters of Caesarrsquos Commentariesmentioned before besides some correct information there are also elements of fantasy as there are in Cantemirrsquos narrative Which are these and what purpose could they serve for either of the two authors

2 In the medieval bestiary a central position is occupied by an imaginary animal endowed with an aura of purity and kindness One of its most famous representations may be found today on a tapestry in the Cluny Museum in Paris Do you know the name of this animal

3 If you are interested in stamps you may find out what the current price would be for the first stamp ever to be printed in Moldova Cap de bour

4 Could the detailed description of the wisent be an echo of Virgilrsquos Georg III 50-59 (the fertile cow)

DE MOLDAVORUM MORIBUS Descriptio Moldaviae II 17

Iocosi1 sunt et hilares2 cor non longe ab ore remotum3 habent sed ut4 inimicitiae facile obliviscuntur5 ita etiam neque amicitiae longam conservant6 memoriam Nonnunquam7 etiam ad diluculum8 longa protrahunt9 convivia10 [] sed tantum diebus festis aut hibernis tempestatibus11 cum frigus incolas intra parietes12 concludit Laudanda tamen est eorum hospitalitas erga peregrinos13 Etenim14 licet Tartarorum vicinitate15 pauperrimi sint tamen panem et hospitium16 numquam negant hospiti et ipsum cum equis per triduum17 sine praemio18 alunt Advenientem laetā facie excipiunt19 tamquam fratrem aut consanguineum

1 iocosus 3 fond of jokes 2 hilaris -e jolly 3 removeo 2 -movi -motum separate 4 ut ita as so 5 obliviscor 3 oblitus sum (+ Genitive) to forget 6 conservo 1 to preserve 7 nonnumquam sometimes 8 diluculum -i n dawn 9 protraho 3 -traxi -tractum to prolong 10 convivium -i n banquet 11 tempestas (here) = tempus 12 paries -tis m wall 13 peregrinus -i m stranger 14 etenim truly 15 vicinitas -tatis f vicinity 16 hospitium -i n hospitable reception 17 triduum -ui n space of three days 18 praemium -i n reward price 19 excipio 3 -cepi -ceptum to receive

Comments

Confirmed by contemporary chroniclers from Italy and Hungary the jolliness and the humour of the locals have given birth to a very popular character in the Romanian oral literature Păcală whose name has been created from the verb ldquoa păcălirdquo meaning ldquoto trickrdquo or ldquoto cheatrdquo Cunning and amusing he meets with adventures similar with those of Till Eulenspiegel In the 17th and 18th century attacks by the Tartars (a Turkic population to the East of Moldova) were still a common occurrence Their lightning-fast and unstoppable raids often resulted in lost crops and people taken prisoner A farmerrsquos work and even family were thus in jeopardy Not only Moldova but also Transylvania Wallachia Poland and the countries around the Baltic have fallen prey to their incursions Nevertheless the hospitality shown by the people of Moldova remains proverbial even today Questions and Tasks

1 How could one synthesize in just a few adjectives the remarks in the text above Do they name just qualities

2 What is the meaning of the metaphoric expression ldquocor non longe ab ore remotum habentrdquo (their heart is not far removed from their lips)

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 41

RUSSIA Sigismund von Herberstein Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii Vienna 1549 by Elena Ermolaeva Eugeneja Eliseeva Appolinaria Martynenko Siegmund (Sigismund) Freiherr von Herberstein (or Baron Sigismund von Herberstein) (1486ndash1566) was a famous Austrian diplomat writer historian and member of the Holy Roman Empire He is most known for his extensive writings on the geography history and customs of Russia which were the first source of knowledge about Russia for the Western audience

Herberstein was born in August 23 1486 in Vipava in Western Slovenia to Leonhard von Herberstein and Barbara von Lueg members of a prominent German-speaking family which had resided in Herberstein Castle for nearly 200 years Little is known of his early life apart from the fact that he learned some Slovene the Slavic language spoken in the region This knowledge played a significant role later in his life In 1499-1502 he studied philosophy and law in the University of Vienna University of Vienna where he also belonged to the circle of the outstanding German humanist Konrad Celtis In 1506 he entered the army as an officer and served in a number of campaigns In 1508 he was knighted by the Maximilian I of Habsburg In 1515 Herberstein began a long diplomatic career as a member of the Imperial council or Parliament Between 1515 and 1553 he carried out approximately 69 missions abroad

travelling throughout much of Europe including Turkey

He was twice sent to Russia as the Austrian ambassador in 1517 to negotiate a truce between Russia and Lithuania and in 1526 to renew a treaty between the two which had been signed in 1522 These visits provided him with the opportunity to study a hitherto largely unknown Russian society Herbersteins knowledge of Slovene acquired in his youth allowed him to communicate freely with Russians as Slovene and Russian languages are related He probably wrote his first account on Russia between 1517 and 1527 but no copy of this account survives In 1526 he was asked to produce a formal report of his experiences in Russia but this report remained in the archives until he was able to revise and expand it which he pprobably did in the 1530s The result was his major work written in Latin and entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii firstly published in 1549 in Vienna This work became the main source of knowledge on Russia in Western Europe Sigismund Herberstein died in Vienna at the age of eighty in full glory His Commentarii were translated into many European languages and published many times all over the world The Russian National Library in Saint-Petersburg holds one of the most rare Latin copies that of the Basel

edition of 1571

The bronze Herberstains bust in Moscow by G Ponozky

The title page of ldquoRerum Moscovinicarum Commentarii ldquo (Italian translation)

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 42

1 Etymologia nominis Russia

1

5

10

15

20

Russia unde nomen habeat variae1 extant2

opiniones Sunt enim qui eam a quodam Russo fratre

seu nepote Lech3 principe Polonorum4 perinde ac si

ipse Rhutenorum5 princeps fuisset nomen

accepisse6 volunt Alii autem a quodam vetustissimo7

oppido Russo dicto non longe a Novuogardia

magna Quidam vero a fusco8 eius gentis colore

Plerique nomine mutato a Roxolania Russiam

cognominatam9 esse putant Verum eorum qui hasce

afferunt opiniones tanquam vero haud consonas

Mosci refutant afferentes Rosseiam antiquitus10

appellatam quasi gentem dispersam11 seu

disseminatam12 id quod nomen ipsum indicat

Rosseia etenim Rhutenorum lingua disseminatio13

seu dispersio13 interpretatur Quod verum esse varii

populi incolis etiamnum permixti et diversae

provinciae Russiae passim intermixtae ac

interiacentes aperte testantur Notum est autem

historias sacras legentibus disseminantionis vocabulo

etiam Prophetas uti cum de dispersione populorum

loquuntur Nec tamen desunt qui Russorum nomen ex

Graeca atque adeo ex Chaldaica origine non

multum dissimili ratione trahant A fluxu14 nimirum15

qui Graecis est middotoagravej [rus]

1 varius -a -um different 2 extant exstant 3 Lech the ancestor of the Poles 4 Polonii -orum m the Poles 5 Rutheni -orum m the Russians 6 accipio 3M accepi to obtain (eam accepisse ndash ACI) 7 vetustissimus very old (gradus elativus) 8 fuscus -a -um here means light-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 9 cognomino 1 to give the name 10 antiqitus adv ab antiquitate 11 dispersus -a -um scattered 12 disseminatus -a -um scattered 13 disseminatio -onis f = dispersio -onis f the scattering (populi vel exercitus) 14 fluxus -us m (Ancient Greek middotoagravej (middotOgraveoj)) ndash stream spray 15 nimirum ndash certe

Comments 1 Russia ndash Herberstein uses the term Russia in two senses as an Eastern Slav territory in the border of the Old Russian state and as the Russian state of the late 15th ndash early 17th centuries 6 Russo dicto ndash Staraya Russa (=Old Russia) ndash city near Lake Ilmen It is one of the oldest Russian settlements first appearing in records from 1167 Novuogardia magna ndash a Latin transliteration of the Russian name Novgorod (litterary Oppidum Novum compare to Neapolis Neuchacirctel Nijmegen) It was first mentioned in 859 in the oldest national annals mdash the Russian Primary Chronicle 7 fuscus -a -um ndashlight-brown there is a popular etymology for Russus as a consonant to Russian word rusyj ndash with light brown hair 8 Roxolania Roxolanes ndash the ancient name of one of the Sarmatian tribes of Volga Region that lived in the Black Sea area till the invasion of Huns (IV c AD) 11 Mosci ndash in Herbersteinrsquos Commentarii this word is used passim for the designation of the Russian people Rosseiam is consonant to the Russian word [rasseiannyj rosseiannyj] which means dispersed (dispersus lat)

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 43

20 Propheta (Ancient Greek profraquothj from prOgravefhmi) ndash sc biblical prophet (in auctoribus Ecclesiasticis) 22 Chaldaicus -a -um (from [khaldei] babylonian Kaldu and Χαλδαlsaquoοι) ndash the name of people that lived in the swampy region situated in the mouth of Tigris and Euphrates on the North Western shore of the Persian Gulf Questions and Tasks 1 Style of which Latin author does the fragment recall

2 Which form is fuisset and why it is used here

3 What variants of the words extant ex Graeca ex Chaldaica do you find more often in the

Classical Latin texts

4 Which Latin synonyms to the word prоpheta -ae m do you know

5 How many popular etymologies of the word Russia does Herberstein give in this passage

2 Novuogardenses domini et servi

1

5

10

15

Accidit praeterea ut Annales eorum referunt dum

Novuogardenses Corsun Graeciae civitatem1 ad

septem perpetuos annos gravi obsidione premerent

interim uxores eorum morae pertaesae2 tum etiam de

salute ac3 adventu maritorum dubitantes servis

nuberent Expugnata tandem civitate quum4 victores

mariti ex bello reversi aereas portas superatae urbis

ac magnam quandam campanam quam ipsi in

cathedrali eorum Ecclesia vidimus secum

attulissent servique dominos quorum uxores

duxerant vi repellere conarentur domini indignitate

rei commoti depositis cuiusdam consilio armis

lora et fustes tanquam in mancipia arriperent quibus

servi territi inque fugam conversi loco quodam qui

etiamnum Chloppigrod hoc est Servorum castrum

dicitur se reciperent defenderentque Verum victi

meritis a dominis suppliciis affecti fuere

1civitas -atis f = urbs 2 pertaesus -a -um feeling disgust 3 ac atque 4 quum = cum 5 lorum -i n lash 11 fustis -is m stick 12 convertere fugam to put to flight

Comments 1 Annales -um m ndash records year by year of the events in a city a region or a country Herberstein had read the Russian Annales and translated some parts of them in his book 2 Novuogardia ndash Novum oppidum today a city on the North-West of Russia (Veliky Novgorod) one of the cultural centres of Ancient Russia Corsun ndash its ancient name was Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος) an ancient Greek colony founded around the 6th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in the

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 44

southwestern part of Crimea which was then known as Taurica Its Byzantine Greek name is Χερσών Old East Slavic one is CorsunToday Sevastopol The grand prince of the Ancient Russia Vladimir the Great was christened in Corsun in the 10th c 7 aereas portas ndash one can still see Aereas portas in Novgorod in Cathedral of Saint Sophia 9 cathedralus Ecclesia ndash main orthodox cathedral 15 Chloppigrod is a Latin transliteration of the Russian name of a small town-fortress built about the 10th c by fugitive slaves Choloppus vel chlopus means servus grod ndash oppidum-castrum In fact this story about the fugitive slaves is absent in Russian Annales Herberstein took this story from Scythus Logos in Herodotusrsquo ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4 and contaminated it with popular Russian stories about the ldquoSlaves warrdquo in Novgorod Herberstein could also use Marcus Junianus Justinusrsquo ldquoEpitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogusrdquo II 5 Questions and Tasks 1 Read an ancient source of Herberstein (Herodotus

ldquoHistoriardquo IV 3-4) and compare it to this passage What is common and different 2 What does Chloppigrod mean 3 Why did ldquodomini Novuogardensesrdquo take only lashes 4 What variant for fuere do you find more frequently

Map of Moscovia (source httpcommonswikimediaorgwikiFileHerberstein-Moscoviajpg PD-Art [2372010]

Herberstein in Russian clothes (Engraving by AKhirshfogely)

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 45

Sweden The royal warship Wasa by Eva Schough Tarandi Sweden As the 17-year-old king Gustavus Adolphus ( Gustaf II Adolf) succeeded his father Karl the IX to the Swedish throne 1611 Sweden was at war against Denmark Russia and Poland ldquoEven if there was a peace treaty in 1617 the war with Poland continued throughout the whole reign of Gustav II Adolf He had a heavy program for expanding Swedish territory His policy was to make the Baltic Sea his ldquomare nostrumrdquo He was initiating the Swedish intervention in the thirty yearsrsquo war protecting his interests in ports and commerce in northern Germany but also facing the catholic threat the expansion of the Habsburg and the Emperor In Germany there was a prophecy of ldquoder Loumlwe aus der Mitternacht since the 14th century connected to the prophecies from the old Testament talking about Godrsquos punishment of Roman Babylon To the protestants this prophecy was of renewed actuality and Gustav II Adolf as the representative of the protestant North was ldquothe Lion from the Northrdquo the protector of the protestant faith against the mighty catholic church He was aware of this and used it in his propaganda posing himself as a lion with a crown disembarking in Germany fighting the catholic opponents sometimes pictured as a hydra The decoration consists of many symbols of Power and Glory the Coat-of-Arms of the Vasa family lions a young Hercules and an experienced Hercules king David king of the Jews and the killer of Goliath It also consists of grotesque heads Tritons and Nereids innumerable warriors in Roman or 15th century armours and last but not least of twenty Roman emperors starting with Tiberius The reason for not including Augustus is simple By creating an anagram it is easy to see that the greatest Roman emperor was thought to have been reborn in the 17th century Swedish king Gustavus Sweden was always at war these days and Gustav II Adolf modernized and renewed the Swedish fleet In 1625 four new warships were ordered to be built by the Dutch shipbuilder Henrik Hybertsson and his brother who lived in Stockholm and built ships on a contract basis at the Royal Shipyard in Stockholm The ships were to be built within four years The two larger ships were Wasa and Three Crowns Ships were normally named after symbols of the reign like ldquothe Applerdquo ldquothe Swordrdquo etc The ldquovaserdquo is a corn sheaf the symbol of the Vasa family their coat-of-arms The keel was laid in spring 1626 38 meters long The total length was 61 meters including the beak-head The total height was 52 meters The ship was a ldquodouble decker ldquo ie it had two gun decks probably the first of its kind in Sweden Unfortunately this novel invention proved disastrous On the 10th of August 1628 when the Wasa was ready for her maiden trip she set sails and after a few gusts of wind she went to the bottom just outside Stockholm harbour At first attempts to lift the ship were made but nothing was achieved except righting her in her keel For 50 years efforts were made to salvage the treasures and some bronze cannons were actually rescued Soon the Wasa was left and forgotten In 1920 the historian Nils Ahnlund found facts about the fate of the flagship eg letters to the king describing the event and other documents in the archives and wrote an article in one of the largest national newspapers Svenska Dagbladet He had theories about its location but it was the amateur marine archaeologist Anders Franzeacuten probably inspired by the article who located it 36 years later and lifted the Wasa in April 1961 in cooperation with the private company Neptunbolaget and the navy

The Wasa (photo Andreas Thiel)

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 46

1 Short selection from the panegyric work by Clemens Venceslaus Gustavis Bohemia 1589-1636

At LEO nunc veniat Veniet LEO tempore fixo Vae tibi Vae BABYLON1 scelerata tuisque Cynaedis2 Vae tibi Vae Meretrix3 ( Gustavis 2 p32) Imprimisque videt quam sit labor arduus Hydram vincere ab Ausoniis4 flammas quae ructat5 in Orbem ( Gustavis 5 p81) hellipArctous6 hic ille est Alcides7 felix et fortunatus in hostes ( Gustavis 1 p1) hellipclava est opus Herculis hamo8

non capitur clava9 contunditur10 Hercules ille deplumet11 captamhellip ( Gustavis 2 p30) hellipvalidis qui fulminat armis Barbariem contra Latios et comprimit Angues12hellip ( Gustavis p120)

1 Babylon rdquo the great whore of the Revelationrdquo 2 Cynaedus -i m ( cinaedus-a-um) unchaste impudent shameless pervert 3 meretrix -icis f whore prostitute 4 Ausonius-a-um poetItalian Latin Roman 5 ructo 1 belch 6 Arctous-a-um northern 7 Alcides -is m the son of Alceus Hercules 8 hamus -i m hook 9 clavandashae f cudgel 10 contundo3 beat break to pieces 11 deplumo 3 pluck the feathers of 12 anguis-is m snake ( here of the pope and catholic priests)

Questions and Tasks 1 What symbols from history and mythology are used to justify Gustav II Adolfrsquos claims to power

and conquests for Sweden

2 Is there a contemporary parallel where a state or a union of states uses this kind of images to create a certain picture of the enemy and create heroism on their own side

2 Ovidius Metamorphoses 11 236- 265 The Myth of Peleus and Thetis The Metamorphoses of Ovid were read through the Middle Ages and Renaissance but at this time with a more symbolical and allegorical interpretation ldquoOvide moraliseacuterdquo a French edition of the texts was very popular and much read with an added moral comment or explanation and a motto or sentence to sum up In the case of Peleus and Thetis (Met XI 221-265) it was ldquoLabor omnia vincit improbusrdquo ldquoIncessant work conquers allrdquo since Peleus does not avoid any hardship to win Thetis In another myth (Met XI 749-795) the noble Aesacus son of Priamos of Troy loves the nymph Hesperia She tries to avoid him and she is bitten by a snake and drops dead Aesacus in his despair throws himself into the sea but the sea goddess Thetis changes him to a loon spending the rest of his life swimming in the sea The moral is that even if you lose what you struggle for the fight the tenacity and perseverance will be rewarded through the intervention of a higher power

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 47

The Myths of Peleus and Thetis and Aesacus from the galleon freeze (photos Andreas Thiel)

The shiprsquos beak (source httphembredbandnetjohavaforeship2JPG )

The original

Peleus pursuing Thetis

The original

Aesacus as a loon The original

quo saepe venire

frenato1 delphine sedens Theti2 nuda solebas

illic te Peleus ut3 somno vincta4 iacebas

occupat5 et quoniam precibus6 temptata7 repugnas8

vim parat9 innectens10 ambobus colla lacertis11

quod nisi venisses variatis saepe figuris

ad solitas12 artes13 auso foret ille potitus14

sed modo tu volucris15 volucrem tamen ille tenebat

nunc gravis arbor eras haerebat in arbore Peleus

tertia forma fuit maculosae16 tigridis17 illa

territus Aeacides a corpore bracchia solvit

inde deos pelagi18 vino super aequora fuso19

et pecoris fibris20 et fumo21 turis22 adorat23

donec24 Carpathius25 medio de gurgite26 vates27

1 frenatus-a-um reined 2 Theti vocative 3 ut with indicative as soon as 4 vincta (ppp vinco3) somno ablcausae 5 occupo1 here seize 6 preces -um f pl pleas requests 7 temptatus-a-um besetted strived for 8 repugno1 alicui rei resist 9 vim paro1 use violence take measure 10 innecto3 snare entangle 11 lacertus -i m arm 12 solitus-a-um usual ordinary 13 ars artis f here method way trick 14 potior potitus sum 4 to get hold of 15 volucris ndashis f bird 16 maculosus-a-um stained with spots 17 tigridis-e of a tiger 18 pelagus-i sea 19 fundo fudi fusum 3 pour 20 fibra-ae f intestine 21 fumus-i msmoke 22 tus- turis n incense 23 adoro1 pray entreat 24 donec until 25 Carpathius ndasha-um of the Aegian

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

European Symbols 48

Aeacide dixit thalamis28 potiere29 petitis30

tu modo cum rigido sopita31 quiescet in antro

ignaram32 laqueis33 vincloque34 innecte35 tenaci36

nec te decipiat37 centum mentita38 figuras39

sed preme40 quicquid erit dum quod fuit ante reformet41

dixerat haec Proteus et condidit42 aequore vultum

admisitque43 suos in verba novissima44 fluctus45

Now Titan was low in the sky and his chariot pointed downwards was close to the western ocean when the lovely Nereid left the wavesand came to her accustomed bed Peleus had scarcely taken a good grip of her virgin body when she took on new forms until she realised her limbs were tightly bound and her arms spread wide apart tum demum46 ingemuit47 ne que ait sine numine vincis

exhibita48 estque Thetis confessam49 amplectitur50 heros

et potitur votis ingentique inplet Achille

sea 26 gurges gurgitis m gulf 27 vates- is m seer Carpathius vates = Proteus 28 thalamus -i m matrimonial bed matrimony 29 potiere = potieris 30 peto petivi petitum 3 ask for 31 sopitus-a-um slumbering 32 ignarus-a-um not familiar not knowing 33 laqueus -i m snare fetter 34 vinclum -i n band fetter 35 innecto3 tie 36 tenax ndashcis grippingholding fast 37 decipio 3 fool betray 38 mentior mentitus sum 3 lie 39 figura ndashae f form shape 40 premo3 press 41 reformo1 change shape 42 condo condidi conditum 3 hide 43 admitto admisi admissum3 let go admit 44 novus -a-um here last 45 fluctus ndashus m flow 46 tum demum then at last 47 ingemesco- ui- itum 3 sigh 48 exhibitus-a-um shown revealed 49 amplector 3 embrace 50 confessus-a-um acknowledge admit

Questions and Tasks Why was this particular scene from the story of Peleus and and Thetis chosen as an illustration on the Wasa

Roman Emperors on the Wasarsquos beakhead (photos Andreas Thiel)

Sources - Hans Soop The Power and the Glory The sculptures of the Warship Wasa 1986 - Hans Soop Flytande palats 2007 - Gustavis Veneslaus Clemens Selection made of Professor emeritus Hans Helander in his talk

ldquoThe Herculesmotif in the Latin literature in the STORMAKTSTIDEN ldquoat the meeting of the Barockakademin 20-21 Nov 2008

- Latin text Peleus et Thetis httpwwwhs-augsburgde~harschChronologiaLsante01Ovidiusovi_me11html05

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

Switzerland William Tell by M-Christine Haller Aellig Switzerland

Brutus erat nobis Uro in arvo Assertor patriae vindex ultorque tyrannum

Henricus Glareanus Helvetiae Descriptio (1514)

Uri Schwyz Unterwalden ndashthe Waldstaetten ndash are the cradle of the Swiss Confederation At the end of the 13th century indeed citizens of these regions are supposed to have pronounced the Ruumltli16 Oath Their alliance was formulated in the Federal Pact traditionally dated August 1st 1291

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the ensuing disorders the territories which would later form German Swiss cantons went through many vicissitudes before being subordinated to the Habsburgs a house native from Aargau (northern part of modern Switzerland) incorporated at the time in the Holy Roman Empire In the last quarter of the 13th century the Habsburgs extended their influence to the south-eastern part of the Empire Austria When the Duke of Austria acceded to emperorship the relations between the alpine regions of the Waldstaetten and the Holy Empire were deeply transformed Up to that time the ldquoSwissrdquo who depended directly on the Emperor had enjoyed special privileges that the Habsburgs then suppressed because they were interested in taking advantage and making profits of the opening of the alpine passes to traffic More particularly in that case the military and trade route over St Gotthard Governors (Voumlgte) representing the Austrian power were imposed on those regions Some of them soon handled the population tyrannically Autochthones that claimed their rights and liberties rose up17

In this context appears William18 Tell the national hero that the Swiss humanist Glareanus compares with Brutus the liberator and avenger of the tyrants If William Tell is regarded as the liberator of his homeland usually he is not counted among the founders of the Old Confederation No document of that time mentions his name or existence Doubtless he never existed as such but his character crystallized because of the successful independence struggles of the Waldstaetten against the Duke of Austria

Transmitted orally at the beginning the legend of William Tell appears first in popular literature in the Ballad of Tell (Tellenlied) in the middle of the 15th century and in a theatre adaptation of the story some years later (first known performance in 1512) Around the same period (1470) the White Book of Sarnen (das Weisse Buch von Sarnen) mentions William Tell his name also appears in the Chronicon Helveticum by Aegidius Tschudi seventy years later All those texts are written in the vernacular language of this part of the country (German) Other humanists refer to the heroic actions of William Tell in Latin either they write immediately in Latin or they translate German texts into Latin

The traditional actions of William Tell are set at three moments in time The central part ndash the shooting of the apple off Tellrsquos sonrsquos head ndash sounds more like a legend than like an authentic fact Actually several Nordic sagas and other legends tell about a famous marksman compelled to prove his skill in dramatic conditions The episode that probably is the most akin to the shooting of the apple by William Tell is to be found in the Gesta Danorum a chronicle written around 1200 by Saxo Grammaticus Very seemingly travellers from the North resting for a while at the bottom of the St Gotthard before crossing the Alps to Italy told their legends that found there a fertile ground and prospered

16 Name of a meadow above Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee in German) Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332 17 Around 1420 the Bernese chronicle writer Konrad Justinger refers to the despotism and abuses of power of the Austrian governors without mentioning William Tell 18 Wilhelm in German Guillaume in French Guglielmo in Italian and Guglielm in Romansh our four languages

The Ruumltli Meadow (photo F Rytz)

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

So much for the myth The two other parts of the text and the story itself William Tell personifying the struggles for liberty and the murder of the tyrant have been successful for a long time After the fights and the enlargement of the Confederation in the 16th century William Tell was again up to date in the 18th century19 He and the other heroes of the Old Confederation were celebrated as ideal historical figures fighters for human rights representatives of republican virtues not only in Switzerland but also in France

where at the time of the Revolution Tell joined again Brutus and other Roman tyrannicides and heroes of liberty in the revolutionary pantheon At the very end of the 18th century during the struggles for independence in America a play about William Tell was performed in Philadelphia Soon after in 1804 the German poet Friedrich Schiller made William Tell the hero of the eponymous drama a man close to nature active loving liberty but bound with his compatriots in their fight against tyranny20 That inspired Gioacchino Rossinirsquos opera Guillaume Tell created in Paris in 1829

In Switzerland the Tell iconography from the Middle Ages up to now is very rich Let us mention only two among the most famous Tells the Tell monument by Richard Kissling (1895) in Altdorf the capital of canton Uri and Tellrsquos homeland and the painting by Ferdinand Hodler (1897)

which is very popular and represented everywhere in every context In the 21st century the 5 franc Swiss coin is still adorned with the effigy of William Tell

Josias Simler21 (Simlerus 1530 ndash 1576) De Republica Helvetiorum 58 sqq Tellii historia

Caeterum ltGrislerus1gt cum animos omnium exasperatos2 et a

se alienatos3 esse cerneret metuens occultam aliquam

conspirationem ut eam investigare4 posset hoc consilio usus

est Altorffi5 in foro quo maxima hominum totius regionis

frequentia convenire solet pileum6 praelongae perticae7

imponit ac omnes iubet nudato capite flexisque genubus

honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere8

consuevissent existimabat autem eos qui prae ceteris9 sibi

infensi essent nequaquam adduci posse ut tantum honorem

pileo exhibeant praesertim si confidant aliorum auxiliis

quibuscum convenerint hac autem occasione posse se

honesto titulo10 in eos animadvertere et tormentis ad

exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere

1 Grislerus -i m name of the Austrian governor (praefectus -i m German Vogt) today known as Gessler 2 exasperare to irritate 3 alienare to alienate 4 investigare to find 5 Altorffum -i n Altdorf (name of a place in Uri) 6 pileus -i m hat 7 pertica -ae f perch pole 8 aliquem honore afficere to pay onersquos respect to to honour 9 prae ceteris more than the others 10 titulus -i m pretext 11 Urii -orum m people of Uri 12 confoederatus -i m confederate (some people of the region were joined in a league in order to resist the tyranny of Gessler

19 ndash and each time when independence and liberty must be reaffirmed up to now 20 Tellspiele (the play by Schiller actually) regularly staged either in open air as in Interlaken at the bottom of the Alps and near a lake or inside as in Altdorf in the Tellspielhaus are very popular with Swiss and foreign tourists 21 Simler (httpfrwikipediaorgwikiJosias_Simmler) was interested in making known his native country and translated from German into Latin (the language of educated people all over Europa) parts of the Great Chronicle of Johannes Stumpf Gemeiner loblicher Eydgnoschafft Stetten Landen und Voelckeren Chronick wirdiger thaaten Beschreybung (1548) Simler had a vast plan of which the De Helvetiorum Republica is a fragment

5 franc coin (source enucoinnet)

The Tell Monument by R Kissling (photo F Rytz)

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

(hellip) Interea accidit apud Urios11 ut Vuilhelmus Tellius

confoederatorum12 unus aliquoties pileum illum stipiti13

impositum praeteriret nullo reverentiae14 et honoris signo

exhibito Ob hanc causam a praefecto15 accusatus suam

rusticitatem excusabat16 qui non existimasset ullius hoc

momenti17 esse Sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum

haberet18 e liberis eius filiolum unice charum19 patri deligit et

in vertice20 huius pomum21 sagitta petere illum iubet (erat

enim Tellius optimus sagittarius) ni illud deiiciat capite

poenas daturum Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli22

dicere seque potius mori paratum quam ut sagitta forte

aberrante charissimum filiolum feriat23 Cui praefectus ldquoNi

ieceris tibi una cum filiolo pereundum eritrdquo Quare cum

nullus excusationi aut ullis precibus locus relictus esset arcu24

sumpto Tellius Deo haud dubie iactum gubernante pomum e

vertice filii deiicit Omnibus autem felici iactui gratulantibus

unus praefectus satiari25 hac poena non potuit verum cum

sagittam alteram thoraci26 Tellii insertam27 cerneret quaerit in

quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra28 deprompserit29 Cui ille

id moris esse et in consuetudine sagittariorum positum ut

geminas sagittas depromant Sed res praefecto suspecta30 erat

itaque hominem acrius urget et tandem vitae impunitate31 illi

proposita verum elicit32 eum scilicet hoc consilio sumpsisse

alteram sagittam ut si priore filium feriisset secunda

praefectum peteret Tum vero praefectus se quidem uti33

promiserit vitam illi non erepturum esse inquit caeterum

coniecturum in perpetuos carceres ubi omni hominum

alloquio34 ac lucis usu privatus miseram in tenebris vitam

degat35 simulque vinctum navi imponi iubet ut eum ex

Uriorum regione Cussenacum36 abducat

Iamque medio lacu navigabant cum subito gravis tempestas

navim concutere37 et fluctibus paene obruere38 coepit Ibi cum

in summo vitae discrimine39 omnes versarentur40 quidam e

servis41 Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem

superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo42

adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse et simul

and to get their independence) 13 stipiti cf perticae 14 reverentia -ae f respect 15 praefecto ie Gessler 16 suam rusticitatem excusare to plead as an excuse for his peasant habits 17 momentum -i n importance 18 aliquem suspectum habere to suspect someone 19 charum = carum 20 vertice = capite 21 pomum -i n apple 22 ltessegt inauditi exempli to be of unheard severity 23 ferire to strike 24 Traditionally Tell who was not a soldier but a huntsman used a crossbow At that time that kind of weapon was extremely precise from a distance of 30 to 80 meters 25 satiari to be sated 26 thorax -cis m waistcoat 27 insero -is -ere -ui -tum to put in 28 pharetra -ae f quiver 29 depromo -is -ere -psi -ptum to draw out 30 suspectus -a -um suspicious 31 vitae impunitas -atis f immunity 32 elicio -is -ere to coax 33 uti = ut 34 alloquium -i n talk 35 degat = agat 36 Cussenacum -i n Kuumlssnacht a place where Gessler had his castle 37 concutere to agitate violently 38 obruere to overwhelm to ruin 39 discrimen -inis n danger 40 versarentur = essent 41 servus -i m servant assistant 42 gubernaculum -i n helm 43 pollere to be strong

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset

quoque robore corporis multum pollere43 Necessitate urgente

omnes id consilium probant ac Tellium solvunt Ille vero

gubernaculo sumpto vix multa vi e fluctibus navem eripit et

eam adversus Suitiorum44 terram dirigit quo loco non multum

a litore ingens saxum supra undas eminet45 (Tellii saxum

hodie nuncupant46) Huic cum appropinquasset arrepto arcu

suo (forte pone47 ipsum in puppi iacebat) in saxum hoc

desilit48 et simul quanto maximo potest nisu49 navim pedibus

in fluctus repellit atque inde se fuga in proximos montes

proripit50 Navis vero diu fluctuans51 tandem a servis praefecti

portui quem Brunnam52 a fontibus nominant appellitur53 Inde

cum praefectus Cussenacum peteret et illi inter Artam54 et

Cussenacum via quadam profunda55 iter faciendum esset

Tellius locorum peritus ea commoditate56 captata illuc se

abdidit inter fruteta57 et praetereuntem praefectum sagitta

conficit Extat58 nostra aetate sacellum59 eo loco quo

praefectus caesus est et alterum in saxo in quod Tellius e navi

desilit perpetua rei gestae monumenta

44 Suitii -orum m people of Schwyz 45 emineo -es -ere to stand out 46 nuncupant = vocant 47 pone + acc behind 48 desilire to jump 49 nisus -us m effort 50 se proripere to rush forth 51 fluctuans -tis being agitated in the waves 52 Brunna -ae f Brunnen a lakeside place (in German Brunnen means fons) 53 appello -is -ere to put ashore 54 Arta -ae f Arth a place at the southern end of Lake Zug 55 via quadam profunda this very deep and narrow path where they had to pass was and is still called die Hohle Gasse in German 56 commoditas -atis f advantage 57 frutetum -i n bush 58 extare to exist 59 sacellum -i n chapel

Questions and Tasks 1 Search for and locate the following places on Google Earth

a Switzerland and Lake Lucerne (Vierwaldstaettersee) b Cantons Uri Schwyz and Unterwalden (= Obwalden + Nidwalden) c The St Gotthard Pass (search for the main road from the end of the lake and follow over the Alps as far as Airolo d Altdorf and Tellrsquos Monument e Buumlrglen and Tellrsquos House f Tellrsquos Rock and Chapel near Sisikon g The Ruumltli Meadow on the opposite side of the lake h The port of Brunnen i Kuumlssnacht and Gesslerrsquos castle j Die Hohle Gasse and the Chapel between Kuumlssnacht and Arth

2 Download and copy the Apple Episode in Saxo Grammaticusrsquo Gesta Danorum (10 7 2-3) from httpwww2kbdkeliblitdansaxolatordsr107indexhtm The bold archer Toko hero of the story was compelled by his lord King Harald to shoot an apple off his sonrsquos head (10 7 1) Then answer the following questions a Saxo writes the history of the Danes and Simler that of the Swiss Is their manner the same in this passage b Compare how Toko and Tell prepare their sons for the ordeal Who is more careful Explain c Is there any difference in the archersrsquo material d Compare both boys and both fathers How old do you think they are Justify your answer e What do we know precisely of the boysrsquo sentiments and qualities at the moment f Now consider Saxorsquos opinion expressed in a very balanced way and find out the qualities that Saxo attributes to the father and to the son Which term sums up the boyrsquos attitude What is the consequence of this attitude for father and son

3 Grammar a Explain the use of the subjunctive in the following clauses 1 sed praefectus qui hominem suspectum haberet e liberis eius filiolum unice charum patri deligit 2 praefectus quaerit in quem usum hanc quoque e pharetra deprompserit b Explain the use of the infinitive in the following cases 1 Omnes iubet honorem eum pileo exhibere quo se praesentem afficere consuevissent 2 Tellius vero hanc rem inauditi exempli dicere 3 Quidam e servis Grisleri monet dominum unicam salutis spem superesse si vinctus Tellius solvatur et gubernaculo adhibeatur hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse c Explain the use of the Gerundive and Gerund in the following cases 1 hellip et tormentis ad exploranda consilia aliquos subiicere 2 hellip hunc enim navigandi peritissimum esse 3 Illi inter Artam et Cussenacum via quadam profunda iter faciendum esset