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EVALUATION AND RISK MANAGEMENT OF NOISE EXPOSURE
AMONG WORKERS AT PALM OIL MILL IN MALAYSIA
JOANNA HUANG CHUAN YING
HN140008
UNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA
EVALUATION AND RISK MANAGEMENT OF NOISE EXPOSURE
AMONG WORKERS AT PALM OIL MILL IN MALAYSIA
JOANNA HUANG CHUAN YING
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Engineering Technology
Faculty of Engineering Technology
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2016
iii
Dedicated to My Beloved Parents and family members
for their love, endless support, encouragement and sacrifices.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am using this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who supported me
throughout the research study. I am thankful for their aspiring guidance, invaluably
constructive criticism and friendly advice during the research work.
I am sincerely grateful to Rumaizah Binti Ruslan for sharing her truthful and
illuminating views on a number of issues related to the project.
Besides that, I would also like to thank the Palm Oil Mills that responded and
supported for the research-purpose visit and provided the information as well as
other relevant support in this study.
I would also like to thank my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr Ishak Bin Baba and
co-supervisors, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tan Lai Wai for their guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the research
project and also their support in completing the research.
Last but not least, I would like to acknowledge the Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia for the financial support through the Multidisciplinary Research Grant,
Vot no. U099.
Thank You,
Joanna Huang Chuan Ying
v
ABSTRACT
Occupational safety and health (OSH) has been a much talked about current issue.
This study focuses on occupational risk management on noise exposure in palm oil
mill in Johor and Melaka, Malaysia. The objectives of this study are to identify the
hazards based on perspective study among workers in palm oil mill, to evaluate
workplace and personal noise exposure level in palm oil mill, and to recommend
preventive measures for risk management on noise exposure in palm oil mill. The
study was assessed based on validated questionnaire, workplace inspections, personal
noise exposure level, and workplace noise exposure level. This study successfully
carried out at six mills (excluding pilot study). A total of 306 sets of questionnaire
were collected and noise monitoring was carried out at five mills. Statistical software,
SPSS version 21 was used to analyse the data from questionnaire. It is found that
noise is the most reported hazards among the respondents followed by dust. In
addition, environmental noise exposure level result shown that the highest noise level
was recorded at engine room in all mills ranges from 89.6dB to 98.2dB while
sterilizer station shown lowest noise level (76.2dB – 90.8dB). Meanwhile, only one
measurement recorded at engine room exceeded the permissible exposure level
(90.9dB > 90dB) for personal noise exposure level monitoring. Overall, the workers
in palm oil milling industry are exposing to high level of noise. Thus, it is highly
recommended to increase the workers‟ safety awareness and enhance the risk
management on noise exposure in palm oil mill.
vi
ABSTRAK
Keselamatan dan kesihatan pekerjaan (KKP) merupakan satu isu yang hangat
dibincangkan pada masa kini. Kajian ini memberi tumpuan kepada pengurusan risiko
pekerjaan terhadap pendedahan bunyi di kilang sawit di negeri Johor dan negeri
Melaka, Malaysia. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengenal pasti bahaya
berdasarkan kajian perspektif di kalangan pekerja di kilang sawit, menilai tahap
pendedahan bunyi tempat kerja dan peribadi di kilang sawit, dan mencadangkan
langkah-langkah pencegahan bagi pengurusan risiko pendedahan bunyi di kilang
sawit. Kajian ini telah dilaksanakan di enam kilang sawit (tidak termasuk kajian
rintis). Sebanyak 306 set soal selidik telah dikumpulkan dan pemantauan bunyi telah
dijalankan di lima kilang sawit. Perisian statistik, SPSS versi 21 digunakan untuk
menganalisis data yang diperoleh daripada soal selidik. Keputusan kajian mendapati
bahawa bunyi bising adalah bahaya yang paling banyak dilaporkan di kalangan
responden dan diikuti oleh debu. Selain itu, pemantauan pendedahan bunyi alam
sekitar menunjukkan bahawa tahap bunyi tertinggi dicatatkan di bilik enjin di semua
kilang iaitu antara 89.6dB dan 98.2dB manakala stesen penyehaba menunjukkan
tahap bunyi yang paling rendah (76.2dB – 90.8dB). Sementara itu , hanya satu
bacaan yang dicatatkan di bilik enjin melebihi tahap pendedahan yang dibenarkan
( 90.9dB > 90dB ) bagi pemantauan tahap pendedahan bunyi peribadi. Secara
keseluruhannya, pekerja dalam industri kilang sawit terdedah kepada tahap
kebisingan yang tinggi. Oleh itu adalah amat disyorkan kepada pihak pengurusan
untuk meningkatkan tahap kesedaran keselamatan pekerja dan meningkatkan
pengurusan risiko ke atas pendedahan bunyi di kilang minyak sawit.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background Study 2
1.3 Problem Statement 4
1.4 Objectives of Study 6
1.5 Scopes of Study 6
1.6 Significance of Study 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Palm Oil Mill Production Process 8
2.2.1 Fresh Palm Fruit 9
viii
2.2.2 Sterilization 10
2.2.3 Threshing 10
2.2.4 Digestion of Fruit 10
2.2.5 Oil Extraction 11
2.2.6 Clarification and Purification 11
2.2.7 Oil Storage 11
2.2.8 Kernel Recovery 11
2.3 Safety and Health Management in Palm Oil Mill 12
2.3.1 Hazardous Areas in Palm Oil Mill 12
2.3.2 Previous Studies of Occupational Safety 13
and Health in Palm Oil Mill
2.4 Hazard and Risk Definition 14
2.4.1 Hazard Identification, Risk 14
Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC)
2.5 Industrial Hazard 15
2.5.1 Hazards Identification and Classification 15
2.5.2 Likelihood of an Occurrence 16
2.5.3 Severity 17
2.5.4 Risk Matrix 17
2.5.5 Correlation Analysis 18
2.5.6 Deviation from Mean Technique 18
2.6 Risk Assessment 19
2.6.1 Element of Risk Assessment 19
2.6.2 Importance of Risk Assessment 20
2.6.3 Risk Assessment Techniques 20
2.7 Risk Management 21
2.7.1 Control Practices 23
2.7.1.1 Control at Source 24
2.7.1.2 Engineering Control 24
2.7.1.3 Awareness Training and Programme 24
2.7.1.4 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 25
2.7.2 Regulations and Legal Enforcement 25
2.7.3 Accident Insurance System 26
2.7.4 Collaboration between Occupational 27
ix
Safety and Health Agency and Public
and Professional Associations and
Corporate
2.8 Noise Exposure 27
2.8.1 Regulations and Guidelines of Noise 27
Exposure
2.8.2 Exposure to High Level of Noise 28
2.9 Act and Regulations 29
2.10 Roles of Various Agencies in OSH 30
2.11 Research Gap 31
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Research Design 34
3.2.1 Data Collection 37
3.2.1.1 Questionnaire 37
3.2.1.2 Workplace Inspection 39
3.2.1.3 Workplace Noise Exposure Level 41
Measurement
3.2.1.4 Personal Noise Exposure level 42
Measurement
3.2.2 Data Analysis 44
3.3 Relevant Standard 44
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 45
4.1 Introduction 45
4.2 Feasibility Evaluation 46
4.2.1 Reliability Analysis of Questionnaire 47
4.2.2 Identification of Hazards in Palm Oil Mill 48
4.2.3 Identification of Workstation with High 48
Noise Level
4.2.3.1Workplace Noise Exposure 48
4.2.3.2Personal Noise Exposure 49
4.3 Result and Analysis Based On Questionnaire 51
x
4.3.1 Descriptive Analysis 51
4.3.2 Perceived Hazard in Palm Oil Mill 53
4.3.3 Safety Education and Training Provided 55
to Workers
4.3.4 Cross Tabulation 56
4.3.4.1Evaluation of Usage of PPE at 56
Workstation
4.3.4.2Evaluation of Health Symptoms at 60
Workstation
4.3.4.3Evaluation of Tiredness Factors 63
4.3.4.4Evaluation of Association between Noise 63
Exposure and Health Symptoms
4.4 Noise Monitoring in Palm Oil Mill 64
4.4.1 Noise Level at Workstations 64
4.4.2 Personal Noise Exposure Level 67
4.4.2.1 Limitations of Personal Noise 69
Measurement
4.4.3 Frequency Analysis of Noise 70
4.5 Developing Safety Culture: Solution in 73
In Occupational Noise Management
4.5.1 Self-Regulatory 75
4.5.2 Safety Education and Training 75
4.5.3 Regulation Enforcement and 76
Encouragement
4.5.4 Engineering Control Practices 76
4.5.5 Nature of Task 78
4.5.6 Audiometric Testing Programme 78
4.5.7 Documentation Management 78
4.5.8 Signage 79
4.6 Summary 80
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 82
5.1 Conclusion 82
xi
5.2 Recommendations 83
REFERENCES 84
APPENDICES 89
xii
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Possible hazard at different workstation in
palm oil mill
12
2.2 Classification and potential sources of
hazards
16
2.3 Likelihood (L) with rating 17
2.4 Severity (S) with rating 17
2.5 Risk description and respective action 17
2.6 Summary of risk assessment technique used
by several researchers in the world
21
2.7 Permissible exposure limits 28
2.8 Roles of various agencies in OSH 30
2.9 Research gap-Elements of Occupational
Safety and Health research
32
3.1 Detail of data collection 37
3.2 Sample size for ±5%, ±7% and ±10%
precision levels where confidence level is
95% and P=.5
38
4.1 Palm oil mill and survey carried out at each
mill
46
4.2 Reliability analysis of questionnaire 47
4.3 Hazards reported by 33 workers in palm oil
mill
48
xiii
4.4 Results of Workstation Noise Exposure
Level
49
4.5 Results of Personal Noise Exposure Level 50
4.6 Demographic and background information
of 306 palm oil mill workers
51
4.7 Perceived hazards exist in palm oil mill 54
4.8 Perceived Hazard and its likelihood at
different workstation
54
4.9 Training attended by 306 respondents 55
4.10 The usage of PPE at different
workstation/personnel
58
4.11 Summary of association between
workstation and the usage of PPE
59
4.12 The workers‟ health symptom at different
workstation/personnel
61
4.13 Summary of association between
workstation and workers‟ health symptom
62
4.14 Summary of association of variables related
with tiredness
63
4.15 Summary of association between exposure
to noise and health symptoms
63
4.16 Workstations noise measurement result 65
4.17 Summary of personal noise exposure level
of palm oil mill workers at different
workstation
67
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Products contain palm oil 1
1.2 Malaysian palm oil exports by region 2
1.3 Occupational accidents statistic by sector in
the year 2015
4
1.4 Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) statistic
2005-2014
5
2.1 Palm oil processing flow chart 9
2.2 Flow chart of HIRARC process 15
2.3 Hazard identification in the process life
cycle
16
2.4 Risk assessment techniques 20
2.5 Elements of risk management 22
2.6 Implementation of risk control 22
3.1 Methodology to assess the occupational risk
management in palm oil mill
35
3.2 Research flow chart 36
3.3 Discussion with mill representative 40
3.4 Signage of compulsory PPE at boiler room 40
3.5 Sound level meter (ISO –TECH 1352N) 41
3.6 Dosimeter (Personal Noise Dosemeter -
1355)
42
3.7 Respondent equipped with dosimeter 43
xv
3.8 Respondent equipped with dosimeter 43
4.1 Location of participated palm oil mill in
Johor and Melaka
45
4.2 The type of Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE) used by the workers with its
percentage of use
56
4.3 Workers at Press Station 59
4.4 Crude palm oil production in the year
between 2011 and 2015
62
4.5 Minimum noise level (dB) in different
workstation
66
4.6 The frequency analysis of noise in one-third
octave band at sterilizer station
70
4.7 The frequency analysis of noise in one-third
octave band at press station
70
4.8 The frequency analysis of noise in one-third
octave band at kernel plant
71
4.9 The frequency analysis of noise in one-third
octave band at boiler room
71
4.10 The frequency analysis of noise in one-third
octave band at engine room
72
4.11 Safety culture model 73
4.12 Solution in occupational noise management 74
4.13 Layout of engine room at M06 77
4.14 The signage at sterilizer station 79
4.15 The signage at press station 79
4.16 The signage at kernel plant 80
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
DOSH - Department of Occupational Safety and Health
HAZOP - Hazard and Operability Study
NIOSH - National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
OSH - Occupational Safety and Health
PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
SLM - Sound Level Meter
SPL - Sound Pressure Level
TWA - Time Weighted Average
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE PAGE
A Questionnaire 89
B Questionnaire validation by OSD NIOSH 94
C Example of raw data of environmental noise
exposure level
95
D Example of raw data of personal noise exposure
level
98
E Calibration report 99
F List of palm oil mills participated in this study 102
G Layout of palm oil mills 103
H Approval Letter from Palm Oil Mill 106
I Progress Chart 110
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Palm oil is the world‟s most tradable vegetable oil because it is a versatile raw
material in most industries including food and non-food industries. Figure 1.1 shows
the products contain palm oil. Today, palm oil is also being an alternative to natural
fossil fuels in the form of biofuel in transport industry.
Figure 1.1: Products contain palm oil
Most palm oil is produced in South East Asia. Currently, Indonesia is the top
producer of palm oil in global, surpassed Malaysia since 2006. Other palm oil
producer countries are Thailand Columbia, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea and Ecuador.
Malaysia, the second largest palm oil producer is the largest exporter of palm oil in
the world. Malaysia palm oil is exports to China, Pakistan, European Union, India
2
and United States. Figure 1.2 shows the Malaysian Palm oil exports by region
between year 2001 and year 2013 (Malaysian Palm Oil Council, 2014).
Figure 1.2: Malaysian palm oil exports by region (Malaysian Palm Oil Council, 2014)
Apparently, the demand of world‟s palm oil is increasing and the global palm oil
export is expects to continually increase. This expectation was concurred by Gan &
Li (2014) who study on Malaysia‟s Palm Oil position in world market.
Malaysia economic growth is highly depends on manufacture and agriculture
sectors. Malaysia as the largest exporter of palm oil, thus the palm oil industry plays
an important role on developing and supporting the country economy. Many people
are involved in the oil palm industry in Malaysia hence it is crucial to ensure their
workplaces are safe to work.
1.2 Background Study
Malaysia is a strong player in trading market especially in trading agriculture
products. Malaysia exports about 44% of palm oil in the world and produces about
39% of world‟s palm oil (Malaysian Palm Oil Council, 2015).
Apart from that, Malaysia Government also puts a lot of efforts on improving
and strengthening its position in international trading market. Malaysia is one of the
3
top ranked exporters of agriculture products with increasing trend in annual average
growth rate (Ahmad & Sunthralingam, 2009).
The development and improvement of Malaysia status in international market
is growing. This indicates that the current occupational management in term of safety
and health should also accords with high degree of concern so that it could help the
country economy development. However, the occupational accidents rate in
manufacture and agriculture sector is relatively high as compared to others
(Department of Occupational Safety and Health, 2016).
It seemed that the safety culture and management in Malaysia still has rooms
for improvement. Ismail (2013) found that small and medium local owned
companies have less awareness and compliant to occupational noise management as
compared with the large companies owned by international investors.
Palm oil mills are important for the comprehensive development of
Malaysia‟s economy, thus it is very indispensable to provide the workers a safe and
comfortable workplace from undesired hazards. Everyone has the right to work at a
healthy and safe environment. Both employer and employees are responsible for
protection and prevention from hazards and risks that might adverse to health. The
field of occupational safety and health involves the studies of work-related accidents,
injuries and diseases, with the goal of aiding in the preservation and protection of
both human and physical assets in workplace.
Kumar et al. (2008) conducted a noise exposure study at oil mills in India
found that the workers are exposed to high noise and the noise was dominated by low
frequency noise. On the other hand, Naeini & Tamrin (2014) revealed that noise
level is one of the significant element that contributes to the increasing of stress level
among workers at palm oil mill.
Consequently, the study of occupational safety and health in term of risk
management on noise exposure is conducted, so that appropriate controls and
measures can be undertaken to enrich the noise management in mills.
4
1.3 Problem Statement
Apparently, occupational safety and health is a global much talks issue. Dozens of
researchers around the world are doing research work related with occupational risk
management in order to produce a safer and comfortable workplace. In accordance
with International Labour Organization (ILO, 2015), one worker dies from a work-
related accident or disease in every 15 seconds, and 153 workers have a work-related
accident in every 15 seconds.
According to Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH 2016)
Malaysia, the occupational accidents statistics by sector in year 2015 as shown in
Figure 1.3 illustrates that most accidents happened in manufacturing sector followed
by agriculture and construction.
Figure 1.3 Occupational accidents statistics by sector in the year 2015 (Department
of Occupational Safety and Health, 2016)
An accident in palm oil mill occurred in year 2013 has killed four workers
and caused some structural damaged. Preliminary investigation revealed that the
explosion accident might due to failure at sterilizer operation of the door locking
system (Department of Occupational Safety and Health, 2015). Certainly, the safety
and health management is important as so to reduce the chances of the happening of
Occupational accidents statistics by sector in the year 2015
Occ
upat
ional
Sec
tor
Manufacturing
Mining & Quarrying
Construction
Agriculture, Forestry, Logging & Fishing
Utility
Transport, Storage & Communication
Wholesale & Retail Trade
Hotel & Restaurant
Financial, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services
Public Services & Statutory Bodies
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 Number of Victims
Death (D) Non-Permanent Disability (NPD) Permanent Disability (PD)
5
undesired accidents. The workers‟ awareness on safety and regular inspection as well
as maintenance should be carried out to ensure the condition of machines.
Apart from that, studies also show that noise is an ignorant industry hazards.
High level of noise exposure in workplace had significant relationship with work
related safety and health issue. Excessive exposure to noise caused stress and hearing
loss to worker which then might bring about accidents (Abdullah & Bakar, 2014;
Roya & Shamsul B., 2014; Alajlan, 2013; Anang & Boadu, 2013 and Kumar,
Dewangan, & Sarkar, 2008).
In addition, statistic report shown by Social Security Organization (SOCSO)
shows the increasing number of workers in Malaysia experienced noise induced
hearing loss. Figure 1.4 shows the statistic of noise induced hearing loss between
year 2005 and 2014.
Figure 1.4: Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL) statistic 2005-2014 (Social Security
Organization, 2015)
The number of cases related with hearing loss was less than 100 cases per year from
2005 to 2008. Then it increased drastically in 2014 where 360 cases of noise induced
hearing loss were recorded. The increase in number of reported cases of hearing loss
might possible related with the rapid growth of country‟s manufacturing and
Noise Induced Hearing Loss Statistic (NIHL) 2005-2014
No. of
Cas
es
Year
6
agriculture sectors which the involvement of machine in processing products that
produced high level of noise. This reflects that the current noise management still
need some inputs to make it firm.
However, in spite of all the efforts had been done to create a safer and more
comfortable workplace, we still witnessed many cases regarding safety and health
issues in industries. This reflects that the current occupational safety and health
management required more inputs to make it firm. Therefore, extensive research in
occupational safety and health in palm oil milling industry should be conducted.
Therefore, this study focuses on identifying the hazards at the workstations in
palm oil mill and determine the workplace and personnel noise exposure level in
palm oil mill hence recommend suitable preventive measures for adequate risk
management.
1.4 Objectives of Study
The objectives of this study are:
i. To identify the hazards based on perspective study among workers in palm
oil mill;
ii. To measure and evaluate workplace and personal noise exposure level in
palm oil mill; and
iii. To recommend preventive measures for risk management on noise exposure
in palm oil mill.
1.5 Scopes of Study
This research was carried out at seven palm oil mills (including pilot study) in Johor
and Melaka. In Peninsular Malaysia, Johor is the biggest oil palm plantation state
followed by Pahang (Malaysian Palm Oil Board, 2014). Since Melaka is bordered
by Johor, the scope of this study includes both states. The noise monitoring in palm
oil mill were assessed based on questionnaire which had been validated by OSH
7
medical doctor, field trips observations, and direct assessment by using equipment
(sound level meter and dosimeter). The data collected from questionnaire was then
analysed by using statistical analysis software, SPSS. Meanwhile the environmental
and personal noise exposure levels were monitored by using SLM and dosimeter
respectively. The noise measurements then analysed by using the equipment's
software.
1.6 Significance of Study
Occupational safety and health is always an important issue morally, legally, and
economically. Everyone has the right to work in a healthy and safe environment.
Both employer and employees are responsible for protection and prevention from
hazards and risks that might be adverse to health and life.
The research study could provide information on the issue of occupational
safety and health in palm oil mill. Further, this study would also be beneficial to the
palm oil milling industries as this study provide useful information on the
occupational risk management in palm oil milling.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The overall goals of this chapter were firstly to establish the general field of study,
frame the different methodologies and techniques used in evaluating industrial
hazards, risk assessment and practices apply for risk management and identify a
place where the contribution could be made so as to determine the appropriate
approach for this study.
2.2 Palm Oil Mill Production Process
The palm oil industry is a valuable component of Malaysia‟s economic. Malaysia
was the world‟s largest producer of palm oil. But it is now second to Indonesia.
However, Malaysia still remains as the world‟s largest palm oil exporter.
The oil palm fruit is transported from the plantation to mill for processing
which extracts the fruits to produce palm oil. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the process of
palm oil.
9
Figure 2.1: Palm oil processing flow chart (adapted from Panapanaan, 2009)
2.2.1 Fresh Palm Fruit
Fresh fruit harvested from plantation is usually arrives at mill as bunches or loose
fruit. Once the fresh fruit arrives at mill, it will then weigh accordingly by using
weighbridges which installed at the mill‟s entrance before entering to the loading
ramp.
Removal of fresh fruit from it bunches will takes place if the fruit comes in as
bunches. This threshing process can be done either manually or with the aid of
machine that perform rotation to detach the fruit.
Raw Material
(Fresh Palm fruit) Loading Ramp Sterilization
Threshing Oil Extraction Clarification &
Purification
Depericarping
Refining
Storage
Nut Cracking
Crude Palm
Oil
Drying
Palm Kernel
Boiler
Palm Oil
Mill
Effluent
Treatment
Press
Shells
Fibers
Empty Fruit Bunch
Legend:
Product Process
Kernel
10
2.2.2 Sterilization
The fruit is then transported by fruit cage from loading ramp to sterilizer station for
sterilization process where the fruit is cooked or steamed by high temperature wet-
heat treatment (Poku, 2002).
This purpose of sterilization process is:
i. to soften the fruit so that it would be easier to be separated from
bunches,
ii. to increase fruit humidity,
iii. to prevent enzymatic decomposition, and
iv. to solidify proteins.
2.2.3 Threshing
After sterilization, the fruit will be sent for threshing where the fruit is separated
from fruit bunches through strong vibrations by machine followed by mashing and
crushing of fruit until it‟s broken. The fruit passed through shredder and press
machine in crushing process to separate oil from fibre and seeds (Poku, 2002).
2.2.4 Digestion of Fruit
In this process, the palm oil in the fruit is released through the breaking down of oil-
bearing cells by action of rotating shaft. The fruit is pounded by rotating beater arms
in high temperature which helps to reduce the viscosity of the oil, destroys the fruit‟s
outer covering and completes the disruption of the oil cells which already begun in
sterilization stage (Poku, 2002).
11
2.2.5 Oil Extraction
There are two methods to extract the palm oil, i.e. the dry and wet method. Dry
method uses mechanical press system while wet method uses hot water to leach out
the oil (Poku, 2002).
2.2.6 Clarification and Purification
In clarification process, the crude oil pressed from machine is first diluted with water
washing, through settlements and filtration, the fibre material removed from the oil.
The oil and the sludge are taken out separately. Oil purification process is the takes
place to improve the palm oil purity. Meanwhile, the palm oil mill effluent will then
undergo treatment before it is discharged.
Oil palm produces two distinct oils which are palm oil from the flesh of palm
fruit and palm kernel oil from the seed. For every 10 tonnes of palm oil, about 1 ton
of palm kernel oil is obtained (Panapanaan, 2009).
2.2.7 Oil Storage
Palm oil is stored in large steel tanks at 31°C to 40°C to ensure it is in liquid form
during bulk transport. The tank headspace is usually flushed with carbon dioxide to
prevent oxidation. According to Poku (2002), maximum storage of the oil is about 6
months at 31°C.
2.2.8 Kernel Recovery
The mixture of fibre and nuts residue from press is separated by hand in small-scale
operation or by steam boiler in large-scale mill. The sorted fibre is allowed to heat by
using its own internal exothermic reactions, for about two to three days then pressed
to recover the second grade oil. This oil is normally used in the making of soap.
Meanwhile, the nuts are usually dried and sold to other operators to produce palm
kernel oil.
12
2.3 Safety and Health Management in Palm Oil Mill
Malaysian Palm oil industry is a regulated industry. Both Occupational Safety and
Health Act 1994 (Act 514) and Factories and Machinery (Noise Exposure)
Regulations 1989 are highly compliant in palm oil mill.
2.3.1 Hazardous Areas in Palm Oil Mill
Most of the processing areas in palm oil mill are hazardous. The common hazards in
palm oil mill are high level of noise exposure, slippery, fire or explosion and
excessive heat. Table 2.1 shows the possible hazard at different workstation in the
mill based on previous studies (Nurlzzate et al., 2015; Hadi et al, 2014; Kumar et al.,
2008).
Table 2.1: Possible hazard at different workstation in palm oil mill
Area Hazard
Noise Slippery Fire Heat
Loading Ramp √
Sterilizer Station √ √
Press Station √ √ √
Oil Room √ √ √
Kernel Station √ √ √
Engine Room √
Noise is the most reported hazard in palm oil mill especially at the
workstations that have heavy machineries such as sterilizer station, press station, oil
room, kernel station and engine room. One of the possible reasons that noise is not
reported at loading ramp is because the area itself does not have any noise source.
The loading ramp is not always operating like other workstations mentioned above.
The noise at loading ramp only exists when there is loading event. Once the fresh
palm fruits were fully distributed to sterilizer station, the loading ramp stops its
operation.
13
2.3.2 Previous Studies of Occupational Safety and Health in Palm Oil Mill
Many research and studies had been done in palm oil industry as Malaysia
government plans to transform the agricultural sector into green and sustainable
sector to enhance the competitiveness in international level. Some of the studies of
palm oil mill are related with the sustainability and green-technology with minimize
the effects of pollution that adverse the nature (Choong & McKay, 2014; Fair Labor,
2013; Nazir et al., 2012; Teoh, 2010). Furthermore, the study on occupational safety
and health in palm oil mill is also very vital as it is the foundation of providing
sufficient manpower to work.
A noise exposure study was conducted by Kumar et al. (2008) at oil mill in
India using Sound Level Meter (SLM). Result revealed that about 26% of workers
were exposed to high noise level, i.e. more than 85dBA and the noise was dominated
by low frequency noise. Long term engagement of workers in such environment will
have detrimental effect on health. Another study related with health problem was
conducted by Kumah et al. (2014) to identify the prevalence of eye diseases among
woman engaged in palm kernel oil extraction in Ghana. Their study has shown that
those women are highly exposed to prevalence eye diseases. The women are also
exposed to occupational injuries. Most common injuries in the mill are cuts and
burns.
Nurlzzate et al. (2015) conducted a study at two palm oil mill in Johor,
Malaysia to investigate the physiological effects on workers exposed to extreme heat.
Through the analysis, it was found that the workers in the mill were experiencing
moderate heat and weak correlation found between physiological effects in term of
body core temperature, blood pressure and heart rate towards heat exposure. Study of
Naeini & Tamrin (2014) focused on the non-auditory effects of noise at two selected
mills in Malaysia. The environmental sound levels were measured in seven sections
within the mill and O‟Donnell inventory was used as a tool to determine the stress
level. Naeini & Tamrin (2014) concluded that noise is a threat to health and
contributes the increase of stress level.
14
2.4 Hazard and Risk Definition
Generally, hazard is the source or material which can cause harm while risk usually
defines as the chance of the hazard that causes harm. Department of Occupational
Safety and Health (2008), affirmed that "hazard means a source or a situation with a
potential for harm in terms of human injury or ill health, damage to property, damage
to the environment or a combination of these". Meanwhile, "risk means a
combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event with specified
period or in specified circumstances and the severity of the injury or damage to the
health of people, property, environment or any combination of these caused by the
event".
2.4.1 Hazard Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC)
Risk management methodology starts with risk assessment which identifies the
hazards and characterizes the likelihood. Then it continues with the hazard impact
rating and follows by deciding suitable and reasonable solution. These steps need to
review from time to time to evaluate the efficiency of the management.
On the other hand, enforcement parties and government also play significant
roles in ensuring the effectiveness of occupational risk management. A number of
guidelines, rules and regulations, risk management techniques, systems and
technologies have been established to create a safer workplace. However, the
approaches only can be successfully carried out with the awareness from the
involved parties. Figure 2.2 shows the flow chart of HIRARC. HIRARC is the basis
of occupational safety and health which also is a popular tool and structured
approach that complies with hazard identification, risk assessment and risk control.
Many studies had been successfully done by using such approach (Hadi et al.2014;
Abd Rahim, 2013; Agwu, 2012)
15
Figure 2.2: Flow chart of HIRARC process (DOSH, 2008)
2.5 Industrial Hazards
Industrial hazards exist in almost every workplace. This sub-topic discusses the type
of hazards, its likelihood and severity rating and techniques available to evaluate the
hazards.
2.5.1 Hazards Identification and Classification
Sources of hazards can be assorted in to five categories (5M) which consists of man,
machinery, materials, method and media. Generally, hazards are classified in
physical, mechanical, biological, chemical, and ergonomics and psychological.
Figure 2.3 illustrates the Hazard identification in the process life cycle
(Glossop et al., 2005). Meanwhile Table 2.2 lists the classification and potential
sources of hazards.
16
Figure 2.3: Hazard identification in the process life cycle (Glossop et al., 2005)
Table 2.2: Classification and potential sources of hazards
2.5.2 Likelihood of an Occurrence
The likelihood of an occurrence means the probability of an event happened. It
ranges from "most likely" to "inconceivable" and given a rating from 5 to 1. The
frequent the occurrence, the higher the rating. Table 2.3 shows the likelihood rating
with its description.
Hazards Classification Potential Sources Of Hazards
Physical Noise, vibration, frayed electrical cords
Mechanical Pinch points, overload, machinery
Biological Blood, bacteria and virus
Chemical Exposed to chemical substances (solid, liquid,
gas), cleaning solvents, fumes
Ergonomics Awkward movement, improperly adjusted
workstations
Psychological Stress, sexual harassment, workplace violent.
17
Table 2.3: Likelihood (L) with rating (DOSH, 2008)
Likelihood (L) Description Rating
Most likely The most likely result of the hazard/ event being realized 5
Possible Has a good chance of occurring and is not unusual 4
Conceivable Might be occur at sometimes in future 3
Remote Has not been known to occur after many years 2
Inconceivable Is practically impossible and has never occurred 1
2.5.3 Severity
In casually, the severity also divided into five groups, ranges from "catastrophic" to
"negligible" and given the rating of 5 to 1. Table 2.4 shows the severity level with its
description.
Table 2.4: Severity (S) with rating (DOSH, 2008)
Severity (S) Description Rating
Catastrophic Numerous fatalities, irrecoverable property damage and
productivity
5
Fatal Approximately one single fatality major property damage
if hazard is realized
4
Serious Non-fatal injury, permanent disability 3
Minor Disabling but not permanent injury 2
Negligible Minor abrasions, bruises, cuts, first aid type injury 1
2.5.4 Risk Matrix
Risk matrix is the outcome of presenting result based on likelihood and severity
method. Relative risk is the product of likelihood and severity. The risk score with
respective action needs to be taken is shown in Table 2.5. The higher the score
obtained from the multiplication of likelihood and severity rating indicates the higher
the risk level.
Table 2.5: Risk description and respective action (DOSH, 2008)
Risk Score Description Action
1-4 Low Acceptable, further reduction may not be necessary
5-12 Medium Temporary measures
13-25 High Immediate action
18
2.5.5 Correlation Analysis
Correlation analysis is one of the common analysis method used by researchers to
understand the hazard, its risk and effect. Abdullah & Bakar (2014) have conducted
correlation analysis between machinery, environment, risk control, self-awareness,
social support and noise-induced hearing loss in a manufacturing company located in
Northern Peninsular Malaysia. Through correlation analysis, it was found that factors
of environment and risk control have significant relationship with hazard regarding
noise induced hearing loss as too much noise of the surrounding increase the chance
of experiencing hearing loss while established suitable controls could provide
protection from hearing loss.
Using similar correlation framework, Zakaria et al. (2012) have conducted
investigations on 322 workers at Pangkalan Bekalan Kemaman Sdn. Bhd., a
petroleum supply industry located in Terengganu, Malaysia. It has been shown that
stress and fatigue, unsafe act, machinery, workplace design as well as training
procedures have significant relationship with workplace accidents.
2.5.6 Deviation from Mean Technique
Ceylan (2013) has developed a quantitative hazard/risk evaluation technique, i.e. the
deviation from mean technique which provides causes of work-related accidents, and
estimates the possible accidents in workplace. The information also can serve as
accident report.
The estimation can be determined by analysis of previous hazards and
accidents at a workplace using statistical approach. The technique is more effective
in medium and large-scale industries. Steps involved in data analysis in this
technique are:
Provide database with sufficient reports, preferably equal or more than 40
data to ensure results are statistically reliable,
Establish factors of accidents occurrences based on the events information e.g.
location, time, shift, and duty,
19
Averages deviation test is conducted on each factor that influences the
accident which provides the coefficient of deviation, and
Ranking of the causes of accident in order of importance i.e. based on the
frequency ratios.
A factor is considered the cause of accident if its coefficient of deviation is greater
than the average number of accidents.
2.6 Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is one of the important parts of risk management. It identifies the
hazards then follows by the evaluation of risks from workstations. Most properly
there are three types of risk assessment approaches which comprise of qualitative,
semi-quantitative and quantitative risk assessment. Every risk management starts
with the assessment and then continues with selection of suitable control measures
and reviews the outcomes time to time.
Risk assessment protects employers and employees, as well as comply with
law such as Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) and Factory &
Machinery Act 1967. The results obtained from risk assessment should be
documented properly for further action on risk control and future review in
occupational safety and health (OSH) management.
2.6.1 Element of Risk Assessment
Generally, risk assessment can be classified into five elements which are:
i. Identify the hazards;
ii. Decide who and how might be harmed;
iii. Evaluate the risk and decide appropriate controls;
iv. Record the findings and implementation; and
v. Review and update the assessment when necessary.
The risk assessment should be carried out before, during and after the
operation so that the management able to gather related information for comparison
20
for further action. Apart from that, the review of assessment is separates into two
portion, initial review and periodic review.
2.6.2 Importance of Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is a vital part of risk management as it provides useful information
related with hazards and risks hence enhance the effectiveness of managing the risks.
On the other hand, carry out risk assessment in an organization is required by law
which include Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Control of Industrial Major
Accident Hazards (CIMAH) Regulations 1996 and as well as OSH management
system standards (MS 1722:2003, OSHAS 18001 and ISO 14001).
2.6.3 Risk Assessment Techniques
There are many techniques available to identify and evaluate the risk. According to
Ali et al. (2014) who explained several hazard evaluation techniques which include
job safety analysis, HAZOP study, failure and effect modes analysis, fault tree
analysis, event tree analysis, behavior-based safety analysis and relative ranking
techniques. He highlighted that the selection of suitable technique in order to conduct
a survey or research affects the outcomes since ach technique has its own advantages
and disadvantages. Figure 2.4 shows the available risk assessment techniques while
Table 2.6 summarizes the technique used by different researchers.
Figure 2.4: Risk assessment techniques
21
Many researchers used questionnaire as well as workplace conditions
measurement to assess noise study (Abdullah & Bakar 2014; Naeini & Tamrin, 2014;
Kumar et al. 2008; Nelson Imel et al. 2006).
Table 2.6: Summary of risk assessment technique used by several researchers in the
world
2.7 Risk Management
Risk is the product of severity and likelihood of the occurrence of event that adverse
to safety and health (DOSH, 2008). Apparently, poor workplace practices create
hazards and risk. Selecting an appropriate and suitable measure approach plays the
vital role of effectiveness of risk management.
The risk management process typically comprises activities of identification,
assessment, evaluation and monitoring of risk. Figure 2.5 illustrates the elements of
risk management in a cycle. Meanwhile, Figure 2.6 demonstrates the implementation
of risk management.
Researchers/ Authors Techniques Used Scope/Country
Burda et al. (2014) Failure and Effect Modes
Analysis (FEMA)
Automotive (Nitra, Slovak
Republic)
Khan et al. (2014) Severity and Likelihood
Questionnaire
Textile Industry (Lahore,
Pakistan)
Nodoushan et al. (2014) William Fine Procedure Gas Refinery (Iran)
Alajlan (2013) Workplace Condition
Measurement Paper Mill (US.)
Nikoli & Nikoli (2013) Health Checks Sailor Health; Noise
(Montenegro)
Kania et al. (2012) Polish Standard PN-N-
18002:2000 Mining (Poland)
Smith & Dejoy (2012) General Social Survey (GSS) Occupational Injury (US.)
Pinto et al. (2011) Fuzzy Logic Theory Construction (Portugal)
22
Figure 2.5: Elements of risk management (adapted from Moraru, 2012)
Figure 2.6: Implementation of risk control (Kogi, 2002)
23
According to Kong et al. (2007), a good occupational safety and health
management should complies the following criteria:
Humanitarian Consideration
Safe and sound workplaces should be provided to all employees so that they
feel ease at work. Besides that, a comfortable workplace also reduces risk of
work related effectively.
Financial Costs
The occurrence of an incident might leads to worker injury or damage of
property the required certain amount of money for compensation and repair.
In addition, the incident might also affects the productivity process which
then causes some losses on company interests. Hence, mitigate and control
risk become important in order to protect the benefit of both employers and
employees.
Legal Sanction
Several guidelines have been establish by Department of Occupational Safety
and Health (DOSH) Malaysia such as Guidelines on Occupational Safety and
Health Management Systems (DOSH, 2011), Guidelines on Occupational
Safety and Health Act 1994 (DOSH, 2006), Guidelines on Safety and Health
(Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence, Occupational Poisoning
and Occupational Disease) (Department of Occupational Safety and Health,
2004) and so on. Besides that, Malaysia Standard (MS) also plays an
important role in the contribution of systematic approaching better quality
management.
2.7.1 Control Practices
Control measures for safety and health management usually apply at the source,
along the pathways and at the worker. Commonly, the control placed at source is the
most effective way to dominate hazard and risk. However, this is not allowed in
many cases. Alternately, controls along the pathways and at worker are necessary.
24
2.7.1.1 Control at Source
There are two ways to control the hazard at source, elimination or substitution. This
means that by removing or replacing the hazardous material or machine at the
workstation in order to protect workers. However, removal of hazardous material or
machine is usually unlikely to takes place, thus substitution might be the next option.
2.7.1.2 Engineering Control
The implementation of engineering control is more towards establishing a stable and
practical working environment. In view of control at source is unlikely to happen, the
alternative general solutions involve the design or modification of plants and
equipment, isolation, barriers, dilution, automation and absorption. Apart from that,
regular maintenance and supervision of competent person also should properly
schedule.
2.7.1.3 Awareness Training and Program
In most of the cases, administrative controls are not favourable as it has many
limitations. However, safe work practices are still very important. One of the
important characters of administrative control is to create awareness among workers
of occupational safety and health. Education and training should be given to workers
so that they could work safely.
The effectiveness of occupational noise training among workers in
manufacturing industries in Peninsular Malaysia were evaluated by Ismail (2013).
Participants of the study are workers from 200 companies selected from the
Federation of Malaysia Manufactures directories. Result has shown that workshop-
based training has improved workers‟ knowledge about hazards posed by noise at
workplace. It was highlighted that the implementation of healthy hearing behavior
and awareness has direct contribution in the prevention of hearing loss. The study
also emphasized that the implementation of awareness training shall target on
broader groups of workers from different level.
84
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