Evolution of Environmental Governance

Geetanjoy SahuSchool of Habitat Studies

Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai 

Email id:geetanjoy@tiss.edu

Discussion 

Concepts

History of Environmental Legislations 

Contributing Factors

What do we mean by Environmental Governance?

How and who participates in the decision making process to distribute environmental goods and burdens?

Who is in and out?

Ownership, Access, Use and Distribution of Resource

Conservation, Protection and Regeneration

Process of Environmental Governance

Driven by the principles:

* Extraction

* Exclusion 

* Centralisation

Historical Perspective

Pre­Colonial Period

Local Community ownership over resources before colonial rule

Traditional Norms and customary rights 

                                                                      Colonial Period

A different framework after India’s encounter with colonial rule

Transformation of resources (land) into commodities

Commercialisation of agriculture in 1777 (Indigo plantation, opium, tea & coffee, cotton crop)

Extraction of Resource

• Land Acquisition Act of 1894

• Indian Forest Act of 1927

• Malguzari Tank System

Resistance to Resource Appropriation

Indigo Movement

Deccan Movement

Movement in Bombay and Madras Presidency

Tribal Movements

Evolution of Laws

Forceful Indigo Plantation was stopped in 1860

Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act 1879

Bengal Tenancy Act 1885

Chotanagpur Tenancy Act 1908

Post­Independence Period

Extraction of Resource Continues...

National Forest Policy of 1952

Centralisaton of Resource Management

Reinforced state’s exclusive power over resources 

First Wave of Environmentalism (Late 19th Century­till 1973)

Objective

• To challenge the indiscriminate diversion of resource

• Ban Commercialisation of agricultural activities

• Social appropriation of resource management

Second Wave of Environmentalism

Three Important Factors

Emergence of environmental movements in 1970s 

Research and intellectual engagement

Increasing concern for environment at the policy level

Movement against big dams in

North and Central India

Movement against big dams in

North-East

Movement against illegal mining in Central and Eastern

India

Movement to protect sacred trees and animals in Rajasthan

by the Bishnois

Movement to ban Shahtoosh Shawls in Kashmir

Movement against Nuclear Power Plants in Jaitapur and

Kudankulam

Movement against big trawlers in Coastal States

Environmental Movements

Save  Silent  Valley  Movement  (1973)  to  Anti­POSCO Movement (ongoing)

Different  methods  (Public  activism  to  knowledge  based activism)

Who  should  own  and  distribute  the  natural  resources  and also  for  what  purpose?  (State,  Community  (Any  kind  of community) or Market)

Different Environmental Values by Different Communities

Environment

CasteClass

Gender

Religion

Political Economic

Culture

Environmental concern at the policy level

• Since 1970s: More than 200 laws

• Wildlife Protection Act (1972) to National Green Tribunal Act (2010)

• Objectives: Generating revenue, meeting the livelihood needs of people, balancing growth and environment.

Types of Environmental Law

Statutory Acts

Constitutional Provisions

Common Laws

Law Making Process

How to understand different forms of Law/Policy?

Constitutional ProvisionsStatutory ActAmendmentRulesOrdinanceNotificationOrderMemorandumGuidelinesPolicyPlans, Programmes & Schemes

Constitutional Provisions

42nd Amendment Act of 1976

Article 48(A) “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.

Article 51A(g) “ It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures”.

Subject Lists: Union, State, Concurrent

Statutory Acts (More than 200)

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1974

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (Indian Forest Act, 1927)

Air Pollution Prevention Act, 1981

Environmental Protection Act, 1986

Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995 (Repealed in 2010)

National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Forest Rights Act, 2006

National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

Environmental Rules/Notifications….

Hazardous Substances Management, 1989

Coastal Regulation Zone, 1991

Eco-Sensitive Zones, Since 1991….

Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 1994

Noise Pollution, 2000

Solid Waste Management, 2000

Policy Documents

National Forest Policy of 1952

National Forest Policy of 1988

Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution of 1992

National Water Policy of 2002

National Environmental Policy of 2006

National Biodiversity Action Plan of 2008

Common Laws (Judiciary-driven Law)

Common law refers to law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals

Also, known as judicial precedents

For example: (Right to healthy Environment is part of fundamental right to life)

Legal Framework for Environmental Protection in India: An Overview

Eminent Domain Approach (LAA 1894 & 2013)

Command and Control Approach (Rules and Regulations)

Market Based Approach (Incentives)

Eminent Domain Theory

Exclusive power to state

Power to acquire 

Without the owner's consent

For the public purpose

Command & Control Approach

Three Instruments

1. Consent to establish producing units

2. Consent to operate

3. Standards for air and water pollution

Command and Control Approach: 1970s

• Wildlife Protection Act 1972

• Water Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act 1974

• 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 (Article 48(A) and Article 51A(g)

• Project Tiger was launched

• Notification of Protected Areas

• Pollution Control Board was set up in 1974

Major Developments in 1970s

Stockholm Conference (1972)

Indira Gandhi's Environmental Concerns

Indira Gandhi's Letter to CMs of all nine coastal states 

Indira  Gandhi's  Statement  at  the  Stockholm  Conference (1972): Poverty is the biggest Polluter 

Environmental Law and Policy: 1980s

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (Indian Forest Act, 1927)

Air Pollution (Prevention & Control) Act, 1981

Environmental Protection Act, 1986

Institutionalization of environment protection

Environmental Ministry was formed

Major Developments in 1980s

Bhopal Gas Tragedy

Rajiv Gandhi and T N Seshen's leadership

Environment Report of CSE

Judicial Activism for environmental protection

Demand for decentralisation of resource management

Environmental Law & Policy: 1990-2017

Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995 (Repealed in 2010)

PESA 1996

Contd...

EIA Notification: 1994, National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

Forest Rights Act, 2006

National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

Major Developments

• Rio Conference (1992), Johannesburg Conference (2002), Durban (2012)

• Greening of International Institutions (World Bank, IMF)

• Demand for more regulation in an era of deregulation

• Environmental Leadership at all levels 

• Rio Conference (1992), Johannesburg Conference (2002), Durban (2012)

• Greening of International Institutions (World Bank, IMF)

• Demand for more regulation in an era of deregulation

• Environmental Leadership at all levels 

            THANK YOU