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EX-SITU AND IN-SITU CONSERVATION: EXPERIENCES FROM

ANDHRA PRADESH

Rahul Pandey

Field Director & Conservator of Forests

Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve

SRISAILAM (Andhra Pradesh)

ABSTRACT

The management practices towards conservation of Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris)

on apex of ecosystem has been studied in Nagarjunasagar Srisailam tiger Reserve and the

conservation breeding programme of wild dogs in Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,

Visakhapatnam has been studied. The phase 4 monitoring in NSTR has been taken up in

an extensive manner to conserve the biodiversity and the flagship species, tiger. It is

proposed to take up extensive monitoring to conserve and protect the rich Nallamala

Forest tract. The proper monitoring of the wildlife sanctuary will be crucial for the long

term survival of tigers in NSTR. The conservation breeding programme of wild dogs will

help to supplement the restocking of the species in various zoos of India as the total

population of dholes is 23 in Indian zoos as well as in wild to the extent possible. Finally

these case studies give a good insight of ex-situ and in-situ conservation in NSTR and

IGZP of Andhra Pradesh

KEY WORDS

Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Phase 4

monitoring, Camera Trapping, Tiger (Panthera tigris), Wild dogs (Cuon alpinus)

INTRODUCTION

In-situ Conservation is on – site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations

of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree

species. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animals in its

natural habitat. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in situ conservation. This

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involves the protection of wildlife habitats. The large reserves are maintained to enable

the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to

enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within the population, so that it has a

good chance of continuing to adopt and evolve over time.

Ex-situ conservation means off site conservation. It is the process of protecting as

endangered species of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. Zoos and Botanical

gardens are the most conventional methods of ex situ conservation. It houses the

specimens for breeding and reintroduction into the wild when necessary and possible.

These facilities provide not only the housing and care for the specimens of endangered

species, but also have an educational value. Ex situ conservation, while helpful in men‟s

efforts to sustain and protect the species, is rarely enough to save a species from

extinction.

This paper is an attempt to highlight the efforts of Andhra Pradesh Forest Department to

conserve the biodiversity with flagship species tiger in Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger

Reserve, Srisailam which is the largest tiger reserve in the county with a total area of

5938 square Kilometers and conservation breeding of Wild Dogs to supplement

population in other zoos and re- introduction to the wild, to the extent possible in Indira

Gandhi Zoological Park Vishakhapatnam which is designated as one of the large Zoos in

country by Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi.

In-situ Conservation: A case study from Nagarjunasagar Srisailam

Tiger Reserve

Situated in the Nallamalais - an offshoot of Southern Eastern Ghats of A.P., this

sanctuary is decorated with mosaic of Geo-Morphological, floristic and a variety of

faunal species. Most of this sanctuary is hilly terrain with plateaus, ridges, gorges and

deep valleys which support tropical mixed dry deciduous forests with an under growth of

bamboo and grass. The census taken in 1979 revealed the existence of 40 tigers in this

area. Fascinated by the population of Tiger and its suitable habitat, the Govt. of India has

brought this sanctuary under the fold of Project Tiger.

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The total area as notified in the Gazette is 5938.09 Km2. This P.A. apart from being a

large sanctuary also contributes varied types of values ranging from panoramic scenic

Landscape, endemic flora and fauna, brooks, valleys, water falls to cultural, aesthetic,

scientific, economic and rich biodiversity values.

Consequent to the reorganization of forest divisions in the year 1999, the Project Tiger

Circle, Srisailam is mainly constituted with the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve,

Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (G.I.B.) and Gundlabrahmeswaram Wildlife Sanctuary

(GBM) (Part) as an extended core covering a total area of 6,664 Sq. Kms in Nallamalas

of Kurnool, Prakasam, Guntur, Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar Districts under the

unitary administrative control of the Conservator of Forests and Field Director, Project

Tiger Circle, Srisailam. Thus, both the sanctuary and buffer area management is under

the control the Field Director. This Circle consists of (4) Wildlife Management-cum-

Territorial Divisions viz; Atmakur Wildlife Management Division, Achampet Wildlife

Management Division, Markapur Wildlife Management Division and Nagarjunasagar

Wildlife Management Division. In addition there are (2) Functional Divisions i.e., Flying

Squad Division, Srisailam and Biodiversity Research Division, Srisailam and Gundla

Brahmeswaram portion of Atmakur and Markapur divisions which is an extended core.

Amrabad plateau on the north bank of the river Krishna, used to hold maximum number

of tigers. Dr. Salim Ali in his famous book „The fall of the sparrow‟ writes that the

highest concentration of tigers ever seen in India was at „Amrabad plateau‟. Dr. AJT

John Singh a noted scientist from Wildlife Institute of India reported seeing five tigers

within a short distance of 2 Kms. There are many reports from Sri K. Jaganmohan Rao,

the first Field Director and his successors having seen the tigers frequently during his

field trips.

Sadly the population had depleted to 34 from 94 in early 90‟s, due to severe man-animal

conflicts, as the tigers were adapted to cattle lifting. As seen from the reports of the cattle

kill and compensations in early 1980‟s, it is evident that there existed a sizable population

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of tigers on this plateau. Due to incursion of the extremists and their humiliated

treatment, the staff preferred to stay away from beats resulted into the collapse of the

information network and the compensation for cattle kills could not be paid in time.

Table 1: Trend of Tiger Population

Year

1998

1999

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

No. of

Tigers 41 51 58 59 64 70 70 107 65 76 85 80 85 72

The aim of the National Wildlife Action Plan is to conserve in situ all taxas of flora and

fauna along with the full range of ecosystems they inhabit. It calls for healthy

ecosystems. Specifically, it says that the maintenance or restoration of ecological

integrity shall be the first priority in park management. Where some of the park‟s ability

to take care of itself is lost, restoration should be considered. These changes must then be

carefully monitored to ensure that ecological integrity continues to improve. The

ecological requirements for the survival of threatened, rare and endangered species,

together with their community associations of flora and fauna must be ensured.

At the same time it is important to realize India‟s Conservation Programme is located in

the settlements of its very poorest. It is their land that is set aside for protection. It is

they who share their resource with the Tiger, without getting any benefits in return. To

succeed, Tiger conservation must take these facts in to account. It has to bring benefits

to this region and to its poor people. Who co-inhabit the tiger‟s home, are forest –

dependent. They live within a biomass subsistence economy. Therefore the following

realistic Visions, Goals and Objectives are discussed here to define the direction of

Conservation and Management of the NSTR landscape.

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VISION

Focus on enhancing the protection of tigers in the short-run and earmark inviolate

spaces of its existence;

Safeguard the future of the tiger by involving local communities with reciprocal and

collaborative models, to share the benefits of conservation; and

Involve local communities in rebuilding the forest economies of the tiger‟s habitat so

that all can grow.

GOALS

“Conservation and restoration of ecological integrity typical of the Nallamala landscape

with a special emphasis of protecting the Tiger and its habitat in perpetuity by involving

local communities”.

OBJECTIVES

1. Protection of Nagarjunasagar – Srisailam Tiger Reserve and providing site

specific habitat inputs for a viable population of tigers, co-predators and

prey animals without distorting the nature prey-predator ecological cycle in

the habitat;.

2. To advocate ecological compatible land uses for addressing the livelihood

concerns of local people, and to restore the degraded habitats to provide

sufficient habitat for spatial movement of spill-over species outside the P.A;

3. To monitor the status of the tiger – the flagship species in general and other

threatened indicator species of flora and fauna in particular;

4. To encourage multi-disciplinary integrated research encompassing scientific

and socio economic aspects related to Tiger Reserve Management;

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5. To ensure peoples‟ support and participation in conservation through

suitable measures, which are ecologically appropriate and yield sustainable

benefits to them;

6. To promote conservation compatible Community Based Eco-tourism to

benefit the tribal and the local communities in the form of employment

opportunities and economic upliftment;

7. To strengthen detection and enforcement capabilities and enhance scientific

competence and social awareness aided by communication skills of all

cadres of the P.A. staff to meet the day to day challenges;

8. To promote conservation education and Protected Area interpretation among

the different target groups to make them understand the connection between

healthy ecosystems and food and water security of the landscape;

PROBLEMS IN ACHIEVING OBJECTIVES

1. NSTR being a center for resource for various stakeholder departments, especially

hydro-electric and Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA), migrated

fishing community, and other excessive resource users, there is every possibility

for conflicts between the conservation interests, individual interests/the non-

compatible developments.

2. Since this circle spreads over five districts and not being a unit for transfers and

postings (due to zonal system), it has been a perpetual problem to draw various

cadres of capable staff to work in the project.

3. Insufficient incentives to the staff not willing to work in the remote and Naxal

infested project area.

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(SWOT)ANALYSES

Strengths:

i) Existing area is already a good habitat

ii) Deployment of local Chenchu tribal as base camp protection watchers and

tiger trackers for wildlife monitoring

iii) Good source population of tiger

iv) Rough terrain, mostly undulating to prevent any possible poaching threats

Weaknesses:

i) Anthropogenic pressures from large number of villages in the neighbor hood

and high level of dependency on the tiger habitat.

ii) Cattle grazing.

iii) High pilgrimages pressure

Opportunities:

i) Strong political will for development of the communities through various

Rural Development Schemes.

ii) Settlement of chenchus hamlets helps in monitoring any outside intrusion into

tiger reserve

iii) Suitable locations existing for various Eco-tourism activities.

Threats

i) No choice of drafting at least 50% of good staff from various Forest Circles.

ii) Poaching, smuggling activities

iii) Biotic pressure from human and the cattle

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

Management Zones

The following zones are created for the Tiger Conservation at landscape level that

includes:

(1) Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (NSTR)

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(2) Gundla Brahmeswara Wildlife Sanctuary as extended core

Table 2: Management Zones

S. No. Zone Area in Km2

1. Inviolate/Critical Tiger Habitat Zone-1(Notified) 2527.00

2. Gundla Brahmeswaram as extended core to NSTR 1194.00

A. Total inviolate area 3721.00

3. Peripheral Zone(within the sanctuary-N.Sagar741.90 +299.19) 1041.09

4. Tourism Zone (Overlapping) 313.75

5. Aquatic Zone (Overlapping) 290.30

6.

Special Use Zone (Overlapping)

(Including enclosure, CBET and Research Overlapping)

Srisailam Project Colony and Temple - (24.60)

i). Research (Overlapping)-24.60

ii)Tourism (Overlapping) - 35.10

59.70

7. Buffer Zone NSTR (Outside the Sanctuary within the R.F) 1175

8. Total buffer area 2216.09

B. Grand Total 5937.59

Inviolate or Critical Tiger Habitat Zone (3721 Km2 )

Inviolate Areas are defined as areas with minimal or no human presence, where whatever

human activities are carried out are in consonance with the wildlife values considered

important for that area. These areas should have the potential to support high density of

tiger prey and be large enough to be able to sustain several breeding tigresses, the key to

maintaining viable core populations that can generate a surplus for dispersal and potential

establishment of new breeding sites in other areas. These areas should be connected by

wildlife habitats (corridors) to other areas of potential tiger habitat to enable the tigers to

disperse and establish their territories.

Peripheral Zone (PZ) (Within the sanctuary) (1041.09 Km2)

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Peripheral Zone (PZ) is a delineated area around the Inviolate space (Critical Tiger

Habitat) within the sanctuary. Peripheral Zone (PZ) lies between the outer boundary of

the Inviolate Space and boundary of the sanctuary. This is in fact the area that could be

manipulated to cater to the specific biological needs for the wildlife as well as human

requirements for sustenance. The zone must function on the principle of a shared use

gradient. Near the „Inviolate Space‟ (IS), management shall be biased in favor of wildlife.

Moving away from the Inviolate Space towards outer boundary of P.A, regulated

resource use for the benefit of the people where there is no outside buffer is available. It

shall receive increasing focus without jeopardizing wildlife habitat values. The sensitive

habitats within the Inviolate Space should receive adequate protection and management

inputs. This also acts as a corridor between two inviolate areas in the southern side of the

tiger reserve.

Buffer Zone Outside the Sanctuary (1175 Km2)

The fringe areas around Tiger Reserve have corridor value, and their ecological

sustainability is important to prevent the area from becoming ecological sinks on account

of over use of resources and unwise land use. Buffer zone has been notified around

NSTR to fulfill the following objectives:

Providing ecologically viable livelihood options to local stakeholders for reducing

their dependency on forests.

Conserving the forest area through restorative inputs involving local people for

providing habitat supplement to wild animals moving out of core areas.

Tiger Population and Habitat Assessment

DAILY MONITORING OF TIGERS

Tiger conservation managers require accurate and timely information on the occurrence,

size and viability of populations, but this is often difficult for cryptic species living at low

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densities over large areas. Therefore 300 „Tribal Tiger Trackers‟ (TTT) are engaged to

daily monitor and track the tigers in the entire Tiger Reserve.

Tiger occurrence was mapped within a geographical information system (GIS) using

repeat detection–non-detection surveys to incorporate a function of detection probability

into a logistic regression model. The landscape variables that influenced tiger occupancy

were then used to construct a spatially explicit habitat model to identify core areas.

Phase-I

1. Divide Tiger Occupied forests into sampling Units – Beats (15-20 Sq.Km).

2. Conduct sign surveys (3 Days) for estimating the relative abundance of the

carnivores.

3. Conduct line transect sampling (2+3 =5 days) for estimating relative

abundance of ungulates.

4. Determine human disturbance, Habitat characteristics and ungulate pellet

counts on transects at every 400 m.

5. Compile data (Division wise data entry)

6. Analysis for getting relative abundance and distribution maps of carnivores,

Ungulates, forest type, disturbance level at the beat resolution.

Phase-II

Monitoring Tigers, Co-predators, Prey and their habitats

1. Prepared base maps of administrative boundaries, forest cover statistics and

human disturbance.

2. Combine the data from stage-II, to get maps of tiger distribution, relative

abundance of tiger and other carnivores as well as ungulates.

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3. Model in the GIS domain to understand the distribution pattern of tiger and

the underlying processes.

Phase III

Monitoring Tigers, Co-predators, Prey and their habitats

1. Stratify the landscape based on the relative tiger abundance into four

categories:

1. High 2. Medium 3. Low and 4. Nil

2. Within each stratum in each landscape complex sample 3 to 3 replicates for

estimating absolute densities of tiger and ungulates.

3. Estimate tiger densities using of any of the following (or combination of)

methods in a „mark – capture‟ statistical frame work:

1. Camera Trap; 2. Digital pug marks;

3. Faecal DNA; 4. Sign deposition decay

4. Convert ungulate encounter rates into absolute densities by estimating habitat

specific effective strip widths.

5. Derive relationship between sign density and actual density for each

landscape, and use the same for estimating tiger population giving 95%

confidence range.

Phase –IV

Camera Traps have been used exclusively to identify the Tigers in the study area. As per

the guidelines issued by National Tiger Conservation Authority, New Delhi, the entire

area has been divided into the 9 blocks of 400 Sq kms and the Phase-IV monitoring has

been competed in 3 blocks of 400 SqKms each which includes 19 beats of Atmakur,

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Achampeta, and Markapur Divisions. The study area has been divided into the grids of

2X2 kilometers. Two automatic cameras were placed on either side of the trail in each

selected location to photograph the either flank of the Tiger for proper individual identity.

Each camera trap was given a unique number and all locations were plotted on map

layers to organize data generated by each Camera Trap. The GIS layers have been used

for this purpose. The closure period is taken as 45 to 50 days as prescribed by NTCA.

Entire Nagarjunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve CTH has been divided into 9 Blocks to

complete Camera Trapping as per Guidelines which will be requiring 900 pairs of

Cameras which will be procured over a period of 5 years @140 camera traps every year.

Mean while the existing 350 cameras will be used on rotational basis.

BLOCK 1

A total of 94 pairs of Camera Traps have been installed in block 1 in an area of 400

SqKms. And a total of 68 cameras have been installed in Block2.The Camera Trap

locations are being shown as follows:-

Table 3: Results of camera trapping surveys using the program Mark &

program Capture

Items Details

Sampling Duration 45 days (April 18– June 2)

Camera Trap Locations 94

Sampling Occasions 1

Photo-captures of Tigers 52

Camera Trap area sqkm 290

Effectively Sampled Area sqkm 489

Number of Individually identified tigers 9

Estimated density per 100 sqkm 2.45 (SD of 0.41)

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Capture/recapture analysis was done for matrix of data of 45 days (i.e. 18th

April to 2nd

June). A total of 52 captures yielded a density of 2.45 tigers/100 sqkm with a standard

deviation of 0.41, i.e. 10-14 tigers for the study area.

BLOCK 2

Sampling duration 45 days (Dec 09– Jan 22)

Camera trap locations 71

Sampling occasions 1

Photo-captures of tigers 27

Camera trap area in km2 234

Effectively sampled area in km2

463

Number of individually identified tigers 5

Estimated density per 100 km2 1.08 (SD ±0.10)

Since the sample size was too low and insufficient recaptures, we were not able to

calculate the strip width (buffer). Therefore, the strip width from the first block that was

based upon the “mean maximum distance moved” for the tigers captured more than once,

was used as a surrogate to calculate the effective sampled area. The estimated population

size was divided by the effectively sampled area to estimate tiger densities (D), expressed

in number of tigers/100 km2.

BLOCK-3

Camera Trapping at Nagarjunasagar Srisalam Tiger Reserve (NSTR),

the 3rd

Block:

In mid-April camera trapping was resumed in which “Block-1”, was covered once again

(17th

April-7th

May 2013) and simultaneously reconnaissance survey was conducted in

“Block-3” (please refer to Map -1). Camera trapping at “Block-3” was started by 7th

May

after finalizing the locations. It is planned to be continued till June 12 (40-45 days).

Table 4: Results of camera trapping surveys in Mannanur Block

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The two ranges of GV Palli and Yergunta Palem of Markapur Division were

superimposed by 4 sqkm grid. A total of 180 grids covered the entire study area spread

across 660 sqkms.

For getting optimal locations for camera trapping Sign surveys were conducted for 10

days involving 60 people with a combined effort of 240 kms of walking. 5 tiger signs

were found on the trails and based on the previous knowledge and activity patterns 104

tentative locations were selected for camera trapping. In order reduce redundancy and to

maximize the effort while get maximum coverage, 71 locations were finally realized with

deployment of a pair of camera in each location.

71 pairs of cameras at equal number of locations were deployed between 3rd

of May-9th

of May, covering an area of 384 sqkms (minimum area convex polygon). This current

session would continue till the second week of June giving 40-45 days of camera

trapping.

Data Collection Protocol

First round of checking of cameras including download of images would be carried

between 16th

-19th

of May and the second round would be followed in 10 days. And

finally cameras would be removed by second week of June when monsoon peaks. Data

would be analyzed under capture/recapture framework.

Results

The camera trapping as per phase 4 monitoring has established the presence of 27 tigers

and 3 cubs. The photographic evidences have established the presence of 8 males, 16

females and 3 cubs in 40% of the area. The remaining area has been surveyed and phase

4 monitoring will be completed in entire NSTR by 2014 March to assess the actual tiger

population to the extent possible with photographic evidences.

Ex-situ Conservation: A case study from Indira Gandhi Zoological

Park, Vishakhapatnam

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The Indian wild dog or Dholes (Cuon alpinus) is an endangered species whose number is

declining in wild mainly due to habitat destruction, fragmentation and hunting. The

Visakhapatnam zoo has been successful in breeding the difficult to breed wild dogs to

conserve it in zoos and relocation programme in wild. In this context, the Central Zoo

Authority has nominated the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam for

conservation breeding of dholes in captivity. To breed endangered animals like the wild

dogs in captivity, it is imperative we understand more about their reproductive biology

and behavior. In an effort to fill these gaps in knowledge about the complex social

structure and breeding behavior of wild dogs, Visakhapatnam Zoo is carrying out a long-

term research program with financial assistance from Central Zoo Authority.

A Small Grant Research Fellowship Program to study the husbandry, behavior and

enclosure enrichment of Indian Wild dog or Dholes Cuon alpinus was carried out by

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam with financial support from Central Zoo

Authority. This project report includes results obtained so far out of the study as well as

focuses on the existing problems being faced during the study.

Study Area

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park is situated at 170

45‟54” N and 83020‟53” E amidst the

Eastern Ghats with Bay of Bengal towards east in the sprawling coastal city of

Visakhapatnam. It is large zoo spreading over an area of 625 acres. The vegetation is

tropical moist deciduous and dry deciduous type with free ranging populations of chital

(Axis axis), sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and leopard (Panthera

pardus). The forested habitat in and around the zoo park harbors many birds, reptiles and

small mammals.

Current Stock of Dholes in the Zoo

At present, there are 12 dholes (5:7) housed in two different enclosures. Mating activity

was observed on 12-09-2012 between the breeding alpha male and female. A new wild

caught adult dholes was procured from Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park, Tirupati for

infusing new blood in the current stock. This male will be encouraged to breed with a

potential female dhole in the other pack housed in a separate enclosure.

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Husbandry and Captive Management

The following observations have been made on the captive care and management of

dholes

Pups were seen actively feeding beef made into small pieces and mixed with feed

supplements at about 6 weeks of age. Hence, it is recommended to provide

additional feed supplements to pups once they start feeding on solid food.

The dominant, voracious ones pups ate away the food and only offal‟s were left to

weaklings during the feeding frenzy. Constant monitoring and timely observations

on the feeding of pups is required to avoid starvation of weak pups and stragglers.

Pups were observed to be picking up life skills during play with parents and

amongst themselves. Various play behaviors mocking hunting, ambush, chase,

escape mounting etc were observed. Pups should be retained with the parents for

about 10 to 12 months since the pups will pick up several skills in the process.

Non- breeding subordinate and sub-dominant pack members were observed

spending substantial amount of time caring the pups. The very survival of pups

may depend on the presence or absence of non-breeding adults, which actually

play a vital role in raising the pups. Housing dholes in appropriate social

structural groups is important for captive breeding and pup development. The

breeding alpha male and alpha female along with one or two subordinate non

breeding adults comprises a good social unit in captivity.

Food related aggression was observed among yearlings. It is advisable to split a

pack of eight or more dholes into two groups and if there are pups over 10 month

old. This will not only considerable reduce food related aggression but also

assures that all animals get an equal and adequate amount of food on daily basis.

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It has been observed that aggressive interactions occur among dhole packs in

confinement especially during feeding time and breeding season. Therefore,

regular observations on the pack during feeding and breeding season are

recommended Timely management intervention and temporary isolation of the

receivers of aggression is recommended to avoid unnecessary injuries.

Dholes moved in groups as the enclosure was vast with open spaces as well as

locations with good vegetation. Enclosures with a space of about 2000 m2

and

larger are ideal for a big pack of 15 or more. It provides them good space for

hiding and also for moving about from one place to another in packs.

From our observation and experience from the past, it is advised to avoid night

housing during breeding season and in the first 3 months of pup development.

Timely deworming and vaccination of pups at regular intervals during their early

stages of development ensures better survival of the young.

Observations on Enrichment Activity

Dam and sire have been seen using the earthen den frequently during breeding

season and occasionally throughout the year. Sometimes, sub-ordinate pack

members, pups and yearlings also used the den to retreat and avoid aggressive

interactions from dominant members. The provision of artificial earthen with a

solid roof is essential to encourage breeding of wild dogs in captivity. The

breeding female would certainly use it by digging further deeper.

A water pool in the enclosure may be provided since dholes are water-loving dogs

and have been observed spending considerable amount of time playing in water.

However, pups are prone to skin infections in damp environment. So, the

provision of water pool may be abandoned during the first of their development.

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Dholes use areas in the enclosure which are away / conceal from human

disturbances. Therefore, large open enclosure with adequate vegetation bamboo

thickets grasses etc for enough cover are essential to meet the behavioral needs of

dholes which in turn is important for their successful breeding in captivity.

All the pack members actively participated in feeding goat legs hanged to a

branch or pole with a rope. Feeding beef with bone or goat legs is a good

enrichment technique as it would encourage the dogs to work together. Hanging

the food up tied to ripe, the dogs will work together to pull it. It also strengthens

jaw muscles.

Wild dogs are active during mornings, late afternoons and evening in the zoo.

They moved around a lot and showed active interest in their surroundings. A few

changes to the exhibit like planting extensively vegetation (grasses, bushes,

shrubs etc.) and providing other naturalistic objects such as logs, stumps,

branches, artificial vines etc., may be tried to create near natural conditions in the

enclosures.

Hay balls scented with blood of cattle or urine from other dogs keeps the animals

active sniffing around, searching and playing with them.

Observations on Neonatal Care

The breeding alpha female F1 (dam) gave birth to 5 pups (2♂ and 3 ♀) on a winter

evening in November, 2011 in the artificial earthen den provided by the zoo

management. The following observations were documented.

Behavior of F1 (Dam) prior to Parturition

F1 started digging deeper into the den and frequently entering it for a brief period.

Considerable aggression was displayed towards F2 (sub-ordinate non-breeding female)

when she tried to approach the den site or pass over the area. During this period F2 used

another route from behind the den site to enter night kraal for feeding. Interactions

between F2 and M1 (the dominant male) decreased.

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Behavior of F1 after Parturition

F1 displayed controlled aggression towards both F2 and M1. Neither of them was

tolerated near the den site by her. She spent most of the time inside the den only coming

out to feed and drink. She was very aggressive towards the animal keeper and any

anonymous person near the enclosure. She charged at persons standing near the enclosure

wall area close to the den site by growling at them with absolutely no fear. She chased off

F2 away from the den site on several occasions. Later on, she allowed M1 to approach

pups but F2 was put at bay by both M1 and F1. After a few weeks, F2 was allowed to

interact with the pups. F1 also intervened whenever the play fighting amongst pups

turned serious. She displayed extreme caution while carrying the pups by holding them

on the scruff of their neck with her mouth. At the initial stages of pup development, she

always tried to put them back inside the den as the pups tried to come out and explore the

surroundings. Vocal communication and play behavior observed among pups and the

dam. She defended the pups very aggressively up to about 6 months.

Behavior of M1 (Sire) during pup development

M1 always showed keen interest to bring pups out of the den and introduce them to the

surroundings. He tried doing so many times and finally succeeded in taking out 3 pups on

one occasion. However, F1 intervened immediately and placed the pups back into the

den. M1 regularly lied at the den for hours together always keeping a keen eye on raptors

and jungle crows. Especially, Pariah kites Milvus migrans were not at all tolerated in the

vicinity by M1. On one occasion, he peeped into the den and made distinct vocal calls

that made all 9 pups to come out of the den one after the other. He also killed a small Rat

snake Ptyas mucosus which accidentally entered into the den and tried to escape. He

spent a lot time playing with the pups. He showed interest in stalking and ambushing the

pups while playing with them.

Behavior of F2 (subordinate female) during pup development

F2 was very curious to interact with the pups. She got the chance for the first time when

the pups were two weeks old. She was driven off from the pups on two occasions by the

dam and sire as she tried to approach them. She stayed with the pups when the dam and

sire were away at a different location in the enclosure. She would give warning signals to

the pups whenever any threat was detected and pups instantaneously respond and head

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for cover before the dam and sire reached to the spot. She was not very aggressive

towards kites and crows in the enclosure but was keener on warning the pups about the

possible dangers. She was not found to be very playful with the pups although, in a few

occasions, F2 was spotted indulging in playful interactions with the pups. She was very

cautious and wary at the den site even on hearing to the alarm calls of chital and noise

created by wild boars outside the enclosure.

Table 5: The pup care behaviours displayed by M1, F1 and F2

S.N0 Pup care behaviors

displayed

Individual

involved

Degree of expression and Remarks

1.

2.

3.

4.

Curling around Puppies

Puppy Guard

Licking

Grooming

Suckling

F1(Dam)

F1, M1 and

F2

F1, M1 and

F2

F1, M1 and

F2

Frequently observed when the pups

were under two weeks old

F1 was very defensive followed by M1

and F2 in the initial stages. However, as

the cubs grew older F2 became more

defensive than M1

Three adults frequently performed this

behavior by licking the anal regions of

the neonates to stimulate elimination

reflex.

Initially, only F1 and M1 performed but

later on F2 also joined.

F1 allowed the pups to suckle until they

are 10 weeks old.

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5.

6.

7.

Regurgitation

Alarm calls (screaming

& repeated Yak Yak to

signal threats)

F1

F1 & M1

F1 & F2

Although both dam and sire displayed

this behavior, M1 appeared to

regurgitate more frequently than F1.

The alarm calls were given only by F1

and F2 to the pups upon detecting any

potential threat.

Conclusion

Dholes give birth once a year and have a gestation period of about 60-62 days (Theobald

cited in Burton 1940, Sosnovskii 1967 Dholes pups are born blind (Sosnovskii, 1967) and

the eyes open when they are about 2 weeks old. Initially, pups had a sooty brown coat

which gradually changed to rusty red coloured pelage during development. Pups suckle

from the mother until they are about 3 weeks old. Pups are weaned by about 6-7 weeks

(L.Durbin et al. unpubl.), although, in captivity, weaning has been recorded at 8-9 weeks

(M.Boeer pers.comm.). In our observations, pups stopped suckling completely at about

10 weeks of age.

Leon Durbin et al carried out 3 months of observation on a wild dholes litter from

emergence and found that in a pack of 12 adults and 12 pups almost all adults took part in

guarding, playing with pups and regurgitating food. In my study on captive dholes, all the

three adults took special care of the pups. The drastic decline in the social interactions

amongst the adult dholes after the birth of pups in the month of December substantiates

this observation. The interactions were high in the month of October when reproductive

behaviors were displayed by the dominant pair.

Davidar (1974) felt that pups are not brought out until they are ready to leave the nursery

permanently. Only F1 displayed this specific behaviour to retreat the pups back into the

den whenever they tried to come out and explore their surroundings. M1 (sire) and F2

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(sub-ordinate female) were keener on warding off potential threats in the enclosure to

protect the pups.

While F1 (alpha female and dam) spent most of her time in pup care, F2 ( the subordinate

non breeding female member of the pack) was found to devote a little more time in

interacting and taking care of the pups compared to M1 – the sire of the pups (Graph 2).

F2 was very alert at the den site and scanned the area for any threats upon detecting the

slightest noise or any sort of disturbance. The extra time devoted by F2 in upbringing

pups might have been crucial for their survival. Davidar (1975) did not find a “guard”

dholes although this has been reported earlier by Adams (1949). Our observations clearly

indicate that F2 has taken the role of a “Sentinel” and guarded the pups in the absence of

the parents. She stayed with the pups during those brief periods when the dam and sire

were away from the den site for feeding or moving around at different locations in the

enclosure. Zoo managers may consider this observation while taking decisions on the

pack composition of captive dholes in zoos and ex-situ facilities with an intention to

breed them.

Housing dholes in large near naturalistic enclosures with provisions for denning along

with minimal human disturbances, appropriate pack composition (which may include 1

breeding pair and 1 or few sub-ordinate, non-breeding pack members) and other

enrichment techniques might encourage this endangered canid to display a whole range

of reproductive and pup caring behaviors to breed successfully in captivity. Wild dogs are

very susceptible to even the slightest changes around their enclosures and many areas

concerning their preference of enclosures, reproduction biology, courting and mating,

growth and early pup development, role of siblings/rest of the pack in pup rearing are still

not clearly understood. Hence, a thorough knowledge on the behavior and biology of the

species is essential for better management.

RESULTS

In the above 2 case studies in depth importance of in-situ conservation and ex-situ

conservation has been studied. In situ conservation will help to conserve the rich

biodiversity and tiger the national animal of our country on apex of ecosystem till eternity

23

with proper management interventions. Ex situ conservation may help in building

populations which are close to extinction.

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pp.227-265.

Cohen, J.A., 1977. A review of the biology of the dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon

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Rodgers, W.A. and Panwar, H.S.1988 planning Wildlife protected area network in India

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