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EXPOSURE AND FOCUS ON FORM
ACQUIRING A LANGUAGE
STEPHEN KRASHEN’S HYPOTHESES
The Acquisition / Learning Distinction Hypothesis
Adults have two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in L2.
ACQUISITION. Subconscious process.L2 is picked up automatically.
LEARNING. Conscious knowledge of grammar rules.
Error correction.Explicit instruction.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
Grammar structures are acquired in a natural predictable order.
L2 learning order is different from L1 order.
The Monitor Hypothesis
Acquisition is the sole initiator of all second-language utterances.
Acquisition: Responsible for fluency.
Learning: Functions as a monitor for output.
The Monitor Hypothesis
MONITOR = Accuracy / Fluency
NO MONITOR= Fluency / Accuracy
The Input Hypothesis
Language is acquired only when students are exposed to comprehensible input.
Comprehensible input= i+1. Language containing structures that are “a little beyond” a current level of competence.Language is comprehensible through the use of context, knowledge of the world, and other extralinguistic cues.Language students hear or read should contain language they already know as well as language they have not yet seen.
The Input Hypothesis
Silent period.
A period of time before the acquirer actually starts to speak.
During this time, acquirers are building up competence by listening and understanding.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Affective conditions have to be optimal. Acquirers:
Are motivated.Have self confidence and good self image;Have a low level of anxiety.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
LEV SEMIONOVICH VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Theory of Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is an outgrowth of social development through interaction with others.
Learning is necessary for development, development is stimulated by learning, and learning and development both occur in the context of a social situation mediated by language.Learning takes place in the context of a social experience.Higher mental functions develop through participation in social activities.
Theory of Cognitive Development
Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the learner is interacting with people in his or her own environment or in cooperation with peers.
Grammatical Competence
To be effective users of language, learners need to achieve harmony between form, meaning, and use.
FORM = SYNTAXMEANING = SEMANTICSUSE = PRAGMATICS
Grammatical Competence
SYNTAX:
Structure, focuses on accuracy
SEMANTICS:Lexical meaningGrammatical meaning
PRAGMATICS:When or why is structure used? / appropriateness
Grammatical Competence
Form and meaning are interconnected, grammatical choice has an effect on meaning.
Use deals with choices made when using the functions in communication.
I’m having lunch with James vs
I’m going to have lunch with James
EXPOSURE AND FOCUS ON FORM
We do not learn a foreign language best through learning grammar and translating. Nor do we learn by constantly practising until we form habits or just by communicating. We learn by picking up language, interacting and communicating and focusing on form.
THE ROLE OF ERROR
The Role of Error
Is it part of the teacher’s job to make sure that everything said in class is correct all the time?
The Role of Error
What is the most important mistake here?
PLEASE, WILL YOU TO SHOW ME COATS?
The Role of Error
What do you think this mistakes have in common from the point of view of the learner?
He had been their for several days.She left school two years ago and now work in a factory.My father was a farmer. he wanted me to be a doctor.
The Role of Error
Most likely, anyone who writes sentences such as these could correct the mistakes in them if they were pointed out.
If a mistake can be self-corrected, we shall call it a slip.
The Role of Error
Although the people are very nice, but I don’t like it here.
That was the first English film which I have understood it.
It is fortunate the fact that she loves you.
The Role of Error
If a student cannot self-correct a mistake, but the teacher thinks that the class is familiar with the correct form, we shall call it an error.
The Role of Error
Students make mistakes when they try to mean something but have no idea of how to structure that meaning correctly in English.
I wish I went my grandmother’s house last summer.This, no, really, for always my time…and then I happy.
Types of Errors
INTERFERENCE.Influence from the learner’s first language.
I AM AGREE WITH YOU.PUT ATTENTION.
Types of Errors
DEVELOPMENTAL ERROR.Learners make errors because they are unconsciously working out and organising language. These errors reflect the learner’s creative capability of using language.
ENGLISH WELL TALKING (Outside a shop).IN CASE OF FIRE DO YOUR UTMOST TO ALERT HOTEL PORTER (At a hotel).
Types of Errors
OVERGENERALISATIONLearners (specially children) wrongly apply a rule for one item of the language to another item.
I GOED TO SCHOOL.I SAW MANY WOMANS.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN L1 AND L2
Differences between L1 and L2
AGE
L1 LEARNING
• Starts since we are born to young childhood.
L2 LEARNING
• Usually at primary school and/or secondary school. It can also start or continue in adulthood.
Differences between L1 and L2
WAYS OF LEARNINGL1 LEARNING
• By exposure.• By wanting and needing to communicate,
high motivation.• Through interaction with family and
friends.• By talking about things present in the
child’s surroundings.• By listening to and taking in language for
many months before using it. (silent period)
• By playing and experimenting with new language.
L2 LEARNING
• Sometimes through exposure but often by being taught specific language.
• With strong, little or no motivation.• Through interaction with a teacher and
sometimes with classmates.• Often by talking about life outside the
classroom• Often by needing to produce language
soon after it has been taught.• Often by using language in controlled
practice activities.
Differences between L1 and L2
CONTEXTL1 LEARNING
• The child hears the language around him/her all the time.
• Family and friends talk to and interact with the child a lot.
• The child has lots of opportunities to experiment with language.
• Caretakers often praise and encourage the child’ use of language.
• Caretakers simplify their speech to the child.
• Caretakers rarely correct the form and accuracy of what the child says in an obvious way.
L2 LEARNING
• The learner is not exposed to the L1 very much – often no more than about three hours per week.
• Teachers usually simplify their language.• Teachers vary in the amount they praise
or encourage learners.• The learner receives little individual
attention from the teacher.• Teachers generally correct learners a lot.
Points to considerForeign language learners need to be exposed to a rich variety of language, use it to communicate and interact, and have opportunities to focus on form. This helps to make the circumstances of L2 learning more similar to those in l1 learning and allows L2 students to use their abilities to process the language.Motivation is very important in language learning, so we should do all we can to motivate learners.Learners are different from one another, we should try to personalise our teaching to match their learning needs and preferences.
Points to considerLearners may find a silent period useful, but some learners, especially adults, may not.We should encourage learners to use English as much as possible in their out-of-class time to increase their exposure to it.We should try to simplify our language to a level that learners can learn from, and avoid correcting them too much. They need to build up their fluency, motivation and confidence.In the classroom we should try to praise learners and give them as much individual attention as we can.
