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Finding Visual Information: A Study of Image Resources Used by Archaeologists, Architects,Art Historians, and ArtistsAuthor(s): Joan E. Beaudoin and Jessica Evans BradySource: Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America, Vol. 30,No. 2 (Fall 2011), pp. 24-36Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Art Libraries Society of NorthAmericaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41244062 .Accessed: 28/03/2014 08:51

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FindingVisual nformation: Study f mage ResourcesUsedbyArchaeologists,rchitects, rt Historians, ndArtistsJoan . Beaudoin ndJessica vansBrady

This rticle resents he indings f recent tudywhich dentified he mage esourceshat rofessionalsergroups cknowledgedwereuseful o theirwork rocesses. he nformation ehaviors elatingo mages f everal rofessional sergroups archaeolo-gists, rchitects,rt historians,nd artists were xamined n a qualitative esearchtudy onducted n2008-2009. resented erearefindings hat larify here hesepatrons urned or heir isual nformation eedsand what factors nfluenced heir mageresource ecisions.Thefinal ection rovides uggestions oimprove he mage-relatedxperiences f these user groups nddiscusses venuesfor uture esearch.

IntroductionIn this tudy, mageresources re defined s any observ-

able material hich an be employed y a professionalsertocomplete work ask.The format f current mageresourcescan be print, igital, r real, ivedexperience. esourcesmaybe heldwithin ersonal r nstitutional ollections,n specialtydatabases, r on theopenweb. Access o mageresourcesmaybe freely ranted, estricted,r prohibited, hile heuseof theimages ontained ithin hese esourcesanbesimilarly iverse.Userswhoattempt o meet heir mageneeds to completeheirwork asks peratewithin his omplicatedetof onditions.

Fora number f professionalsergroups n the cademicand creative isciplines,isual nformationlays central ole nthework hey omplete.Whilemany tudies ave cknowledgedthis eed for isual nformation mong arious sergroups, ewstudies address the imageresources sed by archaeologists,architects,rt historians, r artists. review of the iteraturereveals aryingevels fresearch egardinghe mage ehaviorsof hese roups. noverviewspresented elow, rranged romthe east o the most ully esearchedroup.1

Investigationsf these user groupswhich re general nnature re providedwhen their indings resent nformationthat mpacts he electionnd use of mageresources. multi-discipline tudy f mageusers across university ampus sdiscussed t the end of this ection s its findings dd to theunderstanding f the broad need for mages n the academicsetting. wo additional otable spectsconcerninghe itera-ture found nd presented ere hould be mentioned. irst, fthe existing tudieswhich examined mageusers' behaviors,manywerefound ofocus olelyon imageneeds and imageretrieval. econd,fewer discussions ddressing he topic ofimageresources ere found n the iterature. his ituation etthefoundation or he urrent tudy's xaminationf he mageresources sed byprofessionalsergroups.

Literatureeview

ArchaeologistsStudiesof archaeologists'nformation ehaviors re rare.

Tworecent tudies y stoHuvilapublished n 2008and 2009examined heuse of nformation ources y archaeologists ithvarying ork oles nd found hat isual nformationnvariousformswas sought.2 he most xtensive se of visual nforma-tionwas found or cademic rchaeologistsnvolvednteaching;thesematerials onsisted f diagrams, ideos, hotographs,ndthe bjects hemselves.3

Several ther rticles ave been publishedwithin hepastfew decades on image-rich ystems nd technologies sefulfor he discipline f archaeology.hese ncludediscussions fthe DigitalArchiveNetwork or AnthropologyDANA),4hePerseusDigital ibrary,5nd multispectralmaging echniques.6Geographicnformationystem GIS)technology as also seenheavy doption mong he rchaeologicalommunity. owever,no studies f archaeologists'se of these ystemswere found.Given he xistence f hese ystems nd their trong sewithinthe domain,whythere avebeen so few tudies f archaeolo-gists' nformationehaviorss unclear.7Architects

Several ublicationsn the nformation ehaviors f rchi-tects iscussed heir mageneeds, lthough nly fewofthesehave examined he mageresources hatwereused.In a 1991article, oycehidlowdiscussedhe ypical ypes f nformationneededbyarchitectsoperform heirwork. mages renoted sbeing sedatthe tart f rchitectural rojects ornspirationndreferenceurposes, s well as in thedesign tagefor eripheralart o complementhe tructure nd create n overall nviron-ment.8 hidlow's findings ere supported nd built upon byStephannMakri nd Claire Warwick n their horough tudyof the nformation ehaviors f graduate rchitecturetudents

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published n 2010.9 heseresearchers ound hat he studentsused a largenumber f magesand videos n the creation ftheir rchitectural esigns, nd that their primarymeans ofdiscoverywas Googleor Google mages.10urthermore,heirstudy revealed he common ehavior mongthe students fdeveloping ersonal ollectionsf mages o assist hem ntheirdesignprocesses.11inda Sklar also studied rchitecture nddesign tudents, nd reported n 1995 hat hey ookfor magesin a variety fresourceshat nclude periodicals,ooks, ideos,planning eports, aps,drawings, lans, nd sketches."12klarstates that an immense mount of materialwas used veryrapidly y the tudents, nd theywere ften eenworking iththematerials here hey ound hem copying, isassembling,reassembling,nd reconstructinghe magesto work throughdesign roblems ndstimulateheir hinking.13alerie radfieldstudiedarchitects' se of magecollectionsocatedwithin nacademic etting n the United Kingdom nd found similarpattern f combining everal mages.14radfield lso notedin this tudy published n 1976that he architects ad preciseimageneeds, uch soverlayingmages f wobuilding lans odiscern ifferencesnthedesign.15Artists

In the iterature ublished n the ast thirty ears hathasexamined rtists' nformationehaviors,here re everal ecur-rent indings urrounding heir trong nterest n finding isualinformation. ll of the authors who have lookedat this usergroup have acknowledgedheirneed for mages.However,existing tudieshavetypically ocused n individuals eachingin a college r universityetting ather han npracticingrtists.This ack of research ttention n theneeds of practicingrtistswas notedby WilliamHemmign his thorough 008review fthe nformation-behavioriterature n artists16nd in his 2009study f their nformation-seekingractices,ncluding ourcesof pecific isual lements.17

Bradfield's 976 study of institutional magecollectionsfound that artists were not heavyusers of slides. AlthoughBradfield ecorded hat they would incorporate mages ntotheir ectures ccasionally,rtists generally sed imagesineither lannedor informalectures o illustrate simplepointor technique.18or heseneeds, ook llustrations erefound obe as adequatean imageformat s slides.Thesefindings erereiterated n the 1996 article y SusieCobbledick, ho foundthat rtists' ersonal ollectionsfmaterials,s well as those fpublic and institutional ibraries, ere consulted.19acquelynChallener's 999master's hesis xamined acultyrtists' ndarthistorians'nformationehaviors.hefound hat llof he rtistsin her tudy seda variety f mageformats.20hese ncludedphotocopies,eproductionsrom ooksandmagazines, lastercasts, omputer rintouts, ookplates,originalworksof art,and the classroom's lackboard or ketches nd diagrams.21Hemmig's 009study lso supports heartists' se of a widevariety f resources. e found hatwhen rtists ought nspira-tion, hey id so through irect bservations fnature, ersonalexperiences, orks of art seen in person,non-artman-madeobjects,magesnanalogform books,magazines,hotographs),moving magery, usic, heprintedword,digital mages, ndradio, mong thers.22

Additional tudies of the mageresources f artists avebeen conducted n recent ears.One ofthese s the 2006reportona survey fnearly nehundred rtist-participantsonductedby threeMLIS studentst the University f Washington.23hefindings rom his urvey orroborate anyof the previouslypublished tudies on the topic, ncluding he findings hatsuggest rtists se visual materialsmore heavily han text-based resources nd that heyhave well developedpersonalcollectionso support heirneeds.24nformation ollected yToriGregory hrough nother urvey f 165 art tudiofacultymembers rom niversities n the outhern nd western nitedStates rovided etailed esults oncerninghe pecificesourcesthat rtists mploy o find mages.25his 2007study reportsthat Google Images,used to access other nternet ites,wasthe primarymeansof mageretrieval, ith 67percent f thefaculty-respondentsoting heir se of t.26 arious nline magedatabaseswere employed y a smallergroup of the faculty(16percent f the respondents). mong hese, he magedata-base ARTstorccounted or 0 percent f theuse,Wilson'sArtMuseummageDatabase4 percent, nd another atabase uchas MDID(MadisonDigital mageDatabase)wasemployed ythe emaining percent.27Art istorians

Art historian sers are the most thoroughly esearchedgroup o be includedn the present tudy. he vast majority fpublications hichmentionmage seamong rt istorians avecommented n their eavyneed for isual materials. radfieldnotes hat rt historians erethe mostprevalent nd heaviestusers f mages mong heparticipantshestudied nher 1976publication.28hallener lso found magesto be of primaryimportanceo the rt historians hestudied.29heyvisited hedepartmental lidecollection,sed their wn personal ollec-tions, mployedmuseum mages, ad slidesmadethrough heinstitution's udio-visual epartment, sed textbook ets, nd

made their wn slides r photographsn situ.Christopher aileyand MargaretGraham xamined heavailabilityf digitized mages nd how this mayhaveinflu-enced he isciplinef rt istory. hefindings f his reliminaryreport, resented t a 2000 onference,30uggested hatworkingmethods ppear to have been affected nly slightly. igitalimages, longwith ll material ound n the web,were een tofall hort f he eliabilityeeded osupport rthistoricalnves-tigation. he authors lso discussthe use of magedatabasesby art historians nd suggest hat he arger, roadly ocusedimagedatabasesdo not receive heusethey houldbecause ofthe diverse pproaches mployed y art historians. ailey ndGraham evisitedhedatagathered or heoriginal tudy n alater rticle ublishedn 2006, nd they tate hat he rt histo-

riansnoted everal ositive spects f digital mage use,alongwith everal arriers o use.31 basic ack of knowledgeboutimage esourcesmong 8percent f he espondents as notedasbeing hegreatest roblem.32

Trish ose,n her 002 xamination f he se of echnologyby art historians, otedthat mostwere still reliant n printresources or heirwork.33n the ase of mages, hesuggestedthat heir eluctance esulted rom he overall oor quality orlack)of digital mages.34er survey evealed hat 3 percentbelieved lack f mage ccesswasthe reatest arrier hey aced

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in performing heir esearch.35 2007study by BarbaraElamofthe use of digital mages also examinedart historians' doptionof this format.36 he interviewed six art historians about theiruse of online materials nd found that hey ither did not use orwere unimpressed by digital mages.Elam connectedthis ackof adoption to two main factors: lack of comfort with usingtechnology nd a lack of awareness of resources.

ACross-DisciplinepproachA2004multi-discipline tudy conductedby Attig, opeland

and Pelikan investigated the importance of visual material tousers on the campus of Pennsylvania State University PermState).37hese researchers eport hat 44 percent of faculty ndstudent respondents maintained personal collectionsof digitalimages for teaching and research. The researchers lso notedthat he userswere concerned primarilywith ssues surroundingcontent s opposed to retrieval. heystate hat he users "are lessconcerned with how to discover images than with whether theimagelibrarywill containrelevant magesat all."38

The above studies help to inform ur knowledge of mageusers' information ehaviors. It was against this backdrop thatthe current tudy set out to examineprofessional mage users'selection nd use of mageresources.

CurrenttudySeveral research uestions focusing on the mage resources

of theseprofessional ser groups were developedfor he currentstudy.These include:

What image resources re used by these professionals nthe performance f their work?

Which image resources are preferred y these profes-sionals?

What impact, f any, does their disciplinehave on theirselectionof mageresources?

ParticipantsA study of professional image users conducted in 2008-

2009by the first uthor of this article xamined these questions.Twenty participants from four professional mage user groups(archaeologist, rchitect, rt historian, nd artist) were recruitedfor the study. These user groups were selected based on their

similarly trong eliance on images of cultural materials n theirwork. It was believed that selecting user groups employingsimilar visual materials in their work would help clarify nydifferences hat might be discovered among the groups. Finally,practical onsiderationsplayed a role n the selection of the fourgroups the first uthor had easy access to individuals in threeof the four hosengroups.

Beyond the user groups selected for study, the selectioncriteria or the participants were based on the particular careerpath chosenwithin heir espectiveprofessions.As each of theseprofessions as multiplepossiblecareertracks, he selectionwasrestricted y the kind of work performed by each of the usergroups. The participants ncluded in the archaeologistand arthistorian user groups were expected to be actively nvolved in

teaching and research at the college or university evel. Thesetwo groups shared a common foundation in the pedagogicaland research-orientedwork they performed. The participantsincluded in the study of the architect nd artist user groupsalso shared a similar professionalgoal.Theseparticipants wereincluded if heywere presently roducing creativeworks archi-tecture r art). The architectswere included in the study f theywere working either n an architectural irm r self-employedand were paid to create architectural esigns; the artists wereexpectedto be practicing ine rtists working n any media whoself identified s artists.

For nclusion n the tudy t was alsoexpectedthat he artistswere creating works that had a primarily aesthetic purposerather than a functional one, and that these individuals were

actively xhibitingheirwork. Of the four user

groupsincluded

in the tudy, he artists were the only ndividuals who performedsupplemental work to support themselves. While all of these

Table :Demographicharacteristicsf articipantsyUserGroup

No. m _ - _- Yearsin ... A o ..._ Gender- Education- _ , . Position... Area oSetting..Group_ _Profession.

ArchaeologistUser GroupInstructor, sst. Professor & Etruscan,Greek,Roman, SmallCollege&Professor Hellenistic LargeUniversity

ArchitectUser GroupOE t^aio TT j ,- i . Civic, Educational, ~ u L r ,, LobE t^aioArch & A TTHead of,-Graphic

.Design,

., L.. ., ,. , . Consultant,u L Small

,, to6 i 4-40

^ . ai... Residential,

., L.. .,Medical

. ,& T .3M MArch Designer, Architecti... TT , TLargeFirm. TUrban Renewal,

Art Historian User Group. MA& - ^ L 0 Ancient,Medieval, SmallCollege&4 4F nun 15"41- InstructorL & ProfeSSOr ~

'TT -4,unPhD Renaissance,Contemporary

~LargeTTUniversity-4,

Artist User Group

4F- tit- Multimedia,Painter, ^ nL ,. 0 OL ,., 4F- tit-BFA& 7-40APi _ . . .' . . ' Mixed, _. .. & Abstract . . Own

nLStudio. & StudioL ,.6 WA 7-40APi_Pnntmaker,.

.Sculptor,v Mixed

, Figurative.

.. & Abstract . . .. n , ..2M WAMFA .. -. v with. Collaborativen , ....Media.




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individuals elf-identifiedsartists, woof he ix participantsnthisgroup erformed omeform f workwhich iverted partof their imefrom heir rt-making. s this paidworkdid notinterfere ith heir bility oproduceworks or xhibition,heywere ncludedn the tudy.

Recruitment f participantswas completed using theso-called snowball or chain method.39 hrough his methodcolleaguesknown o the researcher cted as contacts or ddi-tional rofessionals.hesepotential articipants ere ontactedby theresearcher,nd a series f basicquestionswere sked todeterminef the ndividualsmet he tudy's nclusion riteria.If the participantsmet the criteria nd expressed desiretocontinue articipationn the study, meeting was arrangedbetween he woparties. fter he requisitenstitutionaleviewboarddocuments oncerninghe tudy adbeenexplainedndsigned, atacollectionegan.Data ollectionnd nalysis

Data for this study was collected rom ach participantthrough paper survey Appendix A)and a one-on-oneemi-structured nterview AppendixB).The participants' urveyresponses nd the nterviews ere transcribed singMicrosoftWord. The imageusers' processes, ehaviors, nd opinionsdiscussed n the surveys nd interviews ere analyzedusingcase-orderedisplayssee below)and the onstant omparativemethod hrough he ualitative esearchoftware Vivo.40

The survey nd interview esponseswere imported ntoNVivoand examinedfor several kinds of content. he firstmethod f analysis, ase-ordered isplays, onsisted f cullingall direct, act-based esponses o the researcher's uestions.An exampleof this type of question-response ould be oneconcerninghe pecific esources heparticipants oted s beingtheirmost ften sed source or mages.Theresponses f ll ofthe participants ere then omparedwithin heir ser groupandacross ll of he tudy's sergroups. he constant ompara-tivemethod f dataanalysiswas used to examine he hematicpatterns hat emergedfrom he participants' esponses. Anexampleof a themewould be a responsewhere participantnotedhis or her frustrationnusingparticularmageresources.Additional, epeated asses through he data revealed urtherthemes nd sub-themes. he emergent odesrepresentinghethemeswere ecorded, efined, nd revised s the datawas readandre-read.

Two checkswerecompleted or his tudy o evaluate hereliability f the findings. hese consisted f an inter-coderassessmentnd a member heck. o ensure hat he odes werereflectivef the ctual hemes resent n the data, ight oderswere recruited o check twenty-five assagestakenfrom hecollected ata. The coderswere givena defined ist of codes

and asked to assign wocodes,oneat a broad evelandoneata detailed evel, o each of the wenty-fiveassages.Thecodesfrom ach coder were ollected,nd the nter-codergreementswere then allied. The broader hematic odes appliedto thepassagessawa 96percent greement ate cross ll coders ndthe researcher. he more focused odes achieved n agreementrate f 81percent. hese greement ates mong he oders ndthe esearcher ere ufficient ccordingoOle Holsti's eliabilitymeasure hreshold f80percent.41

The member heck onsisted f ending summary f thefindings oparticipantsn each ofthefour roups tudied. heaimwas to peakwith ne ndividual rom achgroup oensurethatwhatwasbeingreported asin fact n accurate eflectionof hese sers' workwith mages. elephonee-interviewserecarried ut, and the participants' omments n the summarywere gathered. articipants' esponsesreceivedduring themember-checknterviewonfirmedhat he esearcher ad beenableto capture sers' xperiencesnd workingmethodsn thesummary.42s the researcher adsetouttoprovide n accuratedescription f the mageusers' thoughts, eliefs, nd experi-ences, upport f the findings y theparticipants asa criticalcomponentnensuring he redibilityf he tudy.

FindingsPresented elow re the findings f he tudy elated o the

participants'election f mageresources. hestudy onductedby the first uthor eaffirmedome of the findings f previousresearch tudies urrounding his opic, ncovered ew infor-mation, nd in some cases revealed hanges n attitudes ndbehaviors. f particular ote re thefindings n preferencesorimage esourcesmong he rofessionalsers urveyed.Participants'ankingf mageesources

Responsesweregathered hrough hesurvey nstrumentabout hevariouskinds f mageresources sed by thepartici-pants ndtheir references.nesurvey uestion What ypes fresources o youuse to find mages?) resentedheparticipantswith list f possible hoices f resourcesbooks, nalog magelibraries,43magedatabases, ersonal ollectionsnd websites)as well as providing hem he option o write n their wnresponses. heywere sked o rank he esources sing Likertscale 1-most mportant o5-least mportant)ccordingo howimportant ach resource as believed o be in theperformanceof their work.Whilethe majority f individuals anked oneselection or ach number, he nstructionsppear o have beenunclear o several articipants hoapplied he amenumber omultiple esources.

As can be seen in Table 2, severalfacetswere examinedthrough his urvey uestion. hese consisted f the preferredimageformat digital r analog) nd the evel ofuse ofperson-allyowned,created, nd/or experiencedmages.The overallfindings oint o a preference ordigital esourcesmong heprofessionalsn the archaeologist,rchitect, nd art historianuser groups.The artists, owever, referred rint nd otheranalogresources. he artist ser groupwas also found o preferto use imagesfrom heir ersonal ollections. he responses fthe rchitect sergroup, oo,ndicated hat heir wn collectionsof magesplay an important ole n the performancef theirwork.




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Table:Typef esourcereferredyUser roupDigital Analog Personal

S ^8) -g -S

s s

il lija .s $ gS s I 3 S & * I 1 s i i i

Archaeologist44 12 4 3Archaeologist 12 3 4Archaeologists 5 3 4 1 2Archaeologist 2 13 5 4Architect 2 13 5 4

Architect 2 14 5 3 3Architect3 5 14 3 2 2Architect 2 14 3Architects 4 1 3 2Architect 13 6 4 5 2ArtHistorian 2 15 4 3ArtHistorian 2 14 5 3ArtHistorian 12 5 4 3ArtHistorian 3 4 2 1 5Artisti 3 14 2

Artist 5 4 5 1 3 12Artist 6 5 3 2 14 4Artist 6 3 4 1 5 2Artist 5 3 4 2 1Artist 115 5 1Ranked st 5 10 - 4 - - 4 - -Ranked nd 6 3 13 1-33-Ranked3rd 2 4 4 4-141-Ranked th 1 2 9 4 - - 2 1 1Ranked th 4 14 5-12--

Ranked th 2 - 1 ----- -Number fresponses | 20 | 20 | 19| 20 | 1 | 2 | 15 5 | 1

DigitalesourcesDigitalresources ere found o figure rominentlyn the

resources mployed y a majorityfourteen f twenty) f theparticipantsn the rchaeologistthree f four), rchitectsixofsix) ndart istorian three ffour) sergroups. hese esources


were een s far ess mportant ythemajority fparticipantsnthe rtist roupwith nly wo of ix)participants anking hemhighly.

Overhalf eleven f wenty) f he espondentsoted igitalimagedatabases s themost r second-most mportant esourcefor heir mageneeds.Theywere seen as being mportant onearly ll members f the archaeologistthree f four), rchi-tect four f six)and art historian three f four)user groups.Discussions f the use of digital mage databases y theseusergroups uring he nterviewsentered n the vailability f thecontent heyneeded."I went oARTstor irst. .. It is a goodrepository or he mainstreammages hat wouldneed for nintroductoryourse."Archaeologist, ines 6-88 f ranscribedinterview]

Howeverdigital mage databasesdid not hare similarlyhigh evel of importance mongthe participantsn the artistgroup.From he nterview esponses f the artists, hedigitalimagedatabaseswerenotbelieved o contain he content heysought operform heirwork. Mostly I find mages n]booksfrommypersonal ibrary nd also from he nternet. never sestock atalogs. don't ike the anguage nd I think t s prettyclich.t ustbothersme."[Artist , ines164-66 f transcribedinterview] r theywere able to findwhat they ought n theopenweb."I find hat for my own practice am able to findwhat needthrough ublic enues .. I knowhowtouse searchengineswellenoughusingBoolean terms nd suchthat canusuallynarrowdown what want pretty uickly. o I don'treally eed academic atabases ormages, lthough use themfor ournals lot." Artist , ines 64-66 f ranscribednterview]

One participant n the artist roup ranked these highly,however. uring the nterview, his artist iscussed how thesubjectmatter he soughtwas easierto find n a database ofdigital mages ronthe penWeb. Iprimarily se Flickr. prob-ablywon't se books .. I usually ust find hat here re omanymoreon there han would find n the books n one library."[Artist , ines151-54 f ranscribednterview]Websiteswere seen to be an important esource y themajoritythirteen f twenty) f participants verall, nd by themajority fparticipantsnthe rchaeologistthree ffour), rchi-tect five f six), nd art historian three f four)user groups.Whiletwo artist-participantsankedwebsites s their mostimportant esource or indingmages, heremaining embers(four f six)of this groupfound hem ess important or heirimageneeds.

AnalogesourcesSeveralkinds of analogmaterials ppeared n the ist of

survey esponses; hese onsisted f printed ooksand maga-zines, nd nalog ollectionsf isualmaterialsphotographsnd

photographic lides).Additional ormats ere noted throughthe participants' wn written-in esponses.Analogresources,while till olding degree f mportanceo these ser groups'image seeking,were seen as being only modestly mportantand so were ranked t third r below by the majority elevenof twenty) f participantsn the study.One exception o thiswas found mong he rtist roup bookresources ere coredhighly y the majority fiveof six)of participants. hen thesurvey esponses f the participantsn all four ser groups reexamined,t s clear hat nalogcollections f visualmaterials



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(photographsnd photographiclides)werenotbelieved o bea highly mportant esource otheirwork.Asingle articipant(ArtHistorian ) ranked hese n secondplacein importancewith hemajority f participantsfourteen f nineteen) lacinganalog ollectionsnfourth laceorbelow.

Theusefulness f books for heparticipants'mageneedssawan even distribution n theway theywereranked n termsof mportance. here ppearto be personal referencest workamong the responsesof the various participants ince therankings ouldrangefrom ne to five within singlegroup.However,when hevotes re examined y group, t s clear hatthe trongest reference or ookswasfound mong he rtists.Themajority f artist-participantsfive f six)ranked ooks astheirmost mportant r second-mostmportant esourcentheirimage-seekingfforts.

The artists' omments uring he nterviews egardingheimage ormathey sed ntheir ork ffer ome nsightnto heirpreferences.ne artistmentioned ow she found nalog magesto be more conducive o her workingmethods handigitalimages. [I]f t's n bookor f t's photograph,t's asier or meto work rom." Artist , ines1578-79f ranscribednterview]

Frustration ith etrievingmages iathe omputer as alsonoted s having negative mpact nseeking isual nformationonline.The amount f time pentonline earching ordigitalimageswas often een as counter-productive.Like, giveyoua name, giveyoua date, giveyouthe ity. aah f ask forcity nPennsylvaniandspecific uy, don'tneedtoknow boutsomeguy nSan Francisco.don't ven know bout ome guy nTexaswhosenamemight nly e oneof he wonames.Areyoukiddingme?What, oI gotnothing o do withmy ime? ittinghere widdling hrough nd scroll hrough en housand...ah "[Artist , ines1319-24 f ranscribednterview]

The rchitect-participants,oo,were ohesiven heir pinionof books. However, n the case of the architects, ookswereranked niformlyower hanwasthe asewith he rtists. ach

architect'ssixof six)ranking f them ell n the hird laceorbelow.nterestingly,he rchitects tated hat eeking ut magesonlinewould be less time onsuming,nd that he use ofdigitalimages enefittedheir ork rocesses.Ilovethe dea that cangotoGoogleEarth nd figure ut everythinghat need to see.Thenpre-planwhere am going o takephotographs, r sendsomebody lse to take hephotographs. hat avesme the imeandenergy."Architect, ines 46-49 f ranscribednterview]

Related obooks, n that hey re printedmatter, as thewritten-in esponse egardingmagazinesgivenby Architectand ranked s his second-most mportant esource. lthoughthe responses o the survey uestion do not record his, heuse ofmagazines mong heparticipantsn the rchitect roupwas strong, ith the majority fiveof six)noting uring he

interviews ow magazinemagesplayeda role n theirwork."Whethert's designmagazine r t's bookonarchitecturerit's a book on whatever t s ... historical.t can be a variety fthings. nd then eading n article ven n thenewspaper r na magazinewillgiveme deas,oryouwill eeanadvertisementfor omethingikea tilecompany r a stonefoundry. nd so,that endsyouoff n tangents .." [Architect, ines882-86 ftranscribednterview]

The cause of the omission f magazinesn their urveyresponsess unclear. t maybe because thisresource ypewas

conceptuallyinked o books.Another easonfor heomissionmaybe that he wording f the survey uestion resupposesthat heparticipant ould be performing direct earch foran image s opposedto following eneral rowsing ehaviors.Through he nterviews t was discovered hatmagazineswerecommonly sedin the rchitects' asual nformation-gatheringprocesses.he architects oted heywouldkeep breast fwhatwasoccurringn the field nd make erendipitous iscoverieswhenbrowsingmagazines.Personalesources

Amajority f he participantsfifteen f wenty) oted hattheir ersonal mage ollections ere useful esources or heirwork.While heranking f he mportancef his esource asmodestranked t third rbelow) mong he articipantsnmostusergroups, early ll (five f ix)of the rtists aw it as theirmostor second-mostmportant esource.I havethis diseasewhere 'm not llowed o throw magazinewayonce buy t.I don'thaveenough pacefor hem. o,now willget wholestack f hem nd will it nd 'll ustgo through hepagesandwhatever see that timulates hatever Iwill ustpullthat ut,and willget whole tack f hose. And then willcutoutthething hat wanted nd then will get ike big ketch ook ndI'llarrange he hapes.They ort f relate o one another. ot acollage,ecause'mreally eeping rack f he hapes,what heyare, oI don't ayer nything. ut, heywill ort f be classifiedvisually."Artist , ines 98-904 f ranscribednterview]

Theeffort nvolved n creating n organizedketchbookfimages uggests hat he magesn this rtist's ersonal ollec-tion re riticallymportant. elated othe se of personal magecollectionss the mportance f mages reated y the partici-pants. iveparticipantsof wenty) oted he mportancef heseresourceshrough ritten-in esponses.I takemy ketchbookto my studio nd draw frommy sketchbook. also started omake lithograph]lates rommy ketchbooko then print n

mydrawing.. I photocopy y ketchbooknd then turn hemintoplates nd then print n paper." Artist , lines898-904of ranscribednterview] hile ersonallyreatedmagery asranked s an important esourceyseveral f the rchitect ndthe rtist articipantsn the tudy, oneofthe cademicmageusersnoted heuse of heir isual reations.

One last resource, singlewritten-in urvey esponse f"observational,"meaningfirst-hand isual experience,wasmentioned y a sole participant Artist ) in the study. heimportancefvisual nformationntheworld round he artic-ipant, lthough ot ecorded ere nthe urvey's esponses, asmentioned uring he nterviews y a number f the rchitects(four f ix) nd artists five f ix). Iamalways ooking t tuff.I amalways ataloging.What omes omind .. is .. whenever

I amwalking round r wherever am, amalways aking oteofmy nvironmentroundme. t s ust . .that sthe anguageI work n." [Architect, lines372-74of transcribed nterview]Becausef his iscoveryt s ikely hat irect ersonal ngage-mentwith isual timulus ntheir aily ivesplays n mportantrole n what each of these wo user groupsperceive s imageseeking.45

Thedevelopmentfpersonal ollections as found o be acopingmechanismesultingromhe rustrationhe rofessionalimageusers xperiencedn association ith heir mageneeds.

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The theme f frustration as discovered uring he nterviewsof he tudy's articipants, ndseveral ausesoffrustration erefound: arriers oaccess, arriers oavailability,ifficultiesueto the mount f time nd effort eededto meet needs,finan-cial ssues, nd technologicalbstacles. he most ommonwaythat hese sergroups ried o overcome hese hallenges as tocreate heir wn collection f personalmaterials.n fact, hree-quarters f theparticipants addeveloped ersonal ollectionsofmaterialsn order obypass he hallengeshey acedwhentrying o find mages.The academicusersnoted hey id thisthrough inding mages nline n theopenweb,by purchasingcommerciallyvailable mages, nd by photographing orksthemselves uring heir ravels. I add images hatve takenin museums . . that 've takenwhile 've traveled, and]thatIVe collected vertheyears." ArtHistorian , lines444-47oftranscribednterview]

Scanningmages oundnprinted ublications as anothermethodmentioned or dealingwith lack of suitable mageresources.They re not here, nd soI do have to goto booksat that oint, nd also make ure hat get lotofbookswhenI'm traveling round. speciallyneswithnicecolorpictures."[Archaeologist, ines 84-86 f ranscribednterview]Thearchitect-participantsoodeveloped everalways tocopewith he ack of mageresourcesn theirworkplaces. nemethodwas the se of heir wnpersonalmaterials r resourcesbelonging o their olleagues.A lotofpeople n theoffice heyhave books t their esk and so theywouldsay Doyouwantto look at that rchitect?' h, of course " Architect , lines330-31of transcribed nterview] ollectingmagesof designsthey ound nteresting, ften nrelated o the current rojectson which they wereworking, as another ommon ctivitymentionedsawayto alleviate he roblemsausedby lackofuseful esources.We're uilding library, neffect,nthehopesthat hese hings re ust on file." Architect, ines 114CML1ftranscribednterview]

The artist-participants,oo,noted their ttempts o copewith lack of access to resources hrough hedevelopmentftheir wn personal ollections.llof he rtists iscussed avingapersonal ollectionfresourcematerial t their isposal. omeof the artists otedtheir wn personal ollectionwas richerfor heir eedsthan hose vailable othem hrough heir ocalpublic ibraries.In a lotofwaysformy pecific nterestst hisbookcollection]s better hanmyregionalibrary. f want tobranch ut nto hings don'treally ookat that ften, hen 'llgotothe mith ounty ibrary" fictitiousibrary ame]. Artist2, ines 15-17 f transcribednterview] o accessresources otin their ersonal ollections,actorsuch as distance, ime, ndeffort ere weighed gainst heneedfor he mage(s).

Participants'avorite

mageesources

In order o discoverwhichresourceswerepreferred, heparticipants ere sked to provide written esponse amingtheir avorite esource Ifyouhad to nameonespecificmageresource s yourfavorite, hatwould t be?).46s can be seenin Table ,the esponsesf he articipants erevaried, angingfrom igital magedatabases, earchengines,websites, ndpersonal mages oprintedmaterials uch as books and maga-zines.Nevertheless,everalnterestingatterns erefound.

30 Art ocumentationVolume0,Number201

Table3: Favorite mageResourceby UserGroup

Digital Analog Personal

So .52 'S

.

V . I-J

N w

II I I jlilii i 1U < U S M

Archaeologist - 2 R - 1Architect 3 3 - - 1 1 - 1ArtHistorian 4 - - - - -Artist 1 _- - 1 - - 3 1NUMBER 9 ^3__2__2 1 15 11

T(for eaching); for esearch)The results upport hefinding hat herewasa preference

for digital esourcesmongthe majority f participantsn thearchaeologistthree f our),rchitectfive f ix), nd rt istoriangroups four f four). hepreferenceor ommercialARTstor,48Dreamstime, iewport, rchivision) nd in-house developed(MDID)digital mage databaseswas found only among thearchaeologistthree f four) nd architect three f six)usergroups.49RTstors ncluded s a unique ntry nTable since twas notedby more han neparticipant. he other ommercialdigital atabasesmentioned y theparticipants ere ll uniqueinstances iven y single ndividual.omewhaturprising asthefinding hat one of the rt historian-participantsdentifieddigital atabases s their avorite esource. he reasonbehindthis indings unclear nd warrants dditional esearch.

Instead f a digital mage database, ll of the participants(four f four) n the art historian roupwere unanimous ntheir election f Google mages s their avorite esource. hisbrings p a key ssue thatneeds to be emphasized ere:half fthe articipants amed search ngine s their avorite esource.It s clear from he rt historians' election f Google mages stheir avorite esourcehat, hile heywerekeen n using nlineresources,herewas no single utstanding esourcehey ouldidentify o meet heir mageneeds.Googleor Google mageswas also noted s being he avorite esourcemong hemajority(four f ix)ofthe rchitect-participants.rom hese indingstis apparent hat he majority f users within hese hree roupsare earching or mages nline hrough igital magedatabasesand/or earch ngines.

Showing the opposite trend a preference or analogresources were the surveyresponses f the majority f theartist-participantsfour f six).Whiletwo individuals n thisgroup dentified nline resources Google Imagesand Flickr,respectively) s their favorite, he remaining rtists notedtheir reference orprintedmaterials books,magazines, ndpersonal hotographs). wo ndividualsn the tudy, othfromthe reative ser groups, oted hat heir avorite esource waspersonalmages.50



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DiscussionfFindingsThefindings elated o the mage esourcesonsulted ythe

professionalsergroups n this tudy dd to the knowledge fwhere ndividuals eek ut visual nformation.eyond dding othe imited esearch urroundingmageusers' mageresources,thepresent tudy's indings ometimesffer competing ision

ofwhere hese sersfind heir isual nformation.hefollowingdiscussion ocuses n thefindings f he urrent tudy nd howthesecompare othe results f past research fforts. he firstaspect obe discussed s the sers' preferencesnterms f mageformat, ollowedy n examinationf he ersonalmage ollec-tions eveloped ytheusers.

Theresource referencesmongthe participants evealedthat hemajority f the participantsn the rchaeologist,rchi-tect, nd art historian roupsnoted heir reference or nlineimagedatabases nd/or digital mages ound hrough ebsites.Comparisons f these indings ith arlier tudies re difficultbecause the rchaeologists'nd architects'magebehaviorsnduse of technology ave receivedimited ttention. heexistingliteratureddressing rchaeologists'nformationehaviors res-

ents conflictingicture. ne bodyof iteraturellustrates hatthediscipline f rchaeologyasembracedechnologicalools,51and yet when academic rchaeologists'nformation ehaviorshave been examined t appears hat t east for extual nforma-tion hey ontinue o favor rinted nalog materials.52hile hestudy y Huvilaexaminesndsupports he trong se of magesbyacademicrchaeologists,t remains rustratinglyilent n theresourceshey mployed ofind isualmaterials.

Several studieshavebeen published n architects'nfor-mationbehaviors.53owever, s the majority f these werecompleted number f years ago, discussions re generallylimited o analogmaterials. heytherefore ffer ew compari-sons to the urrent tudy's indings or he rchitects' referencefor nline mage esources.meElliott's 002 tudy f rchitects'

useof

mages uggestshat his ser

groupad not

yetmbraced

digital magesor web-based magesearching.54he currentstudy found that architects' orkingmethodswere heavilydependent n digital mages, heweb,andcomputer echnolo-gies.Thesefindings ndicate hat marked hift n theworkingprocesses f the profession ave occurred n the nterveningyears etween he tudies.Makri nd Warwick's ecent esearchinto he nformation ehaviors f graduate rchitecturetudentsoffers upport or he current tudy's findings oncerning heimportance f visualmaterials o architects.55heseresearchersfound hatGoogle ndGoogle mageswere he hief ntry ointto finding isualcontent y the tudents, nd that he develop-ment f personal ollectionsf mageswaswidespread.56

The use of digital magesby art historians as been rela-

tivelywell examined n recent

ears,ut these tudies ffer

contrasting iew to the present tudy's findings. aileyandGraham xamined rt historians' se of digital mages n their2000study nd found hese users had negative onnotationsassociatedwith temsfound on the web.57 t that ime theyfound hat rt historians elievedmaterials ound n the weblacked uthority. heseresearcherslsoreport lack of nterestin usingdigital magedatabases mong he rt historians heysurveyed.58ose's 2002studypresented imilar indings, iththe majority f her art historian espondents oting lack ofin-depth cholarly esourcesnd a lack of useful mages.59

more ecent tudy yElam lsosuggestshat rt historians avenotfully mbraced igital magesntheir ork ractices.nherstudy f six art historians lamnotes hat heir ack of digitalimage doptionwas the result f a lackof comfort ith ech-nology nd limited wareness f resources.60 owever, hearthistoriansn the urrent tudy ookedmore avorablypontheuseofdigital mages. hereason or hedivergent indings ithprior tudies nd the urrent tudy s unclear. t maybethat hepresent tudywas conducted fter watershed moment n thearthistorians' cceptancend adoption f digital mages.61t salsopossible hat he everal rt historiansnterviewed or hecurrent tudy ll had an unusually igh evel f omfort orkingwith echnology.hisfinding nthe urrent tudy san nconsis-tency hat ecessitatesdditional esearch or larification.

Thefindings ssociatedwith the artist ser group n thecurrent tudy resents nentirely ifferent icture han hat f heother hree ser groups.Although woartist-participantsotedthat digital mage databases nd/or websiteswere mportantto their mage eeking, herewas a marked referenceor rintresourcesmong hemajorityf he rtists.62 he rtist roup lsopreferred sing magesfrom heir ersonal ollections. hese

two findings oncerning rtists' eavyuse of print materialsand their wn personal ibrariess supported y the study fartists' nformation-seekingehaviors eported yCobbledick.63However,onflictingindingsbout rtists' referenceor nlineversusprint esources ave been reported n recent tudies.Gregory ound hat 7 percent f the artist-respondentsotedthey ccessedmages hrough oogle magesor other nternetsites.64isick t al. also found herewasa strong reference or,anduseof, nline esources mong he rtists hey xamined.65These two recent tudies eem to suggest trend oward heincreased se ofonline esourcesmong rtists. t s interestingthat he urrent tudy's indings o not corroboratehe tudiesofGregory rVisickt l. Apossible ausefor he ariation nthestudies' indings aybe the result f the different ata collec-

tionmethods sed to examine rtists' nformationehaviors,ritmaybe that he urrent tudy ontained groupwhose mageresourceswere markedly nalog-oriented hen compared otheir eers.The causeof the variationn the findings equiresadditional esearch or larificationurposes.

Personally eveloped image collectionswere found toplayan important ole n the work-relatedmagebehaviors fall four f the study'suser groups,with hree-quartersf theparticipants oting heir se. Previous tudies o examine mageusers uggest his s a common ractice. ttig, opeland, ndPelikan'survey f he cademic ser ommunitynPenn tate'scampuses ound hat 4percent f faculty nd student espon-dentsmaintained ersonal ollectionsfdigital mages.66shasbeen mentioned reviously,nformation egarding he magepractices f cademic rchaeologistsnd practicingrchitectsslimited. upporting videncen the iterature or hepersonalimage ollectionractices f rchaeologistss absent.However,in the ase ofarchitects, lliott ound n her tudy hat hey llhad their wn personal ollectionf mages,ndthat hese ouldcontain everalhundred mages.67 number f studies f arthistorians nd artists orroboratehepresent tudy's indingsregarding he use of personal ollections.hallener's tudy fart historians eported hat hey sedtheir ersonal ollectionsofmaterials nd made their wn slides orphotographs.68lam

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also foundpersonally eveloped magecollectionsmong rthistorians. he observed hat ne academicrt historiann herstudywashesitant o move nto he digital ealm ecauseshehaddeveloped sizable ersonal lide ollectionver he ourseofher hirty-five-yearareer.69

Personal ollectionsf resources erefound o be themostheavily sedbythe rtist-participants.hisfinding ssupportedbyCobbledick,honoted nher tudy hat ersonal ollectionsofmaterials ere maintainedndconsulted y he rtists.70orerecent tudies yVisickt l. andHemmiglso found hat rtistshavedevelopedpersonal ollectionsupporting heir eeds.71The collections reatedby individualswere noted as beingcritical o the workprocesses f several rchitectstwoof six)and one artist oneof ix) n thepresent tudy. emmig's tudyalso found hat imagesgenerated irectly rom our magina-tion" re major ource fvisualnformationorworking rtists,although edoesnot uggest hat hese mages e fixed n anymedium.72isick t al. also mention he artists' se ofperson-allycreated mages.73dditional iscussions f these mageswere not discovered n the iterature ddressing he artists' rthe rchitects' nformationehaviors.

Conclusionsnd uture esearchThe most ritical hallenges acing he mageusers n this

studywere he nadequatevailabilityf, nd accessto, ppro-priatevisual content o meet their needs.Codified ollectiondevelopment ractices imilar o thosefor rint ollections onot exist for visualmaterials, o there s no standard gainstwhichto judge the holdings f an institution r a database.Becauseofthe imited ttention aid to providing mageuserswith dequatecontent n both ubjectmatter nd in quality,74theywerefound o useprint ublicationso meetmany f heirneeds.Thiswas the ase even hough hemajority f he tudy'sparticipants referred singonlineresources. n even clearerindicationf he ritical eed for dditional mage ontent s thefinding hat hree-quartersf heparticipantsn the tudywereactively eveloping heir wncollectionso avoidfuture rob-lemswith mage vailability.

There re everalways hat nformation rofessionalsouldassistthese mageusers.The first f these nvolveshelpingimageusers reate,manage, nd preserve heir ersonal magecollections.hemajority f he articipantsnthe tudy elt heirtechnologicalkillswere nadequateo the asks ssociatedwiththe developmentnd maintenance f their magecollections.These mageuserswould benefit rom lear nstructionsboutthe various technologiesssociatedwith digital mages.Thisincludes nformation ritten n ayterms or he hardware ndsoftware sed for mageprocesses,sefulmethods f mage ilemanipulation,nd imagefilenaming. hese userswouldalsobenefit romnstructionsndassistancenarchivingheirmagefiles. everal participantsn the study were not performingany form f digital mage archiving or hepersonal magesthey adcreated nd accumulated. inally,nformationrofes-sionals eed ohelpusersmanage heir ersonalmages or aterretrieval. heseaspectswere found o be particularly ressingto the creative sers sincetheir magefileswererarely avedin a waythat llowedthem o be easilyretrieved. s personalimage ollectionsrow n size,thedevelopmentf users' killsfor indinghe mages hey eekbecomesmore f challenge.


Related o their ersonal ollection uilding fforts s therealization mong the participants hat they were probablyreplicating he work of others n their mage processing ndmanagement fforts. he users n the academic groups tatedthat heywouldwelcome heopportunity o contribute oandusealarge mage ollectionhared crossmany nstitutions.t snot nconceivableothink f an onlinedatabaseof mages hatcould ake dvantage f heknowledge,mages,ndexpertise fprofessionals ho workwith mages nd doit n an easy-to-useand low- or no-cost way.Sinceusers n this tudyhaveexpe-rienced ifficultiesrying ofind nd archive heir wn digitalimages, here s an added incentive or hem o uploadtheirimages oan online ite hat ould provide othorganizationaland archival upport.While ome reativendividuals illhaveconcerns bout ntellectual roperty ightswhensharing heirimages,methods anbedevelopedo imit ccess otheir magesinorder oprotect hese rommisuse.Given he urrently vail-abletechnologies,hepopularity fphoto-sharingervicesuchasPanoramiond Flickr, nd the participants' road use oftheInternet, t would be possible o assist heseusers n managingtheir ersonalmages n an online etting. nline ystems avethe dded advantage f allowing ontent sers to applytermsanddescriptionso mages.Whether heuser-suppliednforma-tion s available o others r only othe ndividual serwho hasuploadedthe mage, ts trength s in the upplementalevelofaccessprovided o the isual nformation. ince ccess o mageswasnoted s being challenge ormost articipantsn the tudy,efforts owardmprovingmage etrievalnthe nline etting orprofessionalmageuserspresumably ouldbe welcomed.

Thefinding f imited se of online igital magedatabasesby the mageusers n the study prompts dditional esearchinto he ause(s).Several sers uggested hat hese nformationsystems id not yet contain hedepth nd breadth f contentthey eeded.This ituation ould lsobe ndicative f dditionalissues, uch s theusers' imited echnologicalbilities, inancial

barriers, nd/or their ack of knowledge boutavailabledata-bases.Theusability f the availablemagedatabases lsomaycontributeotheir imited doption ince heymaynotbewell-suited o the sers' echnologicalkills. smany sers xpresseda belief hat heir echnologicalkillswere imited, t s a factorthatwarrants uture esearch.inancial arriers ere lso associ-atedwith he imited se of magedatabasesby severalusers,and potential serswerenot particularly ell-informedboutthe range of imagedatabasesavailable to them.Fromthesefindings t s clear hat magedatabaseproviders eed to showimage sers professionalevel f ervice hrough consistentlyhigh evel of mage quality, xpertly pplieddescriptivenfor-mation, nd content epth nd breadth hatmeets sers'needs.Furthermore,heymust provide ystem eatures hat ater o

the technologicalkill evel of their sers and do a better obofeducating sers boutthe ontent f the databases.f digitalimagedatabaseproviders chieve hesegoals, t s likely heywill ee ncreased seamong rofessionalmageusers.

The fact hat rtists were found oprefer he use of printresourcessan ntriguing iscoveryhat hould lsobe examinedmore losely. rom hefindings f thepresent tudy t appearsthat he rtists refer rint materials ince hisformat sbettersuited o their ork rocesses. owever, here ere rtists n thestudywhousedcomputers ofind nd work with mages, nd



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these sers varied ntheir verall referenceor magesnprint.At a minimum, n investigationf his opicwould dentify hemost seful ormat f nformation elivery or hese sers.

AcknowledgmentsThis tudywouldnothavebeenpossiblewithout he upport

of everal roups nd ndividuals. irst, ewould ike o thankthe wenty rofessional mageuserswho so generouslyllowedtheir magebehaviors obe examined.Without heir illingnessto participaten this tudy, ur understanding f their mageresourceswould be much diminished. cknowledgment ustalsobe given o the nstitute f Museumand Library ervicesand the chool f nformation cience ndTechnologyt DrexelUniversity or upporting hedoctoralwork f the first uthor.Finally, ewould ike o thank he reviewers hose thoughtfulcomments elped trengthen his rticle.

Notes1.The first uthor egan he iterature eview or his

study y examining he iterature ublished rom 995 nward.

However,twas discoveredhat he iterature ddressing heimageusersunder nvestigationnthis tudywaslimited. saresult f his ituation he ime eriod estriction aslifted, ndall tems fferingnformationbout he nformation ehaviorsof he tudy's sergroupswere onsidered.

2. stoHuvila, Analyticnformation orizonMaps,"Librarynd nformationcienceesearch1,no.1 January 009):18-28;stoHuvila, The nformation ondition:nformationUsebyArchaeologistsnLabour,Work ndAction,"nformationResearch3,no.4 (December008), ttp: /informationsnet/ir/13-4/paper369.html.uvila's2008paper, lthoughitpresents omeof hedatacollected romnterviews ithtwenty-five ordic rchaeologists,s not n analysis f hearchaeologist'snformationehaviors.nstead hepapershowshow HannahArendt's

heoryfvita

ctiva,hich

divideshuman ctivity nto abor,work, nd action, ouldbeapplied o nformation-behavioresearch.hepaperdiscusses ow this ripartite odel ouldbeusedtoanalyze heinterview ranscripts,ut t doesnot ddress he ontent f heinterviews.

3.Huvila, Analyticnformation orizonMaps,"21-23, 6.4.Jeffrey .Clark, rianM.Slator,William errizo, ames

E.Landrum,II,Richard rovarp, aronBergstrom,anjayRamaswamy,nd William ockheck,DigitalArchive etworkforAnthropology,"ournalfDigital nformation,no.4 (2002),http: /journals.tdl.org/jodi/article/iew/50/53.

5.GaryMarchionini,Evaluating igital ibraries:Longitudinalnd Multifaceted iew," ibrary rends9,no.2

(Fall 2000):04-33.

6.Gregory . Bearman nd Sheila . Spiro, ArchaeologicalApplicationsfAdvancedmaging echniques," heBiblicalArchaeologist9,no.1 March 996): 6-66.

7.Theheavy se of mage ollectionsosupport heteachingnd research f cademicrchaeologistss confirmedbythe irst uthor's irsthandxperience orkingn magecollections.owever, ormal tudies f rchaeologists'informationehaviorsurrounding isualmaterial refrustratinglyimited.

8.Joyce hidlow, The nformation eeds ofArchitecturalPractices," rt ibrariesournal6,no. 3 (1991):8-24.

9.StephannMakri nd ClaireWarwick,InformationorInspiration: nderstanding rchitects'nformationeeking ndUse Behaviors o nform esign,"Journalf he mericanocietyfor nformationcience Technology1,no. 9 (September010):1745-70.

10. bid., 752-53, 755-56, 765.11. bid., 763.12.HindaF.Sklar, WhyMake magesAvailable nline:

UserPerspectives,"nRLGDigitalmage ccessroject,d.PatriciaMcClungMountain iew, A: Research ibrariesGroup, 995),3.

13. bid.14.Valerie .Bradfield,lide ollections:UserRequirements

Survey, ritish ibrary esearch Development eport 309(Leicester,K: Leicesterolytechnic,976),6.

15. bid.16.William . Hemmig,The nformation-Seeking

BehaviorfVisualArtists: Literature eview," ournalfDocumentation4,no. 3 (2008):43-62.

17.William emmig, AnEmpirical tudy f heInformation-Seekingehavior f Practicing isualArtists,"JournalfDocumentation5,no.4 (2009):82-703.

18.Bradfield,lide ollections,4.19.SusieCobbledick,The nformation-Seekingehaviors

ofArtists: xploratorynterviews," he ibrary uarterly6,no.4 (October996):57-59, 60.

20.Jacquelyn hallener,Information-Seekingehavior fProfessorsfArtHistory ndStudioArt" master's hesis, entStateUniversity,999),3-35.

21. bid., 5.22.Hemmig,AnEmpiricaltudy f he nformation-

Seeking ehavior f Practicing isualArtists," 87-89.23. Richard isick, udy endrickson,ndCarolyn

Bowman,eekingnformationuring he reativerocessA PilotStudy fArtists, 006, 1-22, 6,34, ccessedAugust 1,2009,http://staff.washington.edu/jath/portfolio/570final.pdfsitediscontinued).

24. bid.25. ToriGregory,Under-Servedr Under-Surveyed:he

Information eeds of tudioArt acultynthe outhwesternUnited tates," rtDocumentation6,no.2(Fall2007):7-66.

26. bid., 3.27. bid.28.Bradfield,lide ollections,4.29.Challener,Information-Seekingehavior f Professors

ofArtHistory ndStudioArt," 3-35, 3.30.Christopher ailey ndMargaret .Graham, Compare

and Contrast: easuring he mpact fDigital maging ntheDisciplinefArtHistory," hirtiethnternationalongressof he istory fArt:ArtHistoryor heMillennium:ime,-8September000, ondon, ttp:// ww.unites.uqam.ca/AHWA/Meetings^OOO.CIHA/Bailey.html.

31.Margaret .Graham ndChristopher ailey, DigitalImages nd Art Historians ComparendContrast evisited,"Art ibraries ournal1,no. 3 (2006):1-24.

32. bid., 3.




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33. Trish ose, Technology'smpact n the nformation-Seeking ehavior f ArtHistorians/' rtDocumentation1,no.2(Fall2002):7.

34. bid., 8-39.35. bid., 9.36. Barbara lam, Readiness rAvoidance:-resources

and theArtHistorian," ollectionuilding6,no.1 2007):-6.37. n this tudy he uthors ocused n users nthe rts,humanities,nd environmentalcienceswith hegoalof

establishinguidelines ppropriate or multi-disciplinaryresource. ohn ttig, nnCopeland,ndMichael elikan,"ContextndMeaning: heChallengesfMetadata orDigital mageLibrary ithin he University,"ollege ResearchLibraries5,no. 3 (2004):51-61.

38. bid., 53.39.W.PaulVogt, ictionaryf tatisticsndMethodology:

Nontechnicaluideor he ocial ciencesThousand aks,CA:Sage,1999),68;MichaelQuinnPatton, ualitativeesearchndEvaluation ethodsThousand aks,CA:SagePublications,2002),37-38.

40.QSRnternational,Nvivo9,"http: /www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx.41. Ole R.Holsti, ontent nalysisor he ocial ciencesndHumanitiesReading,MA:AddisonWesley,969).

42.Archaeologist,Architect,ArtHistorian ,and Artist6 were heparticipants ho took art n the member heck.

43. n the ontext f his tudy, nalogresourcesmeantangiblemedia photographs,hotographiclides, ooks,andmagazines)r ctual works paintings, uildings, ndsculptures).

44.Theparticipantsnthe tudy re dentified ccordingotheir roupmembershipndbya number ndicatinghe rderinwhich heywere tudied. hus,Archaeologistwas thefirst articipantopartake n the tudy rom he rchaeologistusergroup, rchitect wouldbethe hird articipant rom he

architect sergroup, nd so on.45.The umber fparticipantsorank his esourcesimportant o their mage eeking ould nfact e higher ad tbeen ncluded nthe ist f options or he urvey uestion.

46. Theterm avorite nthis urvey uestion mplied hemost seful nd frequently sed resource ytheparticipants.Insome ases theparticipantdentifiedeveral favorites."Dualanswerswere asedonwhat he magewas used for nthe ase of he esponsefArchaeologist,orwhether r nottheparticipant asable to find whatwas needed n a particularcommercialmagedatabaseArchitect and Architect ).

47.One of he rchitects otedhe used thegeneral earchengineGooglerather han erforming searchwithGoogleImages incehewoulddiscovermages nd additional

informationseful o thedevelopmentf he design.48. Since se ofresourcesstied o availability,t houldbe notedhere hat ll of he cademic sers had nstitutionalaccess oARTstor.

49. Formore nformation bout he magedatabasesdiscussed ythe articipantsee:ARTstor, ttp://www.artstor.org/ ndex,html; reamstime, ttp://www.dreamstime.com/;Archivision,ttp:/ www.archivision.com/;ndMDID,http: /sites.jmu.edu/mdidhelp/

50.Artist notedher wn photographss her favoriteresource. rchitect noted hat he xperiencef ooking t theworld round herwas herpreferred esource.

51. Clark t al, "DigitalArchive etwork orAnthropology"; archionini,Evaluating igital ibraries";BearmanndSpiro, ArchaeologicalpplicationsfAdvancedImaging echniques."

52.Huvila, Analyticnformation orizonMaps,"20-22.53.Makri ndWarwick,Informationor nspiration";AmeElliott, Computationalupport or ketchingnd mageBrowsing uring heEarly hase ofArchitecturalesign"(PhDdiss.,UniversityfCalifornia, erkeley,002), ttp://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~ame/dissertation/PDFs/downloads.html;klar, WhyMake magesAvailable nline";Chidlow, The nformation eedsofArchitecturalractices";Bradfield,lideCollections.

54.Elliott, Computationalupport or ketchingndImageBrowsing uring heEarly hase ofArchitecturalDesign," 74-77.

55.Makri nd Warwick,Informationor nspiration."56. bid., 752-53, 763.57.BaileyndGraham, Comparend Contrast."58. bid.59.Rose, Technology'smpact n the nformation-Seeking

Behavior fArtHistorians,"8-39.60.Elam, ReadinessrAvoidance,".61.Theadoption fdigital mage echnologyppears o

havebeenprecipitatedya confluencef everal orcesna short eriod f ime nthe arly o mid2000s.During hisperiod heEastman odakCompany toppedmanufacturingprofessional5mm lide film the irst ypewas discontinuedin2001) nd slideprojectors2004),he ost f omputerprocessorsnd memory egan ofall 2001),ARTstor ecameavailablehrough ubscription2004),nd Google mageswasintroduced2001).

62. Oneartist Artist ),whorankedweb sites s mostimportant, hosebooks s the nextmost mportant esources orhis mageneeds.This s understandable s he works rimarilywith mages rovided hrough ews-related ebsites. heother rtist o rank nline esources ighly seda computer oworkwith magesnherhourly aid position.

63.Cobbledick,The nformation-Seekingehaviors fArtists," 61-62.

64.Gregory,Under-Servedr Under-Surveyed,"3.65.Visick t al.,Seekingnformationuring he reative

Process,5.66.Attig, opeland, nd Pelikan, Context nd Meaning,"

253.67.Elliott, Computationalupport or ketchingnd

ImageBrowsing uring heEarly hase ofArchitecturalDesign," 79-81.68.Challener,Information-Seekingehavior f Professors

ofArtHistory nd StudioArt," 3.69.Elam, Readiness rAvoidance,".70.Cobbledick,The nformation-Seekingehaviors f

Artists."71.Visick t al.,Seekingnformationuring he reative

Process,3;Hemmig,AnEmpirical tudy f he nformation-Seeking ehavior f Practicing isualArtists," 97, 00.




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72.Hemmig, AnEmpiricaltudy f he nformation-Seeking ehavior f Practicing isualArtists/789.

73. Visick et al., Seeking nformation uring theCreativeProcess, 0.

74.See therecent tudy yMcCann nd Ravasconcerningthe mpact mage uality nonlineournals adon userexperiences.teveMcCann ndTammy avas, Impact fImageQualitynOnlineArtHistory ournals: User tudy,"ArtDocumentation9,no.1 Spring 010):1^8.

Joan . Beaudoin,Assistant rofessor,

SchoolfLibrary nd nformationcience,Wayne tateUniversity,

Detroit, ichigan,[email protected]

Jessica vansBrady,Visual&Performing rts Librarian,

Florida tateUniversity,

Tallahassee,lorida,[email protected]

APPENDIX: DataCollectionnstrumentSurvey1. Withwhich roup oyou dentify ost losely?

(Chooseone.)Archaeologist rchitect art historian artist

2. Howmanyyearshaveyoubeen ssociatedwith hisgroupyou dentify?

3. Whatwork asks o you complete ith mages?

4. What ypes f mages oyouusually ind ourself

needing?For xample,mages fpottery, ornices,Degas's pasteldrawings, tc.)

5. Approximatelyow often o youfind ourselfneeding mages? Chooseone.)

Daily Weekly Monthly Other please pecify)

6. Ifyouhadtonameonespecificmage esource s yourfavorite, hatwould tbe?

7. What ypes fresources o youuseto find mages?(Pleaserank n order f mportance,sing asmostfrequently sed to 5, eastfrequently sed.)

BooksImage ibrariesanalog ollections slides, hotographs,etc.)

Imagedatabase(s)Personal ollectionWebsite(s)Other(s)please pecify)

8. Please describeriefly owyou go about ooking orimageswhenyouareusingyour avoriteesource.

9. Onceyouhave found he mages hat nterest ou,whatdoyou typically owith hem?

10. How doyou ncorporatemagesntoyourwork?

11. Which ools ndtechnologiesoyouuse toworkwithyour mages?

APPENDIX: DataCollectionnstrumentInterview uideGreetings Do this off ape.Give date and time at start frecording.

Ethnographic xplanations Several discussions about theproject ave takenplaceprior o the nterviewmeeting. nin-depth nddetailed ccount oes notneedtobegiven.

Thefollowing eed tobe re-stated:Project xplanations Theproject ocuses n the partici-pant's mage xperiences nd how mages refound.Question xplanations Do this longside uestionswhenwarranted. tate t outset he participant hould feel freeto discuss nything hatparallels hegeneral opicof theproject.Recording xplanations Mention hat he tudy s confi-dential nd that articipant'sdentity illbeprotected.

InterviewuestionsTRANSITION:I willbeginby askingyousomegeneral ues-tions bout yourwork nd your ackground. hen will skyoua series f questionsboutwhyyouneed mages nd howyougoabout indinghem. he tudy strying ogain better nder-standing f users of mages, o youshouldfeelfree o discussanything hat omes o mind nresponse o the uestions sked.

1. Canyou tellme a little bout your ducational ack-ground?

2. Could you please tell me what type of work youperform nd what your pecificnterestsre nthe ieldyouwork n?

3. Canyoutellmea little it boutwhyyouneed and useimagesnyourwork?

TRANSITION:Think ack othe ast ime ouneeded n mageor mages.

4. Couldyoupleasedescribe ormewhatyouwereworking nwhenyouneeded he mage r mages?PROBE(ifnotdiscussed):Canyoutalk bout he askyouwereworking n?Why idyouneedan mage rimagesnthis nstance?

5. What mage r mageswereyou ooking or he asttime ouneeded o ocate n mage or omething ouwereworking n?Abouthow ong go was this?

6. Howdidyou go aboutfinding hatyouwere ookingfor inotherwords, idyou earch or he mage singa specific ord r name, idyou ookfor he mageunder general eading, r )?




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7. What esourcesidyouusetofind he mage rimagesdidyouusepersonal r ibrary aterialsndwere he mages oundnbooks, atabases, hoto-graphic ollections,r ..)?

8. Were ou ble to findwhatyouwere ooking or?PROMPT:What bout f here ere system vail-ablewhere

oucould earch n

thingsike olor nd

shape?Doyouthink oumight se this ort f ystemto find mages?

9. Ifyouthink ack o other imes ouhaveneededimages, owtypical as this mageneed?PROBE(ifit wasn'thighly ypical): anyougivemeexamplesfmore ypicalituations?

TRANSITION:Now will skyou omemore eneral ues-tions bout howyou go about indingmages.

10. Where o youtypically otofind our mages ndwhendoes this ccur? n otherwords,where o youlookfor mages nddoyou generally o this s theneedarises, na set chedule, r o on?

11. How doyoufind n mage f work youknow bout?Inotherwords, fyouwere ooking or work youknew f nd youknew he itle, ate, nameof hecreator, edia, r ome ombination f hese, owwouldyougenerallyry o find he mage?

12. How wouldyoufind n mage f work hatwasunknown o you? notherwords, fyouwere ookingfor workyouhadseenorhad been old xisted, anyoudescribe owyoumight ind hat mage?

13. Now would ikeyoutothink ack o the ast imeyouhaddifficultyindingn mage, rwereunabletofind n mage.Canyoutakemethrough he tepsyouwent hroughntrying ofind he mage?Whatbarriers revented ou from inding he mage?Wereyouultimatelyuccessful? hy r whynot?

14. Canyouwalkmethrough owyoutypicallyelectthe magesyouuse from he magesyouare ble tofind? ROMPT: Fornstance, oyou ookfor magesincolor ver lack ndwhite, esthetic r historicalviews?


15. Canyou ist he echnologiesnd formats oucurrently se for our mageneeds? n otherwordsdoyouuse 35mm lides, igital mages, till hotographyandsoon, nd what ystems re nplacetosupportthese? ROMPT:Are here thers?

Areyou saving your mage files o CDs,flashdrives, rexternal rives or n extra ack-up? o youback-up our magefiles?fyoudo,how?

Also, wascurious s to whether r notyoumight now foruseanelectronicrchive repositoryncampusor lsewhere)for your mages?Do you see the magesyou have amassedas having nough value(howeveryouwant to define hat) owarrant lacementnanarchive repository?

16. Do themethods ou employ ofind magesnthesevarious ormats ifferent rom ne another? f hey o,howandwhy?

17. Canyouwalkmethough owyou typically se

imagesinthe lassroom in he

tudio)?18. Doesyour se of mages or our wn research ifferfrom he waysyou might sethem inthe lassroom/inthe tudio)?fyes,how do youuse mages or hat?

19. Inyour xperience, rethe urrently vailable oolsadequatefor indingnd using mages? nyouropinion, hatwould mprove our bility o workwith mages?

20. Is there nything lseyouthink shouldknow boutyour mageneeds,howyousearch or mages, r youruse of magefor ourwork? s there nything lseyouwould ike o discuss urroundingmages?

Thanking nd taking eave- Thank ubject orparticipatingandstop he ape.

Documents

Finding Visual Information-2