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Inshore Fisheries Research Pro j ect

Technical Document No. 8

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ISSN 1018-3116

-._-SPREP Reports and Studies

Series No. 78

PERSPECTIVES IN AQUATIC EXOTIC SPECIESMANAGEMENT IN THE PACIFIC ISTANDS

VOLUME II

INTRODUCTIONS OF AQUATIC ANIMATS TO THE PACIFIC ISLANDS:oiBTasg THREATS AND GUIDELINES FOR QUARANTINE

by

John D. HumphriesBiodata Resources Pty

BelmontVictoria 3215

Australia

South Pacific CommissionNoumea, New Caledonia

PERSPECTIVES IN AQUATIC EXOTIC SPECIESMANAGEMENT IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

VOLI,'ME II

INTRODUCTIONS OF AQUATIC ANII\,IALS TO THE PACIFIC ISLANDS:DISEASE THREATS AND GUIDETINES FOR QUARANTINE

by

]ohn D. HumphriesBiodata Resources Pty

BelmontVictoria 3215

Australia

South Pacific CommissionNoumea, New C-aledonia

May 1995

@ Copyright South Pacific Comm:ission, 1995The South Pacific Commission authorises the reproduction

of this material, whole or in part, in a.y form, providedappropriate acknowledgement is given.

O.igtnal text English

South Pacific Commission Cataloguing in Publication Data

J.D. HumphriesIntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: Diseasethreab and guidelines for quarantine

1. Mariculture - Oceania 2. Aquatic animals - Oceania -Diseases I. Title II. Series IIL Inshore Fisheries Reearch Project

639-8ISBN:982-203-4f,}2

Report compiled with financial assistance from theAustralian Centre for International Agricultural Research

Report printed with financial assistance from theOverseas Development Administration (ODA) of the

United Kingdom

Prepared by the South Pacific Commission FisheriesInforrration Section

hepared forpublication at South Pacific Commission headquarters andprinted by Stredder Print Limited,Auckland, New Zealand" 1995

Intoductions of aqratic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease ttueac and guidelines for quarantine

PREFACE

The quarantine of fish and marine invertebrates, or rather the general lack of it, has been a naggmgworry to fisheries administrators in the Pacific Islands for some time. In contrast to the terreskialfield, there have been no 'honor stories' about introducing devastating diseases or parasites to theaquatic environment of the developing Pacific Islands, but this has always been balanced by the fearthat we spend so little time studying the ocean that we would not even notice if something werewrong. This report, by DtJohn Humphries, was commission"d by the South Pacific CommissionResource Assessment Section with funding from the Australian Centre for International Agricul-tural Research. It puts the sihration into perspective and provides the basic principles and guide.lines for aquatic animal quarantine services in the Pacific Islands.

Ihiswork is part of the fulfilment of a request from the island countries of the region, at the SouthPacific Commission's 23rd Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries in 1991, to provide informationthat could be used by Pacific Island goverrrments in the setting-up of aquatic quarantine measures.The draft of this document was discussed at the SPC's 25th Regional Technical Meeting on Fisher-ies, in March 1994, and the meeting made the following recornmendation to the SPC Committee ofRepresentatives of Governments and Administrations:

Noting the disense risk posedby increasirtg numbers of transfus of exotic species into the PacificIslands, the meeting endorsed the intuim Guidelines and Principles for Regional AquaticAnimal Quarantine detailed in Annex 2 of Working Papu 11 toatards the dnelopmeit anclharmonisation of aqtntic animal qtnrantine mechanisms in the region, and recommmileil tlutthe Secretarint monitor progress in the dnelapment of Paciftc Islnnd quaruntine nrcchanistns toenttble flrc lnterim Guidelines to he rasinued at tlrc ttext Regional Technicsl Meeting on Fislt-eries.

The Committee of Representatives of Govemments and Administrations supported this recorrunen-dation to the 34th South Pacific Conference.

this repgrt is the secondvolume in a planned three'part series on various aspects of introductionsof aquatic grganisms to the Pacific Islands, coordinated joi"tly by the South Pacific Regional Envi-ronmental Programme and the South Pacific Commission. The first volume, by Dr Lucius G. Hdredge,preselted u l i"lory of transfers of aquatic organisms in the Pacific Islands region, while Volume IIIwill deal with the assessment of ecological risks associated with exotic aquatic species introduction.

Iulian DashwoodManager, Fisheries Programme

South Pacific Commission

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and guiddines for quarantine

-2.

SUMMARY

Diseases of social, economic and ecological importanceaffecting fish, crustaceans and molluscs havespread widely as a result of failures to impose appropriate quarantine and health certification pro.cedures. Within the Pacific Islands region, the need for quarantine of plants and domestic animalsintroduced into the region is weII recognised but until recently, little emphasis was placed on quar-antine of aquatic animals. Many aquatic animals have been introduced or transferred within theregion and on occasions, diseases and pests have accompanied such movements. A spectrum ofdiseases and parasites has been described in the region. Many aquatic species present are likelyhosts to serious diseases which occur elsewhere. Freedom from disease confers major social, eco-nomic and ecological advantages and a responsibility exists to protect the fisheries resources of theregion from spread or introduction of disease. The implementation of a practical system of quaran-tine offers an opportunity to protect fisheries from disease within the South Pacific region.

This study is presented as a basis for the development of a regional strategy for the quarantine ofintroduced aquatic animals. The basis of the strategy is the evaluation of candidate species on acase- by-case basis, with implementation of quarantine commensurate with the relative risk of dis-ease introduction for that species.

Quarantine is necessary for all transferred species. As different species present different risks withregard to introduction of exotic diseases, increased levels of quarantine and disease testing may benecessary with high-risk species. Minimum requirements for the quarantine of aquatic animals aredescribed. Factors determining the relative risk of disease posed by di{ferent species entry are dis-cussed and additional measures which may be taken to protect against higher risk species are pre-sented.

Minimurn quarantine requirernents described include:

. Evaluation of each transfer on a case.by-case basis,

. Risk categorisation of introduced species,

. Pre- and post-transfer quarantine and disease examination,

r Health certification by a competent authority,

o d minimum total tirne in quarantine for lower-risk species,

. A correspondingly longer time in quarantine with more stringent diseasetesting for higher-risk species,

o Secure quarantine facilities for holding aquatic animals during transfer,

. Development of legislation on which to base quarantine,

r Compilation and maintenance of a regional disease database,

o Training in diagnostic procedures for recognition of diseases in aquatic animals.

Inkoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelincs for quarantine

nEsuvrf

Des maladies des poissons, crustacds etmollusques qui ont des r6percussions surles plans social,dconomique et 6cologique, se sont propag6es un peu partout, faute de mesures de contr6le et decertification zoosanitaires suffisantes. En Oc6anie, la n6cessit6 du contrdle phytosanitaire etzoosanitaire d'espdces introduites dans la r6gion est bien admise, mais jusqu'i r6cemment,lecontrOle zoosanitaire d'espbces aquatiques n'a gubre retenu l'attention. De nombreux animauxaquatiques ont 6t6 introduits dans la r6gion ou transfdr6s d'un endroit i l'autre de celle-ci, et iquelques occasions, ces d6placements ont entrain6 avec eux des maladies et des parasites dontl'6tude dresse un inventaire pour la rdgion. De nombreuses espbces aquatiques qu'on y trouvesont vraisemblablement porteuses de maladies graves qui ont 6t6 apport6es d'ailleurs. L'absencede maladie comporte d'importants avantages sur les plans social,6conomique et 6cologique; laprotection des ressources halieutiques de la r6gion contre la propagation ou l'introduction demaladies est donc une grande responsabilitE. A l'occasion de la mise en place d'un systEme decontrdle sanitaire effectif, il convient de sauvegarder les ressources halieutiques du PacifiqueSud de la maladie.

L'objet de la pr6sente 6tude est de servir de point de d6part i l'dlaboration d'une strat6gier6gionale en matidre de contrOle zoosanitaire d'espdces aquatiques introduites. Cette strat6giese fonde sur l'6valuation, au cas par cas, des espdces dont l'introduction est souhait6e, assortiedemesuresdecontr6lezoosanitairedontlasdv6rit6est proportionnelleaux risquesd'introductionde maladies que pr6sente I'espdce.

Le contrdle phytosanitaire s'impose pour toutes les espbces transf6r6es, car les risquesd'introduction de maladies exotiques sont diffdrents d'une espbce i l'autre, et une augmentationde la durde de l'isolementetuneintensification du d6pistagedes maladies s'imposenldoncpourles espEces pr6sentant des risques 6lev6s. En tout 6tat de cause, le contrdle zoosanitaire desespdces aquatiques doit rdpondre A des exigerrces minimales. L'dfude exarnine les facteurspermettant d'6tablir le risque relatif que pr6sentent les diverses espEces pour ce qui est del'inhoduction de maladies et d6crit des mesures suppl6mentaires qui peuvent €tre prises pourse prot6ger contre les espdces prdsentant les risques les plus dlev6s.

Les exigences minimales en matidre de contr6le zoosanitaire sont les suivantes :

o dvaluation individuelle de chaque transfert,

o cat€gori5ation des risques que pr6sentent les espdces introduites,

. isolement avant et aprbs le transfert et d6pistage de maladies,

. certification zoosanitaire par un organisme comp6tent,

r dur6e minimum de l'isolement total pour les espdces prdsentant des risques moins6lev6s,

r isolement plus long, proportionnel au risque, et ddpistage plus rigoureux pour les esp}-ces prdsentant des risques 6lev6s,

o installation pour l'isolement des animaux aquatiques en cours de transfert,

. dlaboration d'une l6gislation sur laquelle fonder le contr6le zoosanitaire,

. compilation et tenue d'une base de donndes r6gionale sur les maladies,

r formation aux m6thodes diagnostiques afin de reconnaitre les maladies des animauxaquatiques.

Inhoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelhes for quarantine

CONTENTS

IntroductionDisease threats posed by introduced aquatic animalsInternational spread of irnportant diseases

Diseases caused by virusesDiseases caused by bacteriaDiseases caused by fungiDiseases caused by protozoaDiseases caused by crustaceans

Pests of marine molluscsRegional spread of diseases

Spread of diseases

Spread of pests and predatorsRegional spread of diseases

Indigenous disease inventoryInternational quarantine practices and proceduresNational quarantine practices and proceduresRegional quarantine practices and procedures: Pacific Islands and Hawaii

Precedents

Quarantine legislation: Hawaii

Quarantine practices: Pacific Island countriesHuman health considerations: zoonotic diseases

General discussionIntent of quarantineBenefits of introduced species

Benefits of disease freedomThe case for aquatic animal quarantineVariable factors and circumstances

Quarantine location

Quarantine on a case-by-case basis

Disease threats: ranking of risk .

Stringency of quarantineMinimum quarantine practicesCompliance with international guidelinesInternational obligations and courtesiesDesignation of importing authorityRegional legislation and uniform practicesProblems of disease diagnosis and diagnostic requirementsInterdisciplinary collaborationEcological considerationsDestruction of animalsDynamic nature of aquatic animal quarantine

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lnhoductioru of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Guidelines and pdnciples for regional aquatie arrlmal quarantine.General concepts

Mininral qllarantine requheurentsTransfer of errrbry,onic or juvehile animalsTransfers on a batcl-by.batch basis

Total tirne in quarantinePre.transfer quarar tin:e

Post-transfer quarantirneApprovalsand permitsRelease from quarantine

Quarantine ihspection pi',oeedtiree

Quarirntine facilities and managementPltysical tec.unty

IncctionIrrtale of waterDisclnrge'of, waterWatet floarandpluwbtngWater managemmt

Equipmentr.boraiofg aren

Dipease diagnoois and health examinatiorrsFreedom from specifie dise-ases

Treabment and rnedicationHealth certificationRe,lease fron quarantine

Refer.e.nces

Agpendix IA partial listing of intentional and unintentional introdrrretions of fish andaquatie invertebrates to islands of the South Paeific region and F.{awierii

Appendix IIDiseases of aqraatie artimals in the South Paeifie and Hawaiian Islands:a SUg,ufilary and chee listAppendixIIIGeneral prindples and guideltnes for aguatic aflixlul quarantiner minirnalrequirernents and corrditions for increased stringerney

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lngoducdons of aquatic atiqals ts the Paciffc bland$ di$eag€ tbr€aB afid glridelines for qgarantine

INTRODUCTION

On many occasions over the past century, spread of serious disease has occurred as a direct resultof transferring live aquatic animals to new locations without imposing basic quarantineprecautions. Often, the introduced diseases have had catastrophic effects on aquaculhrre,commercial fisheries and the aquatic ecosystem. The international spread of diseasei and pestsof aquatic animals is extensively documented and is the subject of long-standing concern(AlbaladejoandArthur 1989, Andrews 1980, Bauer 1991, Farley1988, Hoffmanlg7},Humphrey1988, Langdon 1990, Lightner et nl 1989a, Lumanlan et al 1,992, Rosenthal 1980, Reichenbach-Klinke 1984, Stewart 7991, Turner 1988). Numerous recommendations and guidelines for theimplementation of quarantine of aquatic animals have been made and precedents established(Arthur 1987,Davy andChouinard 1983, Davyand Graham 1979, DeKinkelinand Hedrick1991,Grizel1989, Langdon 1990, Roberts 1981, Rohovec 1983, Turner 1988). Many countries, however,continue with limited, ineffectual or no quarantine when introducing aquatic animals.

Within the Pacific Islands region, including Hawaii, more than 140 species of fish and aquatic inver-tebrates have been intentionally introduced or transferred over the past 200 years. These movementshave been for commercial, social or ecological purposes (Eldredge ]'992,1.994) and, with few recentexceptions, have occurred with little regard to the introduction or spread of diseases or pests. Forcountries in which fisheries resources and industries are of social and economic importance, protec-tion from diseases and pests should be a high priority of government. The importance of quarantinein preventing the spread of diseases and pests of animal and plant species has been recognised intlre Pacific fslands region for many years (Anon 1951, 7977,1980,1982,'1984a,'1987, Morschel1988a,1988b). Quarantine for inhoduced fish and aquatic invertebrates has, however, been neglected,despite the social, economic and ecological importance of these species and despite their frequentintroduction from other regions.

This study is presented as a basls for the development of a regional shategy for quarantine of aquaticanimal species. The basis of the strategy is the evaluation of candidate species on a case-by-case basis,with implbmentation of quarantine comrnensurate with the relative risk of disease introduction forthat species. The study suggests rninimum requirements for the quarantine of aquatic animals withinthe Pacific Islands region, examines risks of introducing disease and describes more stringent quar-antinemeasures which maybeimposed as necessary. The serious consequencesof importing aquaticanimals without quarantine are reviewed. The disease status of fish and aquatic invertebrates in thePacific Islands region, including Hawaii, is summarised, providing background information for theinrplt'nrentation of qunrantine for transfers within the region, as well as a basis for the definition ofexotic diseases.

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disea-se ihreats and guidel.ines for quarantine

DISEASE THREATS POSED BYINTRODUCED AQUATIC ANIMALS

A vast number of serious diseases and pests of fish and aquatic invertebrates is known. The majorityof these are not described in the Pacific Islands region and are thus exotic. In addition, many generaare present which are hosts to a wide range of exotic diseases. The greatest risk of inhoducing exoticdisease is posed by the movement of live aquatic animals (Langdon 1990). Thus, introductions ofaquatic animals to the region are always accompanied by the risk of the inhoduction and establish-ment of serious exotic diseases.

A far greater risk of disease introduction exists when animals are taken from the wild, where theirhealth status is poorly defined and they will likely be carrying diseases, parasites or pests. Animalsfrom hatcheries or farms, where the disease status is generally known, represent less risk, especiallywhere quarantine and health certification procedures are implemented, although serious diseasesmay still be present. Wrenever possible, it is desirable to introduce animals from farmed or hatcherysources which are subject to quarantine and health certification.

Numerous examples exist whereby diseases and pests have been introduced and established as aresult of importing or transferring live fish, fertile fish eggs,live aquatic cn:staceans and live aquaticmolluscs between countries and within regions. Many diseases affect marine and estuarine species.Diseases may aiso affect both freshwater and marine species. Thus importation of freshwater spe-cies may introduce diseases of marine species, and -oice uersa. Risks of inhoducing diseases applyequally to freshwater and marine species.

Many marine and freshwaier fish and aquatic invertebrate species have been introduced into thePacific Islands region and Hawaii for stock enhancement programs, food purposes, aquaculture,biological conhrol and as ornamental species (Eldredge 1993, Cerberich and Laird 1968). Li','e baitfish are widely used (Smith 7974), presenting a special case with regard to potential inhoductionsof disease. As early as the 170s, caffish were introduced to Guam from the Philippines, and hans-fers of fislu cmstaceans and molluscs have continued to the present (Eldredge 1993). A partial llstingof these species is given in Appendix L The introduced species are often of commercial significanceand have originated from regions known to have major diseases. Many of the introduced species areknown hosts of serious diseases exotic to the region.

Introduclions of aquatic animals to the Pacific [s]ands: disea-se t]reats and guidelines fior quarantine

INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OFIMPORTANT DISEASES

Numerous important diseases of marine and estuarine aquatic animals have spread as a result ofthe internationalmovements of fish,cnrstaceans and molluscs. A partiallistof these diseases is shownin Table 1. The importance and means of introduction of these diseases are briefly described asexamples of the serious consequences which may occur from failure to impose effective quarantine.

Diseases caused by viruses

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia (VHS), is a viral disease of rainbow trout Oncorhyrtcltus mykiss andother species which causes severe mortalities and high economic losses in marine and freshwaterfish (Wolf 1988). VHS was introduced into trout farms in Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria with im-portd fertile eggs and was common in live trout imported into Switzerland (Bauer 1991, Meier 1984).Llmrphocystis, an infection of marine and freshwater fish which may be fatal in young stock (Wolf1988), is common in imported ornamental fish (Ashburnerl975,Boustead 1982, Durham and Ander-son 1981, Lawler and Ogle Pm.Infectious pancreatic necrosis OPN is a highly infectious, oftenfatal disease of farmed and wild freshwater and marine fish. The virus also occurs in marine mol-luscs and cmstaceans. IPN has spread through imports of infected fish or fish eggs to many coun-tries including Britain. Denmark, France, Germany, Spain, Italp Japan, Switzerland, China, SouthAfrica and Chile (Bauer 1991, Bragg and Combrink 1987,Ledo et al7992, McAllister and Reyes 1984,Meier 1984, Tong and Hedrick1990, Wolf 1988, Yulin and Zhengqui 1982).

Introduced live penaeid prawns are well known for spreading viral diseases into many countries,induding the Pacific Islands and Hawaii (See below). These diseases primarly affect juvenile farmedprawns, but are carried by wild, adult prawns. Monodonbaculooirus (MBV), a disease causing highmortalities (Lighhier et al7983, Sparls 1985) was introduced into Israel, USA, Brazil, Ecuador andthe Pacific as a result of importing live prawns (Colorni et a|7987, Lightner et al 7989ah). Infectioushypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNU causes deaths in sub-adult prawns(Ligtttner et a|1985, Sparks 1985) and was similarly introduced into Israel, USA, Philippines, Ven-ezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico and the Pacific (Colorni et aI 1.987, Lightner et nI1989b).Hepatopancreatic pawo-like virus (HPV), a virus associated with mortalities in cultured prawrts(Lightner et a|7985), was detected in quarantine in prawns imported into Israel (Colorni et al1987)and has been introduced into Brazll, Ecuador and the Pacific (Lightner et aI7989b).

A severe viral disease of molluscs, Portuguese oyster iridovirus-like disease, virtually eliminatedthePortugueseoysterfrom theFrench coast. Thediseaseoccu:redin Britainin 1969 inoystersimportedfrom Portugal (Alderman and Gras 1969, Hill 1984, Sparks 1985).

Diseases caused by bacteria

Furunculosis caused by Aeromonas salmonicida is characterised by skin ulceration and generalisedinfections of many marine and freshwater fish. It is a major problem in aquaculture (Austin andAustin 1987) and may result in loss of export markets. The agent likely entered Europe in importedsalmonid fish (Stewart 1997).It recentlaspread to Norway"in imported Atlantic sal^o., (Siewart199D.It entered Australia in imported goldfish Carassius auratus and has since spread widely(Humphrey and Ashburner 7994). Epitheliocystis is a corunon infection of freshwater and marinefish which may cause deaths, especially in yor.rng fish (Wolf 1988). Epitheliorystis has spread inimported tropical marine ornamental species and in red sea bream Pagns mnjor tnportedinto Japan(Miyazaki et nl7986, WoU 1988). Fish tuberculosis or mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacteriumsp. causes nodular lesions, weight loss and death and is recorded in more than 150 marine and fresh-water fislr species; some Mycobacteria of fish cause disease in humans (Austin and Austin Dgn.The agent was introduced to a major fish hatchery in Australia with imported chinook salmonOncorhynchus tshaurytsclw eggs (Ashburner 7976) and is common in ornamental fish. Bacterial kid-

lnhoductiors of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands; tji.ease threah; and gu.itlelines for quarantine

Internotionol spreod of importont diseoses

ney disease (BKD) caused by Renibacterium salmoninarun is a seriow disease of farmed and wildmarine and freshwater salmonid fish, whidr may result in high losses and loss of markets. Spreadis primarily due to movements of infected fish (Austin and Austin 198n, but salmonid eggs im-ported into Chile were considered the source in that country (Sanders and Barros 1986). Vibriosiscausedby Vibrio sp. ruycauseheavylosses, especiallyof hatchery-reared,larvaland juvenilemarinefish, crustaceans and molluscs (Austin and Austin D\n.Vibrio sp. were imported into Malaysia insea bass (Wong and Leong PBn. Vibrio cholera (non{l) was associated with high mortalities ingoldfish Carassius aurnfiis imprted into Aushalia from Singapore (Reddacliff et al 1993), and Vibrioanguillarum, a serious pathogen of marine fish species, may have been introduced into Japan witheels imported from France :.r:.1975 (Austin and Austin P9n.

Diseases caused by fung

Epizooticulcerative syndrome (EHS) is an invasive, ulcerating ftngaldisease of the skinand musdeof a range of frehwater and estuarine fish species which has caused high losses and exhemely adversesocial and economic impacts throughout much of South East.Asia. A similar condition occurs inPapua New Guinea (Roberts et a11986, Uwate 1983). EUS is thought to have spread in imported livefood fish, ornamental fish or prawns (Frerichs 1988, Lumanlan et al 7992,Sharifif. and Subasinghe19eD.

Diseases caused by protozoa

Brooklynelliasis is a disease caused by Brooklynella hostilis, a gill parasite of marine fishcharacterised by deaths, especially in farmed or aquarium fish (Wootton1989, Lom and Dykova1992). ABrooklynella sp. was imported into Singapore on red sea bream (Anon I987b). Oodiniasisis an infection with Oodinium sp. which are conunon, serious parasites of the skin and gills of marinefisfu especially in aquaria and in aquaculture (Wootten 1989, Hoffman1970).

Table 1: A partial listing of important diseases of marine and estuarine aquatic animals spreadby the intemational movement of fish, crustaceans and molluscs

Viral Diseases of Fish

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemiaLymphocystisInfectious pancreatic necrosil

Viral Diseases of Crustaceans

Monodon baculovirusInfectious hypodermal and haemanecrosis virusHepatopancreatic parvo-like virus

Viral Diseases of Molluscs

Portuguese oyster iridovirus-like disease

Bacterial Diseases of Fish

Aeromonas salomiciila

EpitheliocystisMyobacterium sp.Rcnibact erium salmon inar um

Vibrio sp.

Fungal Diseases of Fish

Epizootic ulcerative syndrome

Protozoal Diseases of Fish

Brooklynella hostilisOodinium sp.Trichodina sp.

Protozoan Diseases of Molluscs

Minchinin armorianaHaplosporidium nelsoni ( Minchinia nelsoni)

Mnrteilia refringens

Bonamia ostraea

Crustacean Diseases of Molluscs

Mytilicol a h *estinnlisMytilicola orientalis

Pests of Marine Molluscs

Oyster drillsUrosalpinx cinerea

Ocenebra erinacea

Purpura claaigera

WormsP seudo styl o chu s os t re aophagus

Polydora wehsteri

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease thretrts and guidelines for quarantine

Internotionol spreod of importont diseoses

Ooilinium sp. have spread widely on many fish species, including ornamental species (Boustead'1982,Gratzeket aI7976,Hoftman7970). Trichodiniasis is a conunon, serious disease of freshwaterand marinefish causedby Trichodinasp. which arecorlmon serious skin and gillparasites (Wootton1,987,Lom and Dykoval99Z).Trichodina sp. have spread frequently in ornamental and other livefishand have often caused serious diseasein their new location (Alimon et allggS,Ashbumer 1976,Boustead 1982, Djajadiredjaet nl7993,Hoffrnan 1970, Langdon 1990 Lumanlanet al7992,WongandLeong PBn.

Minchinia armoricana causes a serious disease of European oysters Ostren edulis characterised byprogressive wasting (Sparks 198$. This parasite was inhoduced from European oysters importedto the Netherlands from France (Van Banning 1977,'1979). Haplosporidium nelsoni (Minchinianelsoni) caused catashophic disease outbreaks in American oysters Crassostrea airghicn in the USA(Sparks 1985). The agent was thought to have been introduced to the USA in oysters introducedfrom Asia. (Andrews 7980). Marteitia refringens is the cause of severe disease outbreaks and deathsof European oysters and also may infect other molluscs (Sparks 198il. M. refringms was transferedfrom France to Spain and Holland in imported oysteru Ostreg edulis (SparV,s 1985, Van Banning 1979).Bonamia ostraea, the cause of heavy mortalities in European oyster growing areas, has spread throughimports of oyster seed stock to the Netherlands and Spafu'r. Its occurrence in Ireland *y bu due toill"gul importation of oysters from France and in England is likety due to introductions from con-tinental Europe (Sparks 1985, Stewart 1991).

Diseases caused by crustaceans

Mytilicola spp. are copepod parasites of the intestinal tract of marine molluscs and have causedcatastrophic mortalities in infected hosts (Sparks 1985, Bauer 1991). Wtilieola intestin alis has spreadfrom the Mediterranean to Northern Europe and caused massive mortalities in mussels. It has alsobeen introduced into Scotland (Sparks 198i:D. Mytilicola orientalis causes loss of condition and highmortalities among a number of marine mollusc species and has caused devastating losses in theoyster industry. Mytilicola orimtalis was introduced in seed oysters Crassostreagrgas transplantedfrom Japan to the USA and France (Andrews 1980, Bauer 1991, Rosenthal 1980, Sparks 1985).

Pests of marine molluscs

The gastropod predatory oyster drrllUrosalpinx cinercawas imported to the United Kingdom withCrassostuea ttirginin (Andrews 1980). The Japanese oyster drt)I, OceneWa japonica, is an accidentalintroduction accompanyrng imports of oysters from Japan and is well-established in North Ameri-can oyster Hs (Andrews 1980, Rosenthal1980). Ocenebra erinacea, another gastropod pest, wasintroduced into South Africa vmth Ostrea edulis imprted from Europe (Rosenthal '/980). Purpuracloaigera, an oyster drill, invaded the west coast of North America with imports of Japanese oysters(Rosenthal 1980).

Pseudostylochus ostreaophagus is a serious parasite of oysters and mussels, and was introduced tothe West Coast of North America with imports of shellfish from Japan (Andrews 1980). Polydorautehsteri, a mudworm of ofsters, may have been inhoduced into Australian waters in the 189Uswith imports of oysters from New Tcaland (Nell and Smith 1988) and has also been introduced intothe Pacific.

-E-lnkoductions of aquatic anima-Ls to the Pacific Islands: disease tfueats and guidelines for quarantine

REGIONAL SPREAD OF DISEASES

Spread of diseases

Braley (1991) reported that diseases of pearl oysters have been transferred between atolls in theTuamotu group, and that these diseases had affected other bivalve molluscs. Further, Eldredge 0994)noted that the disease had been spread by transfers of shells as well as animals.

Viral diseases of penaeid prawns have been introduced to the Pacific Islands reglon and Hawaiiwith imported stock. Monodonbaculoairus was introduced into French Polynesia and subsequent$imported into Hawaii with post-lawal Penaeus monodon from several countries (Lightner et a17983,1989b). Similarly, infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis viru+ a cause of serious dis-ease of Penaeid prawns, especially Penaeus stylirostris, was introduced to Tahiti, Guam and Hawaii(Lightner et al7989b). Hepatopancreatic parvo-like virus and a reo'like virus have also been intro-duced into Hawaii (Lightner et al7989b).

Spread of pests and predators

The introduction of aquatic animals themselves has had adverse effects on existing animal and plantcommunities. The freshwater snails Ponmcea canaliailata, Pomnceabridgcsi andPila conica were inten-tionally inhoduced to Hawaii for aquaculttue with subsequent complaints of damage to taro crops.Ponncen spp. introducedelsewhere foraquaculture havebecome seriouspests of riceandothercrops(Cowie '1992). A freshwater crayfuh Procambarus clarkii, introduced into Hawaii, has also become athreat to the taro (Colocasin esctilenta) crop. Polytlora nuclnlis, a polychaete wonn pest which causesaccumulations of tube masses and sediment in penaeid shrimp and oyster ponds, was [kely intro-duced into Hawaii with shrimp imported from Mexico. Similarly, Polydora zttebsteri, the cause of'mud blisters'. was likely introduced into an intensive oyster facility in Hawaii with the introductionof Crassttstren uirginicn from the USA, as well as in oysters introduced from elsewhere on the islands(Bailey-Brock 1990).

Pyramidellid gastropod parasites, a major problem in tridacnid clam culture, were described inbatches of tridacnid clams imported into Guam, Fiji and Hawaii by Govan (7992a,b). This authorcorrectly noted that in some cases it was difficult to tell whether the predators found in ocean-nurs-eries were introduced or were part of the local population.

Regional spread of diseases

Reports of disease incursions into the Pacffic Islands and Hawaii are infrequent, despite the manyintroductions of aquatic animals. This absence of disease may possibly reflect inadequate surveil-lance rather than the true stafus. Examples are known, however, even where quarantine regula-tions were present (Bailey-Brock 190). Further, unexplained mortalities of imported species arealso reported (Eldredge 1994), suggesting that imports have not been free from disease, or importshave succumbed to diseases or parasites already in the region.

lnh<ductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease thrcats and guidelines for quarantine

INDIGENOUS DISEASE INVENTORY

Protection of national and regional fisheries from disease is the primary objective of quarantine andrequires a detailed knowledge of the diseases and pests which affectaquatic animal species withinthe region for two reasons:

1. To prevent spread of existing diseases between islands within the region.

2. To define diseases exotic to the region and implement appropriate quarantine practices toprevent their introduction.

Diseases have been reported in the region which are of particular significance and have caused seriouslosses. M*y other agents have been identified but have not yet been associated with disease.

A description of diseases whichhave occurred within the Pacific Islands region, induding Hawaii,and a partial li"ti^g of pathogens, parasites, diseases and pests which have been recorded are gtvenin Appendix II.

The compilation and maintenance of a database of this nature, listing diseases, species affected andgeographical location is essential for disease control purposes and is shongly recommended. A re.gional authority such as the South Pacific Commission with its library and data information resourcesmight compile such a database for the region.

lnhoductiong of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease tlueae and guidelines for quarantine

INTERNATIONAL QUARANTINEPRACTICES AND PROCEDURES

There are no cofiunon or uniform international requirements for imports or exports of aquatic ani-mals, with the exception of the European Union (EU) countries which are currently harmonisingimport requirements. Quarantine and health certification requirements for imported live aquaticanimals are the responsibility of importing countries. [ncreasing attention is, however, being directeclat establishing a level of standardisation and uniformity in approaches to quarantine and diseasecontrol through organisations including thelnternationalOffice of Epizootics (OIE), thelnternationalCouncil for Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Council(EIFAO.

Recently. the international importance of the prevention of spread of diseases of aquatic animals hasbeen stressed, exemplified by recommendations arising from the iTth Conference of the OIE Re.gional Commission for Asia, the Far East and Oceania, namely:

1. That importing countries should seek protection from aquatic animal diseases by request-ing veterinary and phytosanitory certificates for aquatic animals and products.

2. That countries in the region strengthen their competence in the diagnosis, control, preven-tion and eradication of ecor"romic and zoonotic diseases of aquatic animals.

Further,several authorities indudingArthur(1982), DeKinketin (1D2), DeKinkelin and Hedrick (1991)and Turner (1988) have discussed guidelines on which international quarantine practices may bebased. Thus, much recent attention is focussed on the prevention of the spread of aquatic animaldiseases by the implementation of effective quarantine measures at the individual country level.

Two international codes of practice exist on which national policies for aquatic animal quarantinemay be based: the International Animal Health Code of the OIE and the Codes of Practice ol andManual of Procedures for Consideration of Introductions and Transfer of Marine and FreshwaterOrganisms of ICES/EIFAC OeKinkelin and Hedrick 1991, Turner 1988). These codes are recom-mended as a basis for health certification and disease control for aquatic animals, but they are notbinding. Individual countries are free to accept, modif or reject any or all parts of the codes.

Table 2: Diseases of fish, crustaceans and molluscs listed by OtE (June 1993)

Fish Diseases

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia

Spring viraemia of carp

Infectious haemofopoietic necrosis

Salmonid herpes virus (Type 2)

Renibacteriosis Retribacterium salmoninarum

Ictalurid herpes virus (Type 1)

Epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virusEdwardsiellosis Edwardsiella ictaluri

Molluscan Diseases

Bonamiasis

Haplosporidiosis

Perkinsosis

lridoviruses

Mikrocyiosis Mikrocytos mackini

Introductions of acpratic animals to the Pacific Islands: discasc threats and guidelines for quaraltile

Interncrtionol quorontine proctices ond procedures

OIE is an international animal health organisation comprising 110 member countries worldwide. Itpromotes awareness on the ocqrrence, progress and control of serious animal disease problems,and publishes an Animal Health Code which recommends procedures for disease surveillance fordomestic and international bade. In addition, OIE produces a manual of recommended diagnostictechniques with standardised methods for the implementation of health surveillance schemes.

The OIE, through its Fish Diseases Commission, has induded pathogens of fislu cmstaceans andmolluscs in theAnimal Health Code (Table2) and is curentlyproducing recommended diagnostictechniques for fish and aquatic invertebrates. These documents may be used as models on whichstandard health certification systems for international frade in live aquatic animals might be based(DeKinkelin 1992).

The ICES / EIFAC have Code includes inspection and certification, quarantine and pathology, andenvironmental impact considerations. Only ate mentioned codes detail practical requirements forquarantine and health certification for movements of aquatic animals (Turner 1988, DeKinkelin andHedrick 7991). The ICES/EIFAC Code defines a different set of diseases of importance, exemplify-ing difficulties in attaining international agreement on quarantine practices and procedures.

Introductions of aquatic anirnals to the Pacific Islands: disease threab and guidelines for quarantine

NATIONAL QUARANTINE PRACTICESAND PROCEDURES

There are as many differing sets of quarantine practices and procedures as there are individualcountries. Policies are frequently under revision, considerable variations occur between countriesand little uniformity is evident. Some countries have highly restrictive practices designed to ensureimportation of aquaticanimals free from specificpathogens; others havequarantinelegislation whichis inadequately enforced; others still have no restrictions or quarantine requirements. More rigorousregimes of quarantine and health certification, exemplified by the Canadian Fish Health ProtectionManual of Compliance (Anon. 79U), require two years quarantine of breeding fish with biannuallaboratory testing for viral, bacterial and other diseases in each age class prior to export. Export ofdisinfected ova and certification by a signatory accredited by the Government of Canada are alsorequired.

The onus is thus on the importing country to establish its own requirements for aquatic animalquarantine, taking inio accor-rnt the endemic disease stattrs, the need to protect fisheries resourcesfrom exotic disease incwsions and the need to maintain export markets based on healthy stocks offish or aquatic invertebrates.

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Paci-fic Islands: disease threats ard guidelines for qrrarantine

REGIONAL QUARANTINE PRACTICES ANDPROCEDURES: PACIFIC ISLANDS AND HAWAII

Precedents

The importance of protection of plant and domestic animal species from exotic diseases and peststhrough an effective system of quarantine has longbeen recognlsed and recornmended for the PicificIslands region. Requirements for provision of designated ports of entry, approved quarantine pre.mises, declarations and inspections of goods and manifests, issuance of qu-arantinepermits, hbld-ing, treatment and release from quarantine, seizure and destruction, specific exclusions from quar-antine,-pre'import sanitary certification, prohibited species, and provisions for penaities have beengenerally accepted (Morschel 1988a, 1988b, Anon. 7977,1980,19Ma).Implementation of regionalgryr11tine-has been further assisted by the 'Quarantine Advisory Leaflet' and 'Ag Alert' serie- pub-lished b.v lhe South facific Comrnission, publications containing information on new agricul^turalpest and disease outbreaks and topical information on animal health and plant protection matters.

In recent years, the need for quarantine of aquatic animals entering the Pacific Islands region hasbeen recognised. In 1985, concerns at the Regional Technical Meeting on Fisheries of the South Pa-cific Commission regarding potential diseases associated with introductions and transfers of marinespg1es, especially hidacnid clams, resulted in recommendations for the adoption of interim quar-antine guidelines. These recommendations included introductions from within the natural distribu-tion range of the species, the use of quarantine with filtered, sterilised water preceding hansfer, transferof young stages, water filtration for the quarantine facility and disposal of waterifter transfer, de.shuctiou of stock with diseases or predators, sterilisation of all equipment, and appropriate certifi-cation of compliance by a competent exporting authority (Adams 1993).

The need for extren'te caution in considering introductions was empliasised by Anon. (1988), at rvhichtime pre and post-transfer quarantine and assurance of freedom from diseases, parasites and asso-ciated species was suggested. Morschel (1988b) in revising quarantine regulations for Micronesiaproposed that fish and lower animals be subject to quarantine. Identification of potential infectiousagents,-quarantine precautions to prevent splead of such agents, and the establishment of a regionalcentre for diagnosis and dissemination of information on diseases and quarantine procedureJwererecommended in 1988 by Copland and Lucas (19SS). Govan (1992a) stressed ttte importance ofadopting South lfifiq Commission guidelines for preventing transfers of pests wh-en movingTridacnid clams. Eldredge Q994) stressed the potentially destructive effects of disease introductionJ.Braley (1991) in addressing l specific diseaseproblem, recorrunended that pearlshell spatforTokelaube obtained from regions other than Okinawa as there was less chance of introducing new parasitesor uruses.

Quarantine legislation: Hawaii

Quarantine fo-t ynpos of aquatic animals is dependent on the species to be imported, life stage,ggnent \towledge of pests, predators and pathogens, and diseaie history. The introduction intoHawaii of all live animaland plant species is under the jurisdiction of the-Department of Agricul-ture, State of Hawaii and the relevant agencies of the United States Govemment. Requests for aquaticanimal introductions are treated in a similar nunner as requests for other types bf animabjwithconsideration of-import requests by specialist subcommittees. Unless exempied, most aquatic ani-mals imported for aquaculture or fisheries resource development are held in isolation-or closedsystems unti] yupected and found free of exotic pmts, predators or pathogens. Such imports arethen released from the isolation area, but are required to be kept in ciptivity, with subs{uent pe-.riodic examinations. Effluent from the holding areas must be disinfected or placed into a well sys-tem (Brock 1986).

lntroductions of aquatic animals kl the Pacific Islands: cliscasc threats and guidelines for quarantine

Quarantine practices: Pacfic Island countries

The first recorded regional example of quarantine restrictions on aguatic animals occu:red when ahighly fataf apparently infectious disease of pearl oysters resulted in restrictions on the transfer ofiniectd oysteis from aiolls in the Gambier group and Tuamotu group (Anon.19_85). Eldredge (1994)

further debcribed the attempt to control the spread of the disease by the French Polynesian Ministryof the Sea.

The most noteworthy example of planned introductions with due regard for quarantine and theprevention of disease incursions was the program used for international transfers o{ glant clams.Guidelines for the international transfer of giant clams and other molluscs were adopted underRecommendation #7 at the 17th South Pacifii Commission Regional Technical Meeting on Fisher-ies. The program, comprising pre'and post-transfer quarantine and health certification, has beenusedsuccessh:llytominimisetheinhoduction of patl'rogensandparasites whilstfacilitating theexportof larval and juvenile Trirlncna sp. and Hippopus sp. (Braley 1992, Govan 1992b, Humphrey 1988,

Ledua and Adams 1988, Norton et al'1993il.

Ledua and Adams (1988) described the implementation of these guidelines for post-import quaran-tine of Tidncnaglgas reintroduced to Fiji, and stressed the feasibility and desirability of using small-scale quarantine facilities in Pacific islands for use with proposed introductions.

Hurnan health considerations: zoonotic diseases

Muny diseases and parasites of fish and aquatic invertebrates are capable o! infecting humans, withserious and/or fatal consequences (Deardorff and Overstreet 1991). Such infections are usuallyacquired by eating raw or partially cooked animals. Examples of zuch zoonotic infections exist in theregion (Laird 1961). Protection of humans from disease, especially where fish and shellfish areim-portant components of diets, shor:ld be a major consideration of regional and national quaran-tine.

Regionol quorontine proctices ond procedures: Pocific lslonds ond Howoii

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: tlisease threats and guidelines for quarantine

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Intent of quarantine

An effective and responsible system of animal quarantine should facilitate trade and transfers ofanimals and their products whilst minimising entry of diseaset pathogens or pests exotic to theimpofing country Quarantine programmes must therefore establish whether candidate species fortransfer are free of prescribed or other pathogens or pests, and expedite their introductioir and re.lease with a reasonable assurance of freedom from disease.

Quarantine prograrnmes should not be unnecessarily rigorous or expensive so as to predude im-ports ol encourage smuggling or illegal importations; neither should they be so lax as to be ineffec-ti"gP detectingand preventing entry of diseases. Suchprogrammesshould be readily implementedand be cost-effective, commensurate with the degree of difficulty in determining freedom from dis-ease.

Benefits of intnoduced species

Y*y social and economic benefits have accrued through the importation of aquatic animal species.Governments and quarantine authorities have a responsibility to consider prbposals to inhbduceaquatic animals and to support such activities where benefits are likely.

Benefits of disease freedom

South Pacific countries are forfunate in that many of the serious diseases of aquatic animals else-where are not recorded; the regional absence of such agents is an asset worth protecting. Specificbenefits of maintaining relative freedom from disease indude:

o Increased productivity,r Decreased costs,o Market accessibiJity,o Pathogen-freebroodstock.

Benefits of relative freedom from disease, combined with the regional fisheries and aquacultureresources, place the Pacific Islands in a commanding situation with regard to aquaculture ind futurebreeding and export of disease'free aquatic animals.

The case for aquatic animal quarantine

Within the region nurnerous species of aquatic animals are present, both introduced, or resident,which are susceptible to many exotic diseases. Also, diseases occur within the region which shouldbe restricted-from spreading further. Thus, acompelling case exists for the formulation and imple.mentation of quarantine practices and procedures to protect regional fisheries by preventing incur-sions of exotic disease in introduced or transferred aquatic animals into or within the region,

Variable factors and circumstances

Protocols for quarantine and health certification of aquatic animals are difficult to formulate due tovariable factors which influence the risk of introducing disease. These variable factors include agespecies, source, history, known disease status, reliability of health certification, the known diseasesof the candidate species, the status of exporting country or regiory and facilities and capabilities ofi*po.ti.g and exporting authorities.

Inkoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Generol discussion

Quarantine location

As multiple sets of circumstances arise in relation to quarantineoptions for hansfers of aquatic animals,one of three sets of circumstances will generally apply to any such transfer.

1. Quarantine primarily in country of origin. Where the exporting country and the exportingfarm can demonstrate strict quarantine, a high level of assurance with regard to freedomfrom disease and full and authoritative compliance with import requirements. This optionis preferable, as most testing can be conducted prior to transfer, with minimum risk of in-troducing disease to the importing country.

2. Quarantine in countries of origin and enky. Where lesser levels of assurance of freedomfrom disease in the country of origin appIy, where the spectrum of pathogens and parasitesis poorly defined for the candidate species, or where latent infections are likely. Quarantinein the importing country is an added precaution against the entry of asymptomatic infec-tions of low prevalence which may becorne manifest at a later date.

3. Quarantine primarily in country of entry. \A/here an exporting country cannot demonstratethe required capability for quarantine and testing of stocks, this should be carried out in theimporting country. A higher risk of escape of disease accompanies this option.

Quarantine on a case-by-case basis

All proposals for inhoduction-s of aquatic animals sl'rould be considered, and appropriate quaran-tine implemented on a case-by-case basis. Such an approach resolves unnecessarily stringent or ex-cessive-quarantine, and also allows the implementation of more stringent measures in the case ofhigh-risk introductions.

A single quarantine protocol which would address all variable circumstances for every proposedtransfer of aquatic animals is thus not possible to formulate. For example, an oyster species trans-ferred as spat reared in a quarantine facility, and subject to detailed testing for disease from a regionfreeof diseases of concernmaybeinhoduced witha minimumof concem. Conversely, matureoystersof the same species, obtained from the wild, from a region known to be infected with serious dis-eases, with no quarantine or disease testing, would pose a major risk and necessitate stringent quar-antine measures.

Disease threats: ranking of risk

The disease threat posed by imported aquatic animals will vary considerably, depending on thevariable circumstances noted, As such, differing levels of quarantine stringenry will apply in orderto minimise introduction of diseases and pests,

It is possible to semi-quantify the relative risk involved underdifferent sets of circumstances in orderto evaluate the level of quarantine stringenry which should be applied to a particular case. A scoresystem which may be used for this purpose is shown in Table 2, page 13 On this basis, aquatic spe-cies proposed for transfer may be classified into lower or higher risk categories.

Stringency of quarantine

Options and measures available to ensure the introduction of disease free aquatic animals are un-restricted and may be imposed on potential imports in multiples of ever-increasing levels of isola-tion, segregation, sampling and health-testing programmes and procedures. Often, the cost or com-plexity of sudr procedures effectively predudes the importation of a species. Thus, the level of strin-genryapplied toaproposedtransfershouldbecommensuratewith the relativeriskof enhyof disease.

hrtroductions of aquatic anima.ls to the Pacfic Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Generol discussion

Minimum quarantine practices

The majority of disease agents spread by international transfers of aquatic animals have been exter-nal protozoan or metazoan parasites. Many are readily observable and may be treated. [n the ma-jority of these caset the application of inexpensive, fundamental quarantine and treatment may wellhave prevented the incursions of these agents.

A minimum level of quarantine and health certification is therefore essential in preventing spreadof diseases. Such procedures can be basic in nahrre and are not necessarily technically or economi-cally demanding, but can be effective in preventing unwzurted spread of diseases.

Minimum requirements are discussed below, and additional measures which may be taken withhigh-risk inhoductions are further described in Appendix IIL

Compliance with intemational guidelines

Quarantine practices, where possible, should comply with recognised practices and guidelines, es-pecially in regard to sampling and testing.

International obligations and courtesies

lmporting nations should advise neighbouring counbies of the intention to import at an early stage,to avoid potential conflicts with regards to species and disease introductions, especialiy where in-troduction into one country might adversely affect another. A regional authority such as the SouthPacific Commission might play a role in this area.

Designation of importing authority

A government or semi-government authority should be designated and a mechanism defined toassess proposals to transfer, evaluate likely outcomes of transfers, the suitability of proposed proce.dures, the role of parasite's and diseases of the candidate species and to recommend togovenrmeniappropriate actions. The authority should be a forum for lodgement of objections to the proposedmovement. The same authority should specrfy quarantine conditions and requirements. This au-thority may also consider ecological implications of proposed transfers, or may seek this informa-tion elsewhere.

Theimporting authority mustbe represented by individuals with expertise in the fisheries and vet-erinary sciences and quarantine, as transfers involve detailed knowledge from these fields (See In-terdisciplinary Collaboration). In many countries, a national specialist commiftee or working groupis appointed for this purpose. Often, one govemnent department responsible for animal quarantineor fisheries retains final authority guided by recommendations of the committee. Examples includethe Fisheries Research Directorate, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada (Anon 1984b), theState of Hawaii Department of Agriculture (Brock 7986), and the Australian Quarantine and laspec-tion Service.

Authoritative international bodies such as the lnternational Council for Exploration of the Sea 0CES)may also assrune the role of an importing authority, providing advice to governments on introduc-tions and transfers (Turner 1988). The SPC is well placed to provide similar advice to the PacificIslands region.

Regional legislation and unifonn practices

Legislation is essential to support quarantine for introductions or transfers of aquatic organisms.Legislation should empower quarantine authorities in importing countries to monitor, confiscate,destroy, enter facilities and regulate all aspects of the transfer and introduction process.

brtroductions of aquatic animals to tl're Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Generol discussion

Quarantine practices that are cofirmon across a geographic regron, such as the South Pacific, conferconsiderable benefits with regard to ease of movement within, and protection from diseases fromoutside the region.

Problems of disease diagnosis and diagnostic requirements

Some level of diagnostic capability and expertise is essential to satisfactorily certify that candidatespecies are free from diseases and pests. In many cases it is possible to make preliminary examina-tions and assessments using basic equipment. Subsequent collaboration with more specialised labo-ratories can usually be arranged, if required for the diagnosis of viral and bacterial diseases and toundertake histopathologlcal examinations. Therefore, in line with the provision of basic quarantinefacilities, basic laboratory resourcesand skills can provide vital first-line protection against introduc-tions of pests and diseases, with additional resources b"i.g utilised as necessary.

Aquatic animals often carry infectious micro-organisms in the absence of disease and satisfactorydiagnostic procedures may not be available. The detection of latent infections may be most difficult,and may require specialised laboratory resources and trained personnel. M*y diseases affectingfish are poorly characterised, and new diseases are certain to emerge, providing additional com-plexities to disease diagnosis. Thus, importation of fish and aquatic invertebrates presents majorchallenges for quarantine, fisheries and veterinary autl'rorities.

Interdisciplinary collaboration

The transfer of fish into new locations impinges on many specialist scientific disciplines. As such,authoritative comment and involvement is essential from fisheries and veterinary scientists, as wellas quarantine personnel, in developing and implementing aquatic animal quarantine and health-testing programmes. Further, this collaboration should extend to scientific and quarantine staff incountries of export, and may involve the international scientific community where disease or ecG-logical matters arise.

Ecological considerations

Consideration of aquatic animal introductions or transfers raises issues relating to ecological im-pacts. Quarantine should address prevention of disease or pests only in the transferred species;Ecological impacts of proposed introductions should be the responsibility of personnel qualified tomake such assessments. A sbong case exists for an expert committee which can address both issues.

Destruction of animals

Animals in quarantine incu:ring diseases of quarantine importance, unknown diseases or diseasesrefractory to treatment should be destroyed, and all associated materials sterilised or disinfected. Adecision to destroy should be based strictly on disease concerrrs, should be made by the importinggovernment after due considerationby theimporting authority, and shouldbesupported byappro-priate legislation.

Dynamic nafure of aquatic animal quarantine

Knowledge relating to diseases of aquatic animals is constant$ changing. Therefore, any system ofquarantine must be capable of adapting to new or dranging circumstances.

lnhoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

5.

GUIDELINES AND PRINCIPLES FOR REGIONALAQUATIC ANIMAL QUARANTINE

General concepts

1. A compelling case exists for quarantine of aquatic animals in view of the regional freedomfrom many serious diseases, the history of serious disease inhoductions elsewhere and theimportance of fisheries resources to the Pacific Islands.

2. Quarantine should facilitate the transfer of aquatic species, be practical and readily imple-mented, should utilise readily available facilities, and be cost efficient. It should not be ex-cessively restrictive to trade 6r impose unnecessary requirements.

3. The stringenry of quarantine should be consistent with the relative risk of introducing dis-ease with the candidate species. A standard of quarantine should be applied to all introduc-tions or transfers, with increased stringenry as the risks of inhoducing diseases in the can-didate species increase. Classification into lower-risk and higher-risk categories is essential.

4. Quarantineshould be implemented on a case.by<asebasiswhidr evaluates all circumstancesand variable factors relating to the proposed introduction or hansfer. A fr.rll disease historyof the candidate species, including a detailed review of specific pathogens, parasites, dis-eases and pests, and the status of these agents in the source country or region of origin shouldbe compiled.

A protocolshouldbe thendeveloped wl"Lich indudes the formulation orapplicationof specifictests or diagnostic procedures which are considered necessary to detect specified diseaseagents, numbers and times of sampling, methods of sampling and other specific instruc-tions to be followed in relation to the candidate species. Compliance with this protocol shouldform the basis of the Certificate of Health issued by the testing and certifying authority.

Quarantine and health certification procedures should be conducted pre'transfer and post-transfer. \A/here possible, the major component of quarantine and health examination shouldbe conducted pre-transfer.

Where resources or information are insufficient to reasonably permit the safe introductionof a species with minimum quarantine, especially those species known to harbour majorpathogens, then increased stringenry of quarantine and health certification should be ap-plied or the transfer stopped. A full and reasonable explanation for such actions should beglven to the proponents of the transfer.

Conversely, where a case for transfer with reasonable assurances of freedom from diseaseor adverse ecological impact exists, imporhing and exporting authorities should support,encourage and expedite such transfers, imposing minimum quarantine requirements com-mensurate with relative risk.

Quarantineprotocolsshould generallycomply with international standardsof samplingandtesting. They should, however, satisfy the requirements of the importing country or regionin the first instance.

Quarantine and health certification protocols should be developed in collaboration betweenfisheries scientists, veterinary scientists and quarantine authorities.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

lntroductions of .lquatic animals to the I'acific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Guidelines ond principles for regionol oquotic onimol quorontine

11. An importing authority with an advisory role to govemments on quarantine issues shouldbe formed. This body should act as the forum for all issues relating to imports of aquaticanimals and should consist of authorities in fisheries and veterinary science, quarantine andaquatic ecology.

Legislation should be present on which national quarantine can be implemented or enforced,including the destruction of animals in quarantine.

Development of quarantine protocols requires a detailed knowledge of the disease status ofaquatic animals within the region, and the nature and range of specific exotic diseases whichmay affect or be carried by the candidate species. In this regard a national or regional data-base should be developed which may be continuously updated as new information becomesavailable.

In the first instance, considerable levels of assurance for freedom from disease are achiev-able by holding and observing animals in quarantine, testing for parasites and treating ifnecessary. Access to more specialised laboratories and resources maybe necessary to diag-nose certain diseases.

Sampling for diseases should be done on a statistical basis on at least two occasions duringthe quarantine period, with testing immediately prior to transfer.

Testing for disease of concern should employ the most sensitive available methods.

All animals which appear unhealthy or are diseased during the transfer period in quaran-tine should be examined by a competent authority *d the cause of the disease determined.

Training in disease recognition, basic diagnostic techniques and the identification of proto-zoan and metazoan parasites is highly desirable for quarantine staff as an aid to implemen-tation of effective quarantine.

Quarantine practices and procedures must be capable of changing with new circumstances.

Quarantine and freedom from disease in introduced species should be treated as a separateissue from the ecological or environmental impacts of such movements.

M*y guidelines and recommendations are available on which quarantine policies and practicesmay be based (Anon. 79Ub, Braley 1992, DeKinketn1992, DeKinkelin and Hedrick 1991, Govan'1992b, Humphrey 1988, Langdon 1990, Ledua and Adams 1988, Nortonet a\1993a, Rohovec 1983,Turner 1988).

Minimal quarantine requirements

The following are minimum quarantine requirements which should apply to all transfers or intro-ductions, depending on the risk of entry of disease. Additional measures which should be under-taken, depending on an evaluation of the risk of disease entry Oable 3), are discussed further inAppendix III.

Transfer of embryonic or iuvenile animals

The range of diseases that may be carried generally increases with age. Eggs, embryonic or juvenilelife stages should therefore be transferred. Further, it is generally easier to maintain young animalsin captivity under quarantine conditions. Animals should be of the same age and be derived fromthe same source or population.

12.

13.

74.

15.

1.6.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disea,se threats and guidelines for quarantine

Guidelines ond principles for regionol oquotic onimol quoronfine

Transfers on a batch by batch basis

Candidate species should be transferred on a batch-by-batch basis: a batch is a group of animals ofthe same age derived from the same population and maintained as an individual group. Mixing ofanimals, water or equipment between batches should be avoided.

Total time in quarantine

Time spent in quarantine should be determined by the reiative risk of the transferred species intro-ducing exotic disease (Table 3).

It is not possible or desirable to stipulate exact times during which animals should be held in quar-antine as the total time required pre- and post-transfer will depend on a detailed evaluation of allvariable factors relating to the candidate species. For lower-risk species, a minimum total time inthe order of several weeks to several months is likely, with prolonged, even lifetime quarantine forcertain higher-risk species.

Pre-transf er quarantine

Animals for transfer should be collected and placed in a quarantine facility tbr health examinationand disease testing. Treatment should be used as necessary prior to transfer (see treatments andmedications).

Animals must be criticaliy examined for evidence of disease. Subsamples of the population must betaken for examination for parasites or other pathogenic agents on at least one occasion prior to trans-fer. Any animal which shows signs of disease should be examined and the cause of the disease de-termined or the transfer should be aborted.

Table 3: Semi-quantitative scoring system for assessment of quarantine stringency for importsof aquatic animals

Risk Category (Score)

Lower Higher

Age at transfer Eg + (1)

Larvae or iuveniles + (1)

Adult +(100)

Source Farm or hatchery + (1)

Wild-caught +(100)

Geographic origin Within natural range + (1)

Outside natural range +(100)

Country or regional Free of specified diseases + (1)

disease status Status uncertain +(100)

Specified diseases present +(100)

Diseases in candidate Major diseases not described + (1)

species Recognised l'rost to majordiseases +(100)

Interpretation Score Quttrnntirrc strategy

< 105 Minimum quarantine20(H00 Higher stringency (e.9. giant clam protocol)> 400 Prolonged quarantine and testing of parent stock

with transfer of progeny.

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and gu.idelines for quarantine

Guidelines ond principles for regionol oquotic onimol quorontine

Post-transfer quarantine

Animals should enter quarantine in the importing country for health examination and disease test-ing.

Animals must be critically examined for evidence of disease. Subsamples of the population must betaken forexamination forparasites or other agents. Anyanimalwhich shows signs of diseaseshouldbe examined and the cause of the disease determined. If the cause cannot be determined, or if patho-gens or parasites of importance are found, the transfer should be aborted.

Approvals and perrnits

ln order to prevent the introduction of disease or undesirable species, a system of permits andapprovals is necessary between resporsible authorities in importing and exporting counhies. A systemof approvals and permits which might be used is given in Appendix III.

Release from quarantine

Animals must not be released from quarantine in the importing country until approval is given bythe certifying authority. Only animals which are healthy and do not pose a disease risk should bereleased from quarantine.

Quarantine inspection procedures

Each consignment of transferred animals should be inspected by * official appointed by the im-porting authority upon entry to ensure that imported species comply with any specified conditionsand that no other extraneous animals or plants are present. This person should ensure all require-ments for quarantine are met.

Quarantine facilities and management

A physically-secure, isolated quarantine faciJity is required pre-transfer and post-transfer to holdcandidate species. Pre.transfer, the facility should provide for the health examination of the candi-datespecieswith minimalriskof infectionbyfurtherdiseasm. Post-transfer, thefacility should providefor health examination and disease testing while minimising escape of any diseases which may haveinadvertently been imported with the transferred species.

Physical security. Physical security of the quarantine facilify should be ensured to preventagainst inadvertent entry by unauthorised persons and possible loss or release of quaran-tined animals. The facility should be located within or adjacent to an existing fisheries oranimal health station, preferably with 24 hour-supervision. The faciJity should be isolated bya fence or other structure; it should be lockable, with access only to designated personnel.

Location, Tanks, ponds, pools or other containers of an appropriate size and volume for theintroduced candidate species should be constructed in a location physically isolated fromother aquaculture facilities, waterways, ponds or dams. Construction and siting should besuch that, in the event of an accidental spill or discharge no water or animals therein willgain access to natural waterways. The siting of the facility on sand, with construction ofsurrounding raised barriers of sand or soil is a satisfactory safeguard.

Intake of zaater, Water should be derived from clean unpolluted sources. Incoming watershould be filtered during pre-transfer quarantine to prevent introductions of diseases andparasites during the quarantine period.

Dkcharye of zaater. All water leaving the faciJity should be regarded as potentially infected.As such, provision for containment in a sump or pond, with subsequent chemical disinfec-tion or discharge into a land-based pit or pond is necessary. Effluent must not be dischargeddirectlv into nafural waterwavs.

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Paciic Isiands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Guidelines ond principles for regionol oquotic onimol quorontine

Water flow anil plumbing. The posFtransfer facility should be constructed such that an airlock is present on the inflow in order that accidental discharge via the inlet piping is impos-sible.

Water ffianagemenf. Wherever possible, recirculating systems should be installed, with re'plenishment of water on a regular basis as required.

Continuous flow systems in the post-transfer facility shor:Id be avoided due to problems ofdisinfection or sterilisation of large volumes of effluent water. If such systems are used, strat-egies described in Appendix III should be adopted, including filtration, chemical disinfec-tion or irradiation.

Equipment, All equipment used, for example nets, containers, pipes, hoses, pumps, shouldremain within the facility and not be used for any other purpose unless disinfected or sterilised.

Labotatory arca. Acovered, enclosed area which can be used as a laboratory is necessary toprepare samples and undertake microscopic examinations. Containers and reagents shouldbe available to collect samples for dispatch to other laboratories for further examination ifnecessary.

Disease diagnosis and health examinations

The microscopic examination of wet preparations of specimens taken from candidate species to di-agnose orexclude the presence of external protozoan and metazoan parasitesis a minimum require.ment.

Microscopic examination for such agents is readily undertaken by individuals with a basic knowl-edge of biology and access to dissecting and compound microscopes. Training in the recognition ofprotozoan and metazoan parasites of fish and aquatic invertebrates, at least in broad taxonomicgroups, as a basis for treahnent, would be an advantage.

All animals which die or are unhealthy should be examined. Access to more specialised laboratoryfacilities and personnel with experience in fish and shellfish diseases is desirable to assist if diseaseproblems are not resolvable with the facilities available. A number of such laboratories are availablewhere detailed, microbiological and pathological examinations may be undertaken.

A number of illustrated text books on the subject are available and should be referred to.

Health examinations are necesmry to deteci sub-clinical or inapparent infections in the population.At least one such examination should be conducted pre-transfer and at least one such examinationconducted post-transfer. The number of animals sampled should be in accordance with standardsampling procedures, and the number taken commensurate with the known or suspected diseaseprevalence of specific diseases.

Freedom from specific diseases

A checklist of diseases or parasites known to affect the candidate species should be compiled andused as a basis for health certification for freedom from such diseases. The use of specific diagnosticprocedures and tests may be necessry and circumstances may require more stringent quarantinerestrictions than the minimum specified.

Treatment and medication

Manydiseases, especially thecommon diseases causedby external protozoans and metazoanagents,can be treated using simple, readily-available chemicals.

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and grridelirres for quaranfine

Guidelines ond principles for regionol oquotic onimql quorontine

Commonly-used techniques for treatment include baths of salt or formalin, decreased salinity orshort-term freshwater baths for marine species. Other reagenb may be used and may be acquiredspecifically for the project.

Notg however, that many parasites, especially the internal parasites, cannot readily be heated.

Holding of stock from the wild often results in severe outbreaks of external protozoal or metazoanparasites: This should be prevented by an initial heatmmt of animals on entering the quarantinefacility.

Health certification

A permit or certificate from a responsible authorify in the country of origin verifying the origin ofthe stock, the stage to be exported, the quarantine and disease history, and assurancethat all ip".i-fied tests, procedures and sampling have been conducted in accordance with the requiremene ofthe importing counbry should be forwarded to the importing authority prior to transfer of the ani-mals.

Release from quarantine

Only animals which are healthy should be released from quarantine.

Inhoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacifc Islands: disease threats and guideliner for quarantine

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krtroduedons"sf aquatic aninali b the Paeific Islands: disease tirleab and guiddin€s fitr qnaf,anfte

APPENDIX I

A partial listing of intentional and unintentional inhoductions of fish and aquaticinvertebrates to islands of the South Pacific region and Hawaii (from Eldredge 19941.

(m = marine species; f = freshwater species)

Fish Hypostomus sp. suckermouth or armoured caffish (0

Hypseleohis klunzingei western carp gudgeon (0

Albr,ila aulpes bonefish (m) Ictalurus punctatus catfish (0

Annbas testudineus dimbing perch (0 Kuhlia rupestris (m)

Anchoa canpresx (m) Lnta calurifer barramundi (0

Artcistnts sp. bristlenosed ca$ish (f) kiopntherapon unicolor spangled perch (f)

Aristichtlrys nobilis bighead carp (0 lcoynrinus fuscrlafus blackbanded leporinus (0

Ailts sp. (f) Lethrinus sp. (m)

Astronotus ocellntus cichlid (0 Lutjanus fulaus toau (m)

Barbus semifusciolatus Chinese barb (0 Lutjaruts gr'bbus (m)

Betta brederi fighting fish (0 Lutjanus guttatus snapper (m)

Bidyanus bidyanus silver perch (0 Lutjanus knsmirn taape (m)

Cnrnssitts auratus goldfish (0 Mncqwrin @lectroplited ambign golden perch (0

Cnrarrx sp. jacks (m) Mncqunria colontm

Cartropyge flttrtissimus lemonpeel angelfish (m) Mncqunrh nouemrtculsta Australian bass (0

Crplnlopholus glffafrrs (m) Mesopistes nrgentans silver grunter (fl

Cephnloplrolus urctdetu (m) Microptenrc dolomieui bass (0

Clmnna (Ophiocephafus) strinta striped snakehead (0 Microptnus snlmoides bass (0

Cicltla ocellaris cichlid (0 Misgmrus angtillicrttdahrs Oriental weatherfish (0

Cichlasoma nigrofnsciatum convict cichlid (0 Morone saxatilis striped bass (m)

Cichlasoma sp. cichlid (0 Mugil cephalrrs mullet (m)

Cichlasomn spihrrum Cuttels cichlid (0 Mugiligobiln pnrous (m)

Clarias batrachtts waiking catfish (0 Neopomocattnrc uiolascens (m)

Clarias mncrocephalus catfish (0 Ontobranchus elongatu-s (m)

Colossunn macrorynmt pacu (0 Oncoilzyntcfurs mykiss rainbow trout (0

Corydoras ae,teus bronze corydora (0 Oncorhynchus tshawytschn Chinook salmon (m)

Cromileptes altiaelis (m) Oreochromis Altreus blue filapia (0

Ctenoplnryngodon idella grass carp (0 Oreocfuomislrcmorum(f)

Cyprinus carpio common caro (0 Oreochramis mosstnbicus tilapia (f,m)

Dorosoma petaww (m) Oreochranfis nilotictrs Nile tilapia (0

Epinephelus fasclirfls (m) Osphronemus gourani giant gourami (0

EpinEhelus hemgonatus (m) Ostnglosswn sp. arowana (0

EpirtEhelus mma (m) Parablmnius thysanius (rn)

Epinephelus spiniger (m) Parioglossus sp. (m)

Fundulus grandis (m) Peckoltk sp. armoural caffish (0

Ganrbusia nfinls mosquitofish (0 Pelvicnchromis pulchu (f)

Hnklotsichtlrys quadimaculafas (m) Percalates collnlru,n estuary perch (0

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix silver carp (0 Petroscirtn breaiceps blenny (m)

lntroductions of aquatic animals to dre Pacific Islands: disease threals and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix I

P lecoglossrs altioelis (m)

P oec ilia lat ipi nna (f ,m)Poecilia mexiunn (f,m)

Poecilia reticulata guppy (0

Poecilia sp. topminnow (fl

Poecilia uittata (f,m)

Potamalos richmondia freshwater hening (0

Ptuoiplichthys multiradiatus armoured catfish (0

Pterophyllum sp. angelfish (0

Puntius filamentwus blackspot barb (0

Puntius gonionohn Javanese carp (f)

P ttttt iu s s an ifas c iol at us (f)

Puntius smlibarb ff)

Retropinna semoni Australian smelt (0

Salmo trutts brown trout (0

Snluelimts fontinalis brook trout (0

Sardhtella mnrquesnrsis Marquesan sardine (m)

S ar oth er o d on m e I a n oth er on (m)

Serrnsalmus sp. Pirhana (0

Synodurtis sp. African catfish (0

Tandanus tntrdanrc freshwater catfish (0

Tilnpin rendnlli

Tilnpia sp. tilapia (fl

Tilapin zillii redbelly tilapia (0

Trachystomn petnrdi freshwater mullet (0

Trichogaster pectoralis snakeskin gourami (0

Trichogaster trichopterus three-spot gourami (0

Uparcus ait tatus goatfish (m)

Valamugil engeli mullet (m)

Xenatodott unciln Asian needlefish (0

Xiphiphons maculatus southern platyfish (0

Crustaceans

Atergndopsis imtnigrnns crab (m)

Cnllinectes sapidus blue crab (m)

Glabropilumnus seminudus crab (m)

Macrobruchium lar frshwater prawn (fl

Macrobrachium rosafuergii freshwater prawn (0

Metapenaeus ensrs greasyback shrimp (m)

Pano1seus herbsti crab (m)

Panopeus pacificlts crab (m)

Penneus japonlcus Kuruma prawn (m)

Pmaeus itrdicus Indian white prawn (m)

Penaetrs sztecus northern brown shrimp (m)

Pnneus muguimsis banana prawn (m)

Penaeus monodon giant tiger prawn (m)

Puneus stylirostis blues shrimp (m)

Perueus sembulcatus green tiger prawn (m)

Paneus aanruntei whiteleg shrimp (m)

Procambius clnrkli freshwater crayfish (0

Schizophrys aspera crab (m)

Scylla serratn mangrove or red crab (m)

Bivalve Molluscs

Cellana mnmtlanica limpet (m)

Corbiuila fluminea Asiatic freshwater clam (0

Crassostrea belcheri oyster (m)

Crasswtrea echimta Australian oyster (m)

Crassostrm gigas Pacific or Japanese oyster (m)

Crassostren iredalei Philippine oyster (m)

Crassostrea ttirginica American oyster (m)

Qltherin nwretix Japarrese clam (rn)

Hippopus hippopus horse's hoof clam (m)

Ostrea edulis European or flat oyster (m)

Perna airidis green mussel (m)

Pinctada fimtn martarsi fapanese pearl oyster (m)

Pinctafur maximn gold-lip shell pearl oyster (m)

Pilrctatla margaritifera black-lip pearl oyster (m)

Pteria penguin winged pearl shell (m)

Saccostrea atcullatn tuberculnts Mangrove oyster (m)

Saccostrea commercinlis Sydney rock oyster (m)

Tapes japonicn Japanese or Manilla clam (m)

Tridncna da'asn smooth giant clam (m)

Tridacm gigns giant clam (m)

Tidacna squamosfl fluted clam (m)

Gashopod Molluscs

Cipangopnludhn chinensis Asian vivipariid snail (0

Haliotis cracherodii black abalone (m)

Hnliatis ntescens red abalone (m)

Lwmea airidis freshwater snail (0

Pila conic:a Freshwater ampullariid snail (0

Ponacea bridgesiapple or golden snail (0

Pomnces camliculsta apple or golden snail (0

Ponucen paludosa apple or golden snail (0

Troclttts niloticus large trochus (m)

Turbo nnrmorattts green snail (m)

lntroductions of atuatic animals to tl,e Pacific Islands: disease threats and zuidelines fcrr quarantine

APPENDIX II

Diseases of aquatic animals in the South Pacific and Hawaiian Islands:A summary and checklist

Mrile records of pathogens, parasites and pests affecting fish and aquatic invertebrates within thePacific region are scarce, a small but growing body of data exists, demonstrating that, as elsewhere,disease is a major limiting factor in production of these species. Many agents have been descriMunassociated with disease, but should be regarded as potential pathogens under different circum-stances, especially aquaculture (Table l).

Viruses and Viral Diseases

A picorna-like virus is the cause of mortalities in larval barramundilntes calcarifer rnTahiti (Renaultet al 1991). The penaeid shrimp viruses, infectious hlryodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virusand monodon baculoviruses, are recorded (Lightner i988, Lightner et al. 1983), but their regionalsignificance is uncertain, althought they are associated with high mortalities elsewhere.

Bacteria and Bacterial Diseases

Bacterial necrosis and heavy mortalities of cultured larval Penaeus sp. and Macrobrachiurn sp. wasdescribed in Tahi0 vmthVibrio alginolyticus causing 'white pleura disease' in older animals (Aquacop1,977).Bacteial necrosis of cultffed larval giant clartsTridacnn sp. associated with Vrbnb sp ., Aeromonassp. and Plesiomorms sp. may be a significant problem (Braley 1992).

Rickettsial infections appear corrunon in giant clams Tridncrc sp. and Hippopus ltippopus. Mortalitiesin adult broodstock associated with rickettsial infections from Micronesia (Norton et al. 1993) arerecorded, but asymptomatic infections appear conunon, rarely invoking a granulorytic inflanma-tory response in juvenile animals (Braley 1992).

Winter mortality, a condition of young juvenile Tridama grgas and Tidacna rutxima, occurs whenclams are exposed to temperatures less than 2OC, and is associated with an intracellular bacteriumof unknown identity in surviving animals (Braley 1992, Norton et al. 1993). The condition has re-sulted in heavy mortalities

Fungr and Fungal Diseases

Fungal invasion of juvenile Pnaeus sp. and associated mortalities were reported by Aquacop 09mtobedue tolngenidittn sp.and Sirolpidiumsp.,withgillinvasionby Fusttriumsp.inPenaeus japonicusbroodstoch resulting in chronic mortalities.

Uncharacterised epiphytic fungi were associated with shell damage in cultured giant clams (Anon.199D.

Protozoa and Protozoal Diseases

Aquacop 09m reported low grade mortalities and gill necrosis inPenaeus aztecus andMetapenaeusensts associated with an uncharacterised amoeboid organism. AMnrteilia or Paramarteilla - like sp. isthe cause of nodular Iesions inTridacna maxima in Fiii (Braley 1992).

Perkinsus sp. appear conunon inTridacna sp., andHippopus hippopus, but are unassociated with dis-ease (Braley 1992, Norton et al 1993b).

lntroductions of aquatic animais to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and grridelines for quarantine

Appendix ll

Algae and Algal Diseases

Uncharacterised epiphytic algae were associated with shell damage in cultured giant clams (Anon.1991).

Platyhelninths and Platyhebninth Diseases

Turbellaria. A turbellarian parasite Pseudostyloch,rs sp. was associated with high mortalities in theoyster Crassos tru gigas imported from Japan into Vanuatu for experimental aquaculture (Hallier 79m .

Stylochtts sp. have resulted in high mortalities through predation in oysters Crassostrea gz'gas andCrassostrm uirginicn (Eldredge 1993). Stylochts sp. (S. matatasi) is a predator of giant dams in theSolomon Islands (Anon 7991).

Polychaetes. The mudworrnPolydora sp. caused severe shell damage in imported oystersCraswstreagigas nVanuatu and French Polynesia (Eldredge 1993, Hallier Dn). Polydora websteri contributedto the collapse of aquaculture of the oyster Crnssostrm uirginica in Hawaii (Bailey-Brock 1990). Poly-chaete worms were also associated with deaths and shell deformities in cultured giant dams (Anon.1991).

Porifera (Sponges) and Poriferan Diseases

The sponge Cliona sp. resulted in severe shell damage to imported Japanese oysters Crassostrea gigasin Vanuatu (Hallier Pm. Shell damage associated with uncharacterised epiphytic sponges is alsoreported in cultured giant clams (Anon 7991).

Crustacea and Crustacean Diseases

Predation of cultured tridacnid clams by crabs, probably xanthid crabs, is reported in the SolomonIslands (Govan 1992a) and xanthid, porhrnid and diogenid crabs are noted by Govan et al. (1993) asserious predators of tridacnid clams in the regron.

Molluscs and Molluscan Diseases

Predation of cultured giant clams by ranellid gastropods of the genus Cymntidiutn, is a major prob-lem throughout the region (Anon 1982 Eldred ge1993,Govan et al 1993). The oyster dfiil.Cymntitm sp.kitled stocks of oyster Crassostrea grgas in Tonga. lnfection and predation with pyramidellid gastro.pod parasites including Tathrella sp. and Turbonilla sp. is a serious problem of cultured giant clamsinPalau,PapuaNewGuinea,SolomonlslandsandGuam (Cumming1988,Braley1992,Govrr1992b).At least 20 gastropod predators of giant clams have been identified, which feed on tissues and presentmajor problems for cultured giant clams. These include the genera Cantlurus,Vexillum, Cynntium,Pleuropoca, Chicoreus, Cronius, Monila,Thais,Tathrella,Turbamilla and Melo (Anon.1991).

Diseases of Uncertain Aetiology

A 'virus' disease, initially reported in the Gambier group, was reported to be responsible for massmortalities in pearl oysters Pinctadn nwrgaitifua on Takapoto atoll, Tuamotu Group, French Polynesia,with severe socioeconomic losses. It is uncertain on whatbasis the 'virus'was diagnosed. The dis-ease spread in cultured black lip pearl oysters in the Tuamotus following transfer of stocks amongatoils (Anon. 1985, 1988, Braley 1991,,Cabra17989a,1989b, Eldredge 1994). Braley 0991) reported thedisease in pearl oysters and other bivalve molluscs in the Tuamotu group which had been trans-ferred between atolls. More recently Cabral (1989b) considered the aetiology to by a complex ofuncharacterised factors.

Mass mortalities characterised by mantle retraction and death in wild and cultr-ued giant clamsTridncna grgas and Hippopus hippoptts occurred during 1992lr:. the Eastern Solomon Islands (Gervis1e92).

lntroductions of aquatic anirnals to the Pacific Islands; disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix ll

A bacterial-like agent identified in iuvenile Tndc nu gigashasbeen associated with deaths after periodsof cold weather (Braley 7992).

Epidemics of a disease in several fish species characterised by ulcerating skin lesions, and resem-bling epizootic ulcerative disease, was reported by Coates (1984) in the Sepik Region of Papua NewGuinea. The disease was reported to cause hardship to people higher in the river systems due todepletion of stocks.

Table 4. A partial checklist and bibliography of pathogens, parasites, pests and diseasesrecorded in fish and aquatic invertebrates in the South Pacific and Hawaiiantegions (Key to countries: AS = American Samoa; CI = Cook Islands; F = Fiii;FP = French Polynesia; FSM = Federated States of Micronesia; G = Guam;H = Hawaii; MI = Marshall Islands; NI = Norfolk Island; PNG = Papua NewGuinea; SI = Solomon Islands; T = Tonga; TV = Tuvalu; U = Ubiquitous; V = Vanuafu;y = yap)

Viruses and Viral Diseases

Bacteria and Bacterial Diseases

Aetiological Agent

Buculovirus penaeiHepatopancreatic parvovirusIHHTIV*

Ly mphocystis

I'lonodon buuktvirus

Picornavi rusRhabdovirus (uncharacterised)Reo-like virus

Encephalopathy

Disease

Monalities

Host Species

'wild penaeid shrimp'Penaeid shrimpPenaeus sp-

Surgucentronpunclrtl t sstrilunr

Penaeus nonodott

Iates caleariJbrPenueus sp.Penaeus jupottit'us

Distribution

H

H

FP. F, H

H

FP, H

Reference/s

Lightncr et al 1989Lightner ct al 1989Eldredge I 994,Lightnr'r 1988,Lighrner et al 1989Anderson et al 1988

Lightner et al

1e83, t989Renault r-t al l99lLu et d l99lLightner cr xl 1989

FPH

H

* Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis vrrus

Aetiological Agent

Aeronwnas sp.Plesionuntas sp.Rictattsio sp.

Ricletrsla sp.

Vibrio alginolyticusVibrio sp.Uncharacterised

UncharacterisedUncharacterised

Uncharacterised

Disease

Bacterial necrosisBacterial necrosisRickettsiosis

Rickettsiosis

White pleuraBacterial necrosisBacterial necrosis

Bacterial necrosisWinter monality

Winter mortality

Host Species

Tridacnu sp.Tridacna sp,Triducnu sp.

Hippopus hippopus

Penaeus sp.Tridacnu sp.Macrobntchiunt

rosenbe rgiiPenaeus sp.Tridacna gigas

Tridutnu nta'timu

Distribution

UbiquitousUbiquitousF, T, FSM

F, T, FSM

FPUbiguitous

FPFPUbiquitous

Ubiquitous

Reference/s

Braley 1992Braley 1992Braley 1992.

Nonon et al l99JBraley 1992.

Nonon et al 1993

Aquacop 1977Braley 1992

Aquacop 1977Aquacop 197?

Braley 1992.Nonon et al 1993

Braley 1992,Nonon et al 1993

lnboductions of aquatic anirnals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and grridelines for quarantine

Table 4 (cont'd). A partial checklist and bibliography of pathogens, parasites, pests anddiseases recorded in fish and aquatic invertebrates in the South Pacificand Hawaiian regions

Fungi and Fungal Diseases

Appendix ll

Protozoa and Protozoal Diseases

Monogenea and Monogenean Diseases

Digenea and Digenean Diseases

Aetiological Agent

Fasarirnr sp.

Lagenidiun sp.Sirolpidiun sg.UncharacterisedUncharacterisedUncharacterised

Disease

Gill mycosisSystemic mycosisSystemic mycosis99% mortalityShell damageShell damage

Host Species

Penaeus juponicusPenaer.r sp.Penaeus sp.'Oysters''Giant clams'Trochus nilutirus

Distribution Reference/s

FPFPFPHslUbiquitous

Aquacop 1977

Aquacop 1977

Aquacop 1977Eldredge 1994Anon l99lEldredge 1994

Aetiological Agent

Crvptocanvn irritansCryptocuryon irritansCmptocurton irritunsC n- p t o c u 11' o n i r r i I a n s

Cryptocaryon irritunsH ae nut g re ga r i nu b i g e ni naHaenng,rc gari na b i geninaHaemogre garina bigentinuHaenngregarinu nugiliHaemo gre garina nrug i liH ae mog rega r inu sa I ar ias iH artnrune I Ia tah it ie ns is

Hennegut,a vitiensisM urre i I i al Parama rre I i I iu sp -

Perkinsus sp.Perftirrsl.r sp,

Trichodinu sp.Uncharacterised amoebaUncharacterised amoeba

Disease

External parasitismExternal parasitismExternal parasitismExternal parasitismExternal parasitism

Focal lesions

Gut infectionGill invasionGill invasion

Host Species

bttes calcariJbrCaranx ignobilisSiganu.t urgenteusEpinephe Ius nri c rod,onCoryphaena sp.C I i nu s pe r.r pic i I lut u.r

Mugil sp.Trypte 4'gion rulopi I eumAttaous ocellarisSt en o go b i u s ge niv i | ! utu sSula rias pe riophthalmusSacco.stre a commerc i al is

Leiognathus fasciatusTridacna maima

Hippopus hippopusTridacna sp.

Acanthunts xanthopt e ntsMetapenaeus ensisPenaeus az.tecus

Distribution Reference/s

FPFPFPFPFPMSINIslslFFP

FF

FF

PNG, HFPFP

Aquacop et al 1989Aquacop et al 1989Aquacop et al 1989Aquacop et al 1989Aquacop et al 1989Laird 1958aLaird 1958aLaird 1958aLaird 1958aLaird 1958aLaird 1958aAngell 1986,Eldredge 1994

Laird 1950Braley 1992,

Nonon et al 1993Braley 1992Braley 1992,

Norton et al 1993

Basson et al 1990Aquacop 1977Aquacop 1977

Aetiological Agent Disease Host Species Distribution Reference/s

Phylum PLATHYHELMINTHESClass TREMATODA

Order MONOGENEA

Allopseuda.xine sp.A I I op se udaxi noide s va g unsDaitreo.sonu pan'aD i p lec tanunt nte lane s i ens i s

M icrocottle sp.

Katsunonus pelantis NCKatsuwonus pelanis NCAmbursis nriops SlEpinephelus merra F, VMugil oligolepis VOreochromis nrcssambicus HAcanthoct'biumsolandri NC

Rohde et al 1980Rohde et al 1980Laird 1958cLaird l95EbLaird l9-58cKaneko et al 1988Rohde et al 1980

niu nelleniN e 0t h.t rok)c aIt I e ucant h ocl'b i i

Aetiological Agent Disease Host Species Distribution Reference/s

Phylum PLATHYHELMINTHESClass TREMATODA

Order DIGENEA

C I i no-rl rontwn sp, (metacercrria)P I a gi opo rus sp. (metacercaria)

Oxyeleotris hemerdeni PNCPorites compressa llKatsuuutus pelanis NCAnbassis niops Sl

Coates 1984Aeby l99lRohde et al 1980Laird l9-58

'ueliun fili.feruntoslo'ltrrn sp. (metacercafla)

lnhoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacifc Islands: disease threats and guidetines for quarantine

Appendix ll

Table 4 (cont'd). A partial checklist and bibliography of pathogens, parasites, pests anddiseases recorded in fish and aquatic irwertebrates in the South Pacificand Hawaiian regions

Nematodes and Nematode Diseases

Cestodes amd Cestode Diseases

Turbellaria and Turbellarian Diseases

Polychaetes, Polychaetal Diseases and Pests

Crustacea and Crustacean Diseases

Aetiological Agent

Ec hinoce phalus ore rsl reet iEchniot'ophal us ove rst re ettEusrrongylides sp.Eustrongylides sp.Uncharacterised

Disease

ParasitismParasitism

Parasitism

Host Species

Taeniu ra nte lanospilosU ru g1,ntnu.s as pe r r intusO t 1's l. r t ri t h e re- e rd e n iOphieleotris aporosEpinephelus microdon

Distribution Reference/s

Beverdige l99lBeveridge l99lCoates 1984Coates 1984Aquacop et al I989

FPMIPNG

PNGFP

Aetiological Agent Disease

Aonic infectionParasitism

Parasitism

Host Spccies Distribution Reference/s

Dasy rhynchus talismaniFloriceps minacanthus

Uncharacterised

Thunnus albacarcs HCarcharhinus nelanopterus K

Epinephelus microdon FP

Brill et al 198?Richmond & Caira

l99lAquacop et al 1989

Aetiological Agent

Phylum PLATYHELMINTHESClass TURBELLARIA

Pseudostylochus sp.

St1'lochus matatasiSty/ochus sp..!r-r,/oclras sp.

Host Species Distribution Reference/s

Predat ion/monality

PredationPredation/mortality

Crassostrea gigas

'Giant clams'Crassostrea gigasCrassostrea virginica

SIHH

Eldredge 1994,Hallier 1977

Anon l99lEldredge 1994Eldredge 1994

Aetiological Agcnt Host Species Distribution Reference/s

Phylum ANNELIDAClass POLYCTIAETA

Polydora nuchalisPolydora *,ebsteriPolydora sp.

Polydora pacificaUncharacterisedUncharacterised

Shell damageShell damage

Shell damage

High monality

'Oysters''Oysters'Crassostrea gigas

'Pearl oysters''Giant ckirns'Pinctada maxima

HHV, FP

Bailey-Brock 1990Bailey-Brock 1990Eldredge 1994,

Hallier 197?Eldredge 1994Anon I99lEldredge 1994

PSIPNG

Aetiological Agent

Phylum CRUSTACEAClass COPEPODA

Argulus sgArgulus papuensis

Branchiella thynniCaligus bonitoCaligus prod.uctusCaligus productusJusheyhoea moscriRenocila loriae

Host Species Distribution Reference/s

ParasitismExternal parasitism

O xy e Ie ot ri s he n* e rde n iBunaka he*-erdeni

Acanthocybium soland riKatsuwonus pelamisAcanthocybium solandriKatsuv,onus pelamitMacrourid fishesApagon (P ristiapogon\ sp.

PNCPNG

NCNCNCNCHPNG

Coates 1984Rushton-Mellor

l99lRohde et al 1980Rohde et al 1980Rohde et al 1980Rohde et al 1980Kabata l99lWilliams &

Williams 1992

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disea-qe threats and guideJines for qrrarantine

Appendix ll

Table 4 (cont'd). A partial checklist and bibliography of pathogens, parasites, pests anddiseases recorded in fish and aquatic invertebrates in the South Pacificand Hawaiian regions

Molluscs. Molluscan Diseases and Pests

Porifera and Poriferan Diseases

Non-infectious Diseases

Aetiological Agent

Phylum MOLLUSCA

Burtsd {anularis|ramidellid parasites

Cymatium aquatileCymatium muricinwn

Cymatium nicobaricumCymatium pileareC\matium sp.Cymatium sp.Chicoreus ynhnarosaeChicoreus ramosusTathrella iredal,ei

contca

Disease Host Species

Tridacnid clams'Giant clams'Tridacnid clamsTridacnid clams

Tridacnid clamsTridacnid clams'Giant clams'Crassostrea gigarTridacnid clamsTridacnid clamsTidacna sp.

Trochus niloticus

Distribution

U

TV. UAS. CI, FSM

UU

Ttl

U,YSI, G, PNG

FSM, P

U

Reference/s

Govan et al 1993Covan 1992bGovan et al 1993Anon 1987Eldredge 1994

Govan et al 1993Govan et al 1993Anon l99lEldredge 1994

Govan et al 1993Eldredge 1994

Cumming 1988,Braley I992,Eldredge 1994

Eldredge 1994

hedationPredationhedationPredation

PredationPredationhedation'DrillPredationPredationPredation

Scaring

Aetiological Agent

Cliona sp.

Disease

Shell damage

Host Species

Crassostrea gigas

Distribution Reference/s

V Hallier 1977

Aetiological Agent

Decreased irradiation ( ?)Decreased inadiation (?)

Decreased temperature <20oCAir supersaturationIncreased temperature >35 "CNitrogen deficiencyDecreased salinityIncreased salinity >45ppt

Disease

BleachingBleachingChillingGas bubble diseaseHeat stress

Nitrogen deficiencyDeath, gill lesionsShell closure

Host Species

Tridrcna sp.Hippopus hippopusTridacna sp.Tridacna sp.Tridacna sp.Tidacna sp.Hippopus porcellanusTridacna sp.

Distribution

UbiguitousUbiquitousUbiquitousUbiquitousUbiquitousUbiquitousUbiquitousUbiquitous

Reference/s

Bralcy 1992

Braley 1992Braley 1992

Braley 1992Braley 1992Braley 1992

Braley 1992

Braley 1992

Inhoductions of aquatic animals to the Paci.fic lslands: disease threab and guidelines for guarantine

Appendix ll

Table 4 (cont'd). A partial checklist and bibliography of pathogens, parasites, pests anddiseases recorded in fish and aquatic invertebrates in the South Pacificand Hawaiian regions

Diseases of Unknown Aetiology

Aetiological Agent

UnknownUnknownUnknownUnknown

Bacteria (?)

Unknown

Uncharacterised

UncharacterisedUnchamcterised

Disease

Muscle necrosisMass mortalitiesMass mortalities227c mortalitiesDeformed nauplii'Whirling disease'High mortalitiesUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerarionUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationUlcerationMass mortalities

Mass mortalitiesLymphoma

Host Species

Mac rob rachi utn ro senbe r gi iTidacna gigas

Hippopus hippopusCrassostrea iredaleiPenaeus sp.Penaeus sp.Ostrea edulisToxotes sp.Scatophagus sp.Angui I Ia bicolor pacifi caOphieleotris aporosO.rye le otri s he rwe rde niknarchopterus kampeni'Mullet''Arid catfish''Cudgeons'

Acanthopgrus berdaAmbassis naluaBunaka sp.Cinetodus froggatiDa tnio id e s qudifasciat usEle oth eronema tat radacty lwnClossogobius giurusH exane mat i c h th)'s I e nta s pi sHexanematichthvs spH exane matic h th),s danie ls iH e.tanemati c h thS's Ia t i r o s I ri sJohnius belengeriKurtus gulliveriIntes calcaiferLiza dussumieriL<tbotes surinamensisLutjanus sp.Oxyeleotris sp.Parambassis gulliveiPolydactylus sheidaniP riopidic hthv s gy mnoce phalu sScatophagus argusSculengraulis seratchleyiS e I e nto ca mu I tifa sc i ataTilapia mossambicaToxotes chartareusPinctnda margariilera

'Molluscs'Penaeus vannanui

Distribution Reference./s

HSISIFFPFPTPNGPNGPNGPNCPNGPNGPNGPNGPNCPNCPNGPNGPNGPNGPNGPNGPNGPNGPNGPNG

A.kiyama et al 1982Gervis 1992Cervis 1992Eldredge 1994Aquacop 1977Aquacop 1977Eldredge 1994Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Coates 1984Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983Uwate 1983

PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNC Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNC Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNc Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNC Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983PNG Uwate 1983FP Anon 1985, Braley 1991,

Cabral 1989a, 1989bEldredge 1994

FP Anon. 1985, Braley l99lH Lightner& Brock 1987

lnEoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix ll

References to Table 4

Aeby, G.S. (1990). Costs and benefits of parasitism in a coral reef system. Pacific Science 45(1):8F{6

Akiyama, D. M., f. A. Brock and S. R. Haley (1982).Idiopathic muscle necrosis in the cultured fresh-water prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergfi). Veterinary Medicine/Small Animal Clinician July1992:1119-1.727

Anderson, B.E.,I.A. Brock, T. Hayashi and S. Teruya (1988). The occurrence of lymphocyst'rs in anewhostspercier.,Sargocentron punctatissimuntCuiter and Valenciennes, collectedand maintainedin Hawaii. Pacific Science 4204):21.4-21,6

hgull, C. L. (1986). The Biology and culture of tropical oysters. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 13,International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines, t12 p

Anon. (1985). Virus kills mother of pearl in French Polynesia. South Pacific Commission FisheriesNewsletter No. 34:17

Anon. (198n. Chm predators. Clamlines. Newsletter of the International Giant Clam MaricultureProj".t. ICLARM; No. 2:7

Anon. (1988). Workshop Report, Workshop on Pacific Inshore Fishery Resources, Noumea, NewCaledonia, 14-25 March 1978. Inshore Fisheries Research Proiect, South Pacific Commission,Noumea, New Caledonia

Anon. (1991). Annual Report, South Pacific Office and Coastal Aquaculture Centre, ICLARM, Jan.1991-Dec. 1,991,,4p

Aquacop. (197n, Observations on diseases of crustacean cultures in Polynesia, 15 p

Aquacop [Fuchs, J., G. Nedelec and E. Gasset] (1989). Selection of finfish species as candidates foraquaculture in French Polynesia. Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop at Tahiti, FrenchPolynesia, 20 Feb. - 4 Mar. 1989. Actes de Colloque9.461.-4M

Bailey-Brock, I. H. (1990). Polydora rurchalis (Polychaeta: Spionidae), a new Hawaiian record fromaquaculhrre ponds. Pacific Science M(D:81-87

Basson, L., J.G.Van As and L. Fishelson (1990). A new species of Trichodina (Ciliophora: Peritrichia)from the intestine of the surgeonfish Acanthurus xanthopterus. International Journal of Parasitol-ogy 20:785-787

Beveridge I. (1991). The distribution of Eclinocephnlus oaerstreeti Deardorff & Ko (Nematoda ), aparasite of elasmobranch fishes in Australian waters. Transactions of the Royal Society of SouthAustralia 115:107

Braley, R. D. (1991). Pearl oyster inhoductions to Tokelau atolls: real potential or a long shot. SouthPacific Commission Pearl Oyster lnformation Bulletin No. 3:9-10

Braley, R. D. (1992). The giant clam: hatchery and nursery manual. Australian Centre for Interna-tional Agricultural Research, Canberra ACIAR Monograph No. 15: 1,14 p

Brilt, R. W., R. Bourke, J. A. Brock and M. D. Dailey (1987). Prevalence and effects of infection of thedorsal aorta in yellowfin tuna, Tlturuus albacnres, by the larval cestode, Dasyrhynchus talismani.Fisheries Bulletin 85:7 67 -77 6

Cabral, P. (1989a). Problems and perspectives of the pearl oyster aquaculture in French Polynesia.Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop at Tahifl French Polynesia,20 Feb.-4 Mar. 1989.Actes de Colloque 9:57-56

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix ll

Cabral, P. (1989b). Some aspects of the abnormal morblities of the pearl oystus,Pinctadn nwrgmitiferaL. nthe Tuamotu Archipelago, (French Polynesia). Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop atTahitl French Polynesia, 20 Feb. - 4 Mar. 1989. Actes de Colloqueg:217-26

Coates (1984). An ulcer-disease outbreak amongst the freshwater fish population of the Sepik RiverSystem, with notes on some freshwater fish parasites. Report No.8602, Fisheries Research andSurveys Branch, Department of Primary Industry, Port Moresby. Papua New Guinea:21 p

Cumming, R. L. (1988). Pyramidellid parasites in giant dam mariculhue systems. In: Giant clams inAsia and the Pacific, Eds l.W. Copland and J.S. Lucas. ACIAR Monograph No. 9:231-236

Eldredge, L.G. (1994). Introductions of commercially significant aquatic organisms to the PacificIslands. Perspectives in aquatic exotic species management in the Pacific Islands. Vol. 1. LnshoreFisheries Research Programme Technical Docummt No.7. SPREP Reports and Studies Series No.78. Pacffic Science Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.

Gervis, M. (1992). Mass mortality of Tridaom gigas and Hippapus hippopus in the Solomon Islands.Clamlines, Newsletter of the Giant Clam Research Group,ICLARM Coastal Aquaculture Net-work No. 11,:1,4-1,6

Govan, H. (1992a). A low-cost ocean-nursery cage for juvenile tridacnid clams. Clamlines, Newslet-ter of the Giant Clam Research Group, ICLARM Coastal Aquaculture Network No. 10:24

Govan, H. (1992b). Inadvertent introductions of pyramidellid parasites. Clamlines, Newsletter ofthe Giant Clam Research Group, ICLARM Coastal Aquacultr.re Network No. 11:7-8

Govan, H., L.Y. Fabro and E. Ropeti (1993). Conholling predators of cultured tridacnid clams. hrBiology and Mariculture of Giant Clams: A Workshop held in coniunction with the 7th Interna-tional Coral Reef Symposium 21-26 June 7992, Guam, USA. Ed. W.K. Pitt, ACI"AR ProceedingsNo.47:111-118

Hallier, J.P. Qgm. Oyster breeding in the New Hebrides. South Pacific Commission Fisheries News-letter No. 15:49-53

Kabata, Z. (799D.lushqlnea ntoseri n. sp. (Copepoda: Chondracanthidae), a parasite of macrouridfishes in Hawaiian waters. Systematic Parasitology 20:15F159

Kaneko, J. I., R. Yamada, J. A. Brock and R. M. Nakamura (1988). Infection of tilapia, Oreochromismossambicus (Trewavas) by a marine monogenean, Neobenednds melleni (MacCallum,1.92nYamaguti, 1963 h Kanmhe Bay, Hawaii, USA , and its treatment. Journal of Fish Diseases 11:29ts300

Laird, M. (1950). Haurcguya ztitiensis n. sp., a myxosporidian from a Fijian marine fislu kiogathusfasciatus (Lac6pEde, 1803). Journal of Parasitology 36:285192

Laird, M. (1951). A contribution to the study of Fijian Haematozoa.Zoolory Publications, VictoriaUniversity College No. 10:15 p

laird, M. (1958a). Parasites of South Pacific Fishes I. lntroduction, and Haematozoa. Canadian lour-nal of Tnology 36:15F165

Laird, M. (1958b). Parasites of South Pacific fishes IL Diplectanum melanesiensis n. sp, a monogenetictrematode from Fiii and the New Hebrides. Canadian Journal of.Znolo6y 36:1.6&-773

Laird, M. (1958c). Parasites of South Pacific fishes IIL Trematodes from the Solomons and NewHebrides, with a description of Daitreosomn pnran n. sp. (Monogenea) from Guadalcanal. Cana-dian Joumal of Znology 36:441-446

lntrcxluctions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and gtridelines for quarantine

Appendix ll

Lightrer, D. V. (1988).IHHN virus disease of penaeid shrimp.In: Disease diagnosis and conhol inNorth American Aquaculhue, Eds. CJ. Sindermann and D.V. Lightnex Developmenb in Aquac-ulture and Fisheries Science 17: Second Edition, revised, Elsevier, Amsterdam: 11-15

Lightner, D. V. and J. A. Brock 098n. A lymphoma-like neoplasm arising from hematopoietic tissuein the white shrimp, Pmaeus uannamei Boone (Crustacea: Decapoda). |ournal of hrvertebrate Pa-thology 42:788-793

Lighhrer, D. V., R. M. Redman and T. A. Bell (1983). Observations on the geographic distribution,pathogenesis and morphology of the baculovirus from Penaeus monodon Fabricus. Aquaculture32:209-233

Lightrer, D.V., T.A. Bell and Redman, R.M. (1989). A review of the known hosts, geographical rangeand current diagnostic procedures for the virus diseases of cultured penaeid shrimp. Advancesin Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop at Tahiti" French Polynesia,20 Feb. - 4 Mar. 1989. Actes deColloque 9:1,1T126

Lu, Y., E. C. B. Nadala, f. A. Brock and P. C. Loh (1991). A new virus isolate from infectious hypo-dermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IH HNV ) infected penaeid shrimps. journal of Viro'logical methods 31 :189-196

Norton, J.H., M. A. Shepherd, H. M. Long and H. C. Prior (1993). Parasites of the giant clams(Tridacnidae). In Biology and Mariculture of Giant Clams: A Workshop held in conjunction withthe 7th International Coral Reef Symposium 21-25June1992,Guam, USA. Ed W.K. Pift, ACIARProceedings No. 47:18-23

RenaultT., P. Haffner, F. Baudin Laurencin, G. Brevil and J.R. Bonami (1991). Mass mortality inhatdrery-reared seabass(lates calcaifer)Wvaeassociated with the presence in thebrain and retinaof virus-like partides. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 17:6&-73

Richmond, C. and J.N. Caira (1991). Morphological investigations into Floriceps minacanthus(Trypanorhyncha : Lacistorhynchidae) with analysis of the systematic utility of S colex misotridws.Systematic Parasitology 19 :?-*32

Rohde K., F. Roubal and G. C. Hewitt (1980). Ectoparasitic Monogenea,Digenea and Copepodafrom the gills of some marine fishes of New Caledonia and New Zealand. New Zealand journalof Marine and Freshwater Research 14(1):1-15

Rushton-Mellor, S. K. (1991). Arguluspapuensis n.sp., a new fish louse (Crustacea: Branchiura) fromPapua New Guinea. Systematic Parasitology 1,8:67-f5

Uwatg K. R. (1983). A report on the fish disease situation in the S"pik River, Papua New Guinea.Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Centre, Hawaii:56p

Williams and Bunkley-Williams (1992). Renocila lariae and R. richardsonae (Cntstacea: Isopoda:Cymothoidae), external parasites of coral reef fishes from New Guinea and the Philippines. Pro-ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 105:29-309

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

APPENDIX III

General principles and guidelines for aquatic animal quarantine:Minimal requirements and conditions for increased shingency

Animals for Transfer

The aim of quarantine should be the transfer of specific disease.free stock, with quarantine and healthtestinginthecountry of entry an additionalprecaution againstinadvertententryof disease.lngeneral,the range of diseases and parasites that may be carried is greater with age. Many such agents arecarried in the absence of disease and may be particularly difficult to detect. Thus, the intent shouldbe to transfer embryonic or juvenile life stages in all cases.

The best method to ensure disease free stock is to breed the juvenile life stages from broodstock heldin quarantine.

i. Where possible, the candidate species should be transferred as fertilised ova, or as larval orjuvenile stages.

ii. Stocks of candidate species may be established in a quarantine facility, tested for pathogens,parasites and pests, and subsequently kansferrecl for further evaluation in quarantine inthe country of entry.

iii. Stocks of candidate species for breeding purposes should be established in an approvedquarantine facility. The progeny of this stock should be considered for transfer, subject toquarantine and examination for pathogens, parasites and pests as specified.

iv. Candidate species are collected and transferred directly to quarantine facilities in the im-porting country. This option necessitates thorough evaluation of disease freedom in quar-antine. Animats may be imported with or without health certification and placed in quar-antine for further evaluation. In the case of mature animals imported with minimal healthcertification, such animals should not be released from quarantine; rather, they should beused for breeding purposes/ with progeny subject to intensive disease-testing procedures.

v. lAy'here continued imports are likely, broodstock should be established from imported stocksin an approved quarantine facility in the importing country to obviate the need for contin-ued imports from elsewhere.

Approvals and Pennits

In order to prevent the introduction of disease, extraneous species, illegal substances or ecologicallyundesirable species, a formal system of permits and approvals is necessary between responsibleauthorities in importing and exporting countries.

i. An lmport Request should be forwarded by the proponent seeking the transfer to the impori-ing authority in the importing country, providing full details of the proposed transfer andseeking permission to proceed with the transfer.

ii. An Approz,al to Proceedshouldbe issuedby the importing authority in the importing countryif, after due consideration of biologicaf ecological and health risks posed by the proposedtransferor, valid reasons as to why the import should not proceed cannot be found. Reasonsfor rejection of the request should be clearly explained to the proponent. The approval toproceed should dearly and in detail specify the nature of the quarantine, disease testing and

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

ur.

lv.

Appendix lll

health certification which will be necessary to import the candidate species. These criteriashould be developed in consultation with authorities on fish disease and quarantine mat-ters.

ACutificate of Hwlth, duly signed by qualified and designated Government officer/s in thecountry of exportverifying thatallrequirements forhealth testingand quarantine havebeenmet should be obtained by the importing authority directly from the exporting authority.

A Permit to lmport should then be issued by the importing authority upon satisfactory com-pliance with specified quarantine, disease testing, health certification and receipt of the Cer-fficate of Health. A permit to import should accompany each batch of animals which aretransferred.

The importing authority should be advised immediately of any occurrences or diseases,breaches of quarantine or other circumstances which may impact on the security of thecandidate species for transfer. Such occrrrences may mitigate against the transfer.

Quarantine Procedures

i. Broodstock for breeding purposes should be selected from animals with no known historyor evidence of disease. Preferably, they will have been maintained under isolated conditionsand have been subject to regular examination for pathogens and parasites.

ii. Any animal selected for broodstock which appears unhealthy sl'rould be removed and a de-tailed pathological examination conducted.

iii. ln the case of fish or cn:staceans, prophylactic treatment for extemal protozoa and metazoashould be conducted. In the case of molluscs, the extemal shell of each animal should bescrubbed and cleaned to remove all epiphytic animals and plants. Other prophylaciic treat-ments should be applied at the discretion of the importing or exporting authority, providedthat pathogens and parasites of quarantine concern are not rnasked by such treatments.

iv. Tanks, containers or other holding or culture facilities should be thoroughly disinfected priorto the introduction of the broodstock or stocks for transfer, after rernoval of stocks and afterany outbreaks of disease resulting in losses or destruction of stocks.

v. Handling and environmental strmses should be minimised at all times.

vi. In the case of animals spawning in quarantine with the F1 generation proposed for export,ova and sperm should be collected or removed from the tanks immediately after spawning,and fertilization and subsequent incubation conducted in dean facilities supplied by an in-dependent water supply.

Feedingof broodstockshould preferably bedone using sterilefoodshrffs or, wherelive food-sh:ffs are required, the feed should be reared in the laboratory and be free from potentialpathogens.

Animals bred in quarantine for export should best be maintained and monitored for a mini-mum period of 6 months and preferably 72 months. During this time, periodic sampling ofanimals for laboratory examination should be conducted and other tests or examinationsconducted to determine the presence of disease (see Dsease Testing).

The occurrence of pathogens refractory to treatment, unexplained mortalities or lesions con-sistent with infectious microorganisms io a.y batch should be considered grounds for de.struction or non-export of that batch.

The occurrence of disease in animals within the facility should restrlt in immediate notifica-tion of the importing authority if any animals have been exported.

vll.

vnl.

lx.

Introductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix lll

Quarantine Facilities and Management

A physically seflre quarantine facility should be mandatory for pre.transfer holding and testing ofcandidate species. Such a facility is necessary to avoid introduction of pathogens and parasites to thestocks in quarantine from the su:rounding environment.

The quarantine facilities should best be located in areas remote from aquaculture establishments,nafural waterways and other potential sources of contamination.

i. lncoming water should be sterilised or disinfected to minimise entry of pathogens. This maybe achieved in several wavs:

Use of spring, ground, artesian or well waters which contain no flora and fauna priorto intakqFiltration to 1 micron, and/orUltraviolet sterilisation, and /orOzone sterilisation.

ii. A facility based on recirculation of water and biological filtration should be used.

iii. All candidates for transfer should be maintained in batches, with groups or age dasses iso-lated with respect to water supply, equipment and handling.

a.

b.c.

d.

iv. All other animals and birds should be excluded from the quarantine facility.

All ponds, tanks and other containers should be individually identified.

Daily records of all operating procedures and records for each batch of animals must beaccurately maintained and made available for inspeclion.

Access to the faciiity should be restricted to trained, authorised staff wl'ro should be underthe supervision of appropriatelyqualified individual staff to ensure compliance with opera-tional requirements.

Entry and exit for personnel operating the facility should be through an appropriate disin-fection statiory with footbaths, showers and changes of clothing as a minimum requirement.

Strictquarantine and disinfection should bemaintainedby personnelwhenmovingbetweenbatches of groups of animals within the facility, including disinfection of hands, arms, legsand feet or boots.

vi.

vll.

vur.

ix.

Disease Testing and Health Examinations

Some measwe of laboratory examination is required to detect pathogens and parasites. It is notpossible to cert'rfy freedorn from parasitic protozoa or metazoa without microscopic examination,and examinations for freedom from viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens may require access tospecialised laboratories.

i. Wherever possible, the candidate species should be obtained from a production facility orarea that has a documented history of testing and freed.om from prescribed diseases, for aperiod of at least 1-2 years.

ii. Sampling for pathogerus, parasites and pese should be conducted whilst the candidate speciesis in quarantine.

iii. Sampling should be carried out under the supervision of a fish health officer or other com-petent person appointed or approved by the importing authority.

Inhoductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

lV.

v.

Appendix lll

Sample size should be based on achievin g a 95Vo probability of detecting an agent in a par-ticular batch or lot, wift an assumed incidence of the carrier state.

Additional testing should be undertaken using known susceptible test species cohabitedwith the introduced candidate species, or other native species as appropriate.

Testing should be undertaken in an appropriately equipped laboratory, and should be su-pervised by a competent person appointed or approved by the importing authority, who isfamiliar with the nature of pathogens and parasites being sought.

Testing for disease should consist of examining sub-samples of the population for specificpathogens or parasites as determined for the candidate genus or species. In addition tospecifying freedom from known pathogens of quarantine concern, criteria should be estab-lished which will render the candidate species unsuitable for export or release from quar-antine, even in the absence of definitive identification of an infectious agent: Such criteriashould include

a. The occurrence of gross, histological or ultrastrucfural tissue dranges of a prolifera-tive, necrotic, inflammatory or degenerative nature associated with, typical of, orconsistent with viraf bacterial, fungal, protozoan or metazoan agents, including theoccurrence of viral-induced inclusion bodies, and induding agents which may notyet be known or described.

b. The occurrence of viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoan or metazoan agents known tobe pathogenic for other dasses of marine aquatic animals.

c. The occurrence of unexplained lesions, tissue changes or mortalities.

The presence of commensal or symbiotic organisms including bacteria and protozoa shouldnot be considered a primary reason for preventing transfer of the candidate species (Braley1992).

Dsease testing may be done by laboratories remote from the quarantine facility providedlogistics for dispatch of samples are addressed satisfactorily, ensuring delays are not incurredin receipt of samples which may render examinations futile.

Any and all individuals which display signs of disease or are otherwise abnormal or dieshould be subject to a clinical and /or laboratory examination to determine the cause of disease.

A clear understanding of the exact numbers of samples required, their nafure, i.e. fresh, onice, fixed, and the times of collection. and the collecting and examining personnel.

Close collaboration between the collecting staff and the examining staff is necessary.

Considerations as for pre.transfer testing apply.

vl.

lv.

v.

Treatments and Medications

Thecollection and holdingof stock from non-captive sources will often resultin fulminantoutbreaksof external protozoan or metazoan parasites. This should be prevented by an initial prophylactictreatrnent of broodstock on entering the quarantine facility.

i. The subsequent ocflurence of disease or pests in the candidate species while in quarantineshould not necessarily terminate the programme. If the causative agent is diagnosed and isamenable to treatment, such treatment should proceed, and if successftil, and if acceptableto the importing authority, transfer procedures shouid continue.

lntroductions of aquatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

u.

lU.

Appendix lll

If the outbreaks of disease cannot be controlled, or are due to specific pathogens of quaran-tineconcern, thediseased stocksshouldbedestroyedand disposed of in anapprovedmanner.

If specified pathogens of concern are identified during quarantine, which are not amenableto treatment, stocks should be destroyed and disposed of in an approved manner. In thiscase, full and thorough disinfection and sterilisation procedures should be initiated to re-move all infectious material from the facilitv.

iv. Prophylactic treatrnentof broodstockor stocks introduced into thequarantinefacility shouldbe undertaken to eliminate external protozoa and metazoa.

v. The imported species, where feasible, should be treated on arrival in a manner to disinfectand remove potentially infectious surface or systemic microorganisms.

Health Certification

i. A permit or certificate from a responsible authority in the country of origin verifying theoriFn of the stock, the stage to be exported, the quarantine and disease history, and assur-ance that all specified tests, procedures and sampling have been conducted in accordancewith the requirements of the importhg country should ultimately be forwarded to theimporting authority prior to issuance of a Permit to import.

ii. Certification that inspections, testing procedures and other requhements must be carriedout by qualified personnel duly authorised by the exporting and importing counkies. Forthis purpose, individual, with appropriate training and experience shouldbe nominated asaccredited signatories for the quarantine programme.

General principles: Post-Transfer Considerations

Quarantine Procedures

Inspection and authorisation of each consignment on arrival at point of entry by a Quarantine Of-ficer:

i. Point-of-entry inspection should be conducted to ensure compliance with specified condi-tions, numbers, species and presence of extraneous materials or substances.

ii. The inspecting authority at point of entry should have fully completed permit-to'importforms, together with appropriate documentation from exporting country.

iii. Following a:rival, depending on the specific requirements for the species and the conditionsstipulated forentry,releaseunderthedirectionof the importingauthority of importedanimalsshould be to:

a. A quarantine facility for further inspections and disease testing

b. Directly for culture or release to the environment according to the importing condi-tions.

iv. Close collaboration and coordination between quarantine/importing authorities and the pro.ponent/s of the transfer is essential to ensure the efficient quarantine clearance and entryinto the holding faciJity with minimal delays. Individuals from the importing authority andthe proponents' organisations should be nominated for this purpose.

v. Release from the quarantine facility should be done following thorough certification of free'dom from disease and authorisation by the importing authority.

lntroductir:ns of aquatic animals to the Pacific lslands: disease threats and guidelines for quarantine

Appendix lll

Quarantine F acilitie s and Managemant

Post-transfer quarantine is necessary as a safeguard against inadvertent transfers of pathogens andparasites in candidate species subject to intensive quarantine and health certification procedures pre-transfer; is essential for candidate species not subject to intensive quarantine and disease testing.

Quarantine facilitim must provide for the microbiologically secure housing of aquatic animals, withappropriate means of sterilisation and disinfection of all wastes and effluent to prevent escape ofpotential pathogens into the environment of the i^po.ti.g country.

i. All effluent from quarantine establishments receiving and holding transferred species mustbe sterilised or otherwise treated and disposed of in an approved manner which will ensurethe inactivation of all infectious micro-organisms present. This may be by chemical disinfec-tion, discharge into a sump or desiccation in porous ground remote from the aquatic envi-ronment.

iii. Following arrival and point-of-entry quarantine inspectiory transport water, packing mate-rials, containers and associated shipping items must be sterilised and disposed of in anapproved manner which will ensure inactivation of any infectious agents prment.

iv. Acclimation of transferred eggs, larvae, adults to environmental conditions following ar-rival should bedone in a mannerwhich minimise mixing of transport water and final hold-ing waters.

v. Incoming water should be sterilised or disinfected. This may be achieved in several ways:

a. Use of spring, ground, artesian or well waters which contain no flora or fauna priorto intake

b. Filtration to l micron,and/orc. Ultravioletsterilisation, and/ord. Ozone sterilisation.

vl.

vu,

or

Water used shall be recirculated, filtered biologically and physically and UV sterilised, withwater for exchanges treated in an appropriate manner on discharge.

Facilities must be approved and regularly inspected by a competent government authorityto ensure effectiveness and compliance with specified requirements.

Waterqualityin thefacilityshouldbe monitored atall times, oratregularintervals, to ensurethat mortalities in quarantine are not due to adverse environmental conditions, but ratherto disease agents. Records should include temperature, ph, nitrite, ammonia, nitrate, oxy-gen at a minimum. Such monitoring should apply to recirculated water, as well as watertaken from the external environment.

All mortalities and cases of dinical disease should be carefully recorded and investigated.All such cases should be reported immediately to the regulatory authority, and il appropri-ate, be referred for detailed laboratory examination. The calrse of all mortalities should beascertained and reported in writing. '

Full accountability of all animals must be maintained, with written records or losses, meansof disposal and reasons for losses.

Daily records of all operating procedures and records for each batch of animals must beaccurately maintained and made available for irupection.

vllt.

lx.

x.

xr.

Inhoductions of aguatic animals to the Pacific Islands: disease threab and guidelines for guarantine

xii.

xur.

xlv.

xv.

Appendix lll

Transferred species within the facility must be maintained on a batch-by-batch basis, withhousing in individual tanks or comparhnents, and precautions taken to exdude transfer orwatg:r,, stock or palhogens between batches. For this purpose, separate equipment must beavailable for each batch or groupi it should not be transferred between groups.

No equipment should enter or leave the facility without sterilisation of disinfection.

To ensure compliance with operational requiremenb, access to the facility should be restrictedto hained, authorised staff who shotrld be under the supervision of appropriately qualifiedindividuals.

Entry and exit for personnel operating the facility should be through an appropriate disin-fection station, withfootbaths, showers and changes of clothingas a minimum requirement.

Personnel operating the quarantine facilityshould notvisitotheraquacultureestablishmentswithin three days of being on the facility.

Disposal of all solid wastes must be done in approved manner so as to ensure that infectiousagents do not escape from the facility.

xvii. Adjacen! physically-isolated laboratory facilities should be present for inspection and samplepreparation. The facility should be readily disinfected and all wastes, effluent and packig-ing processed as above.

xviii. Unauthorised persons should not be permitted on the f.cility at any time.

xix. All other animals should be excluded from the quarantine facility.

xvl.

Inb,oductions of aquatic animals to dre Pacific Islands: dis€as€ Oueab and guidelines for quarantine

OfIIER RDFOBI$' PUUI,L9UTID TN ISIS SE*IE$

Indom Firhedos Riucorch PnoJcet lbetdcd Ilocrmntr

No. I PqGrs ou fishaies-sdri€lil€o flpE lhe Pacific Istands

No.2 Doeproef slope fiehcdesrosorm es of ths SouhPacifie. A rumnuy mrlanatysisof the

{roplino fisting 1nffvef dita genemted by the actisiities of tho.SFC F"lsheri€s Frog(omoetretlvesn t9?4 antl 1988

No,3 Frslreries r€sourse sutroy of th tsland of Niue

No. 4 Fisliaies ieso[rces apd tian4g€ment iqvestigations]in WoNbdAtoll,Yqi $tatc, Fed$taedStateo of Mierene-sia

Ns" ,5 Worlshsp sa people, seiety asd Paeific Islands fisheries derelopment and nagqgerneut:soleatpd BqFp,B,

No. 6 A preliminary as$€ssment of the status of inshore cotal rcef ffsh stock b Falarr

No. ? Perspectives in aquatic erotic spwies managementin the Pacific Islands,Volumet Intoductions of commeroially sipificantaquaic:o{g0ni$msto 6e Feiffc Islan&

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