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1
WORLD VISION ETHIOPIA
FOOD SECURITY MONITORING TRAINING MANUAL
COMPILED
BY
GIRMA LEGESSE
September 2003
Addis Ababa
2
Table of contents ........................................................................................................ pages
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4
1.1 Purpose and contents of this manual ..................................................................... 4
1.2 Food Security Concepts ......................................................................................... 4
1.3 Nutritional assessment methods ............................................................................ 6
1.4 Objectives of emergency nutrition assessment ...................................................... 6
2.1 Fundamentals of sampling ..................................................................................... 7
2.2 Sampling frame and sampling unit ........................................................................ 7
2.3 Types of sampling ................................................................................................. 7
2.4 Calculating sample size ....................................................................................... 10
2.5. Practical steps to undertake a nutrition survey .................................................... 11
2.6 Data to be collected ............................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER THREE ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ................................................................................ 12
3.1. Anthropometry defined ........................................................................................ 12
3.2. Nutrition indices: - ............................................................................................... 12
3.3 Means of expressing nutritional indices and indicators....................................... 13
3.4. Nutrition indicators .............................................................................................. 14
3.5 Causes of malnutrition ......................................................................................... 14
3.6. Data analysis, Interpretation of results and recommendations ............................ 16
3.7. Differences between results expressed in percentage of the median & z-scores 20
3.8. Expression of results with their confidence intervals .......................................... 21
3.9. Analysis of Mortality rates .................................................................................. 21
3.10. Reporting .......................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FOUR HOW TO WEIGH AND MEASURE CHILDREN .................... 32
4.1 Procedures and precautions before measuring .................................................... 32
4.2. Summary procedures for body measurement ...................................................... 34
4.3 Age assessment .................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER FIVE HOW TO USE EPI INFO COMPUTER SOFTWARE ................ 42
5.1. Definition ............................................................................................................. 42
5.2. Steps in EPI -Info program .................................................................................. 42
5.3. Running EPI INFO program ............................................................................... 42
5.4. The main programs of the EPI INFO system ...................................................... 42
5.5. Field Types in EPI INFO ..................................................................................... 43
5.6. Creating a New Data (.REC) File (Menu Choice 2) ............................................ 45
5.7. Entering Data ....................................................................................................... 45
5.8. Moving from Record to Record........................................................................... 45
5.9. Finding Records that Match Criteria ................................................................... 45
5.10 Editing Records ................................................................................................... 46
5.11. Deleting or Undeleting Records ....................................................................... 46
5.13. Producing a Line Listing .................................................................................. 49
5.14 Charts and graphs ............................................................................................. 50
5.15. Sending Results to the Printer or to a File ............................................................ 50
3
CHAPTER SIX: MARKET SURVEY ........................................................................... 52
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 52
6.2. Objectives of the Manual ..................................................................................... 55
6.3. Definition of Terms and Concepts ....................................................................... 55
6.4 Type of Products for Which Market Information is collected ............................. 56
6.5. Market Levels for which Market Information will be gathered ......................... 57
6.6. Timetable for Collecting Market Information .................................................... 57
6.7. Sample Size and Selection Procedure for Gathering Market Information ......... 57
6.8. Data Collection Forms and Mode of Form Filling ............................................. 59
CHAPTER SEVEN: CROP AND LIVESTOCK ASSESSMENT ............................ 66
7.1. Objectives: - ......................................................................................................... 66
7.2. Assessment schedule: .......................................................................................... 66
7.3. Checklist for meher pre-harvest crop & livestock assessment ............................ 67
CHAPTER EIGHT REPORT WRITING ................................................................. 72
8.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 72
8.2. Report and its classifications ............................................................................... 73
8.3. Preparatory steps in writing reports ..................................................................... 75
8.4 Principles of organizing and writing report ......................................................... 78
ANNEX .............................................................................................................. 86
Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 94
4
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose and contents of this manual
This manual is intended to improve the skills of the workshop participants in monitoring
the impacts of a project (long term), understand the current food security situation of an
area, and to warn the concerned agencies about future prospects of food security situation
in an area. Methodologies and conceptual frameworks of nutritional assessments, market
survey and crop and livestock assessments and report writing are included in the manual.
The manual consists of eight chapters. The first chapter deals with nutrition assessment
methods, objectives of nutritional assessments, and concepts of household food security
and mal-nutrition. Different types of sampling methodologies with special emphasis to
two-stages cluster sampling were dealt in the second chapter of the manual. Furthermore,
other major points like practical steps to undertake nutritional survey, data to be
collected, nutritional indices and their meanings, means of expressing nutritional indices,
interpretation of nutritional indices, causes of malnutrition and report outline were
included in the third chapter of the manual. The fourth chapter explains how to weigh and
measure children. The measurements that are presented are standing height, recumbent
length, weight and mid-upper arm circumference.
How to use EPI Info computer software, market survey, crop and livestock assessment
checklist and report writing were discussed in the 5th
, 6th
, 7th
and 8th
chapters respectively.
Some important materials like definition of terms, formulas and others were also attached
as appendixes.
The materials used in this manual were extracted from different nutrition guidelines such
as that of Disaster Prevention and Preparedness commission, Manuals prepared by UN
Department of technical co-operation and statistical office, Oxfam practical guides, MSF
nutrition guidelines and WHO nutrition manuals. (For more detail, see the bibliography
attached).
1.2 Food Security Concepts
World Bank defines food security, as access by all people at all times to enough food for
an active and healthy life. Its' essential elements are the availability of food and the
ability to acquire it.
Components of food security
Availability sufficient food
safe and nutritious food
culturally acceptable
Access refers to purchasing power that they get from off-arm income, on-
farm income and credit.
Social infrastructure, market, road
community support system
food sharing
remittances
family kin-ship (go to relative to get food)
5
Utilization refers to food quality, better preparation, proper handling, and processing
Asset creation
Asset is stock that can be changed to cash through time. The followings are some of the
examples of assets. Livestock, perennial crops, community wood lots, skill and
knowledge, savings are examples of assets.
Community copping mechanisms are also considered as assets such as cash, credit, sell of
small ruminants, temporary migration, animals, seeds, implements and distress migration.
Food Security Indicators
Food supply indicators
meteorological data
access to resources
agricultural production data
market information
pest damage
Infrastructure
Regional conflict
Food access indicators
Land use practice
Dietary change
Change of food sources
Change of income sources
livestock sell
access to credit
seasonal migration
distress migration
Out come indicators
household budget and expenditure
food consumption frequency
subsistence potential
nutritional status
storage estimate
Food insecurity: - a situation in which the individuals of a society have neither the
physical nor the economic access to the nourishment they need.
Two types of food insecurity are commonly identified in Ethiopia (Chronic and acute
food insecurity).
Chronic food insecurity: - it is when a household is continually unable to meet the food
needs of its members.
Acute/transitory food insecurity: - this occurs when a household faces a temporary
problem in meeting the food needs of its members.
6
Malnutrition can occur when any of the different types of food insecurity are present. The
manual emphasizes mainly on transitory food insecurity situations and methods of
identifying it.
Main points
Food is central to both household food security and nutrition
Food has important contributions on diet quality
Under-nutrition synonymous with food insecurity at the same time under-nutrition can be
independent of food insecurity.
Anthropometric data used as key indicators for food security monitoring and famine early
warning system.
The examination of the causes of under-nutrition using UNICEF conceptual framework
clarifies this more. See figure 1
1.3 Nutritional assessment methods
Dietary methods: - intake assessment (affected by drugs, dietary components and disease)
Laboratory methods: - dark adaptation (vitamin A), taste acuity (zinc), capillary fragility
(vitamin C), and cognitive function (iron)
Clinical methods: - medical history and physical examination
1.4 Objectives of emergency nutrition assessment
General objectives: -
For disaster prevention and preparedness, relief planning and management and designing
of development programs.
Specific objectives:
Long-term: -Supplement to Early Warning Information and disaster prevention
Establish baseline data
Understand trends
Detect differences
Identify areas at chronic risk
Mid term: -Preparing action
Nutritional monitoring
Short term: -Make decision in planning and management of food relief
Where food relief should be planned
When to start or terminate food relief
Set priorities (screening)
Select for selective feeding program
Monitor nutritional status
Evaluate: relevance, effectiveness and impact of food relief
7
CHAPTER TWO SAMPLING METHODOLOGIES
2.1 Fundamentals of sampling
If all children aged 6-59 months from a given population were measured, we would get a
precise picture of the nutrition status of the population. This is called a census, or
exhaustive survey, and it is possible in a small population. However, census is normally
long, costly and difficult to carry out in a large population. Instead of surveying all the
children, we normally survey only a sub-group of the population, called sample, which
represents the whole population.
2.2 Sampling frame and sampling unit
A sampling frame is a comprehensive list of all states, provinces, regions, zones, districts,
and communities, households or individuals in the population from which you can choose
your sample. The sampling unit is the smallest unit to be sampled example, household in
household study.
2.3 Types of sampling
There are two types of sampling, Probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
For our purpose we will try to see four main probability sampling methods commonly
used.
Probability sampling: - In probability sampling, each sampling unit has an equal
probability of being sampled. See the followings probability sampling methods.
a. Simple random sampling: -
It is the simplest form of the probability sampling
Each household is listed with a number
The households are then randomly chosen for the survey
The selection of one household is independent of the selection of another
household
The least bias with this method is choosing the sample using random table,
currency notes etc. But it is also the most expensive and time consuming
often difficult in rural settings.
b. Systematic sampling
A modification of simple random sampling that picks every nth
household from list of
households. Every household should still have the same chance of being surveyed and
must ensure that the list is not ordered in any regular way that would bias your sample.
(E.g. listing of chief first). Potential for bias if the first household is not chosen randomly)
Steps
List population
Calculate sampling interval
Choose a number between 1 and the sampling interval
That number identifies the first sample
Then add the sampling interval to that number (above) and continue like that until
you get your n.
8
c. Stratified sampling
Suppose we need to select a sample from population of a city and we want households
with different income levels to be equally represented in the sample. Instead of selecting
a simple random sample or systematic random sample, we may prefer to apply different
techniques. First we divide the whole population in to three different groups of low,
medium and high-income levels.
We have now three sub-populations, which are usually called strata. We then select
samples from different strata. The sample size to be selected from each stratum depends
up on the size of population of the strata. In rural settings, one can identify three different
agro-ecological zones (highland, mid-highland, and lowland) and we can similarly
calculate the sample size from each agro-ecological zones using Proportion to population
size (PPS).
d. Two stage cluster sampling/used for nutritional survey
List of every household are not available to random sampling. It is usually too expensive
and time consuming to construct such a list and then to locate those households. Cluster
sampling selects groups of households that are close to each other.
Developing sampling frame in two stage cluster sampling
Stage one selecting the cluster
Determine the geographical units and their population
Cluster sampling requires the grouping of the population in smaller geographical
units. The smallest available geographical unit is always chosen as long as its
population can be estimated. The units can be villages, sections of a camp, or
naturally defined geographic areas (rivers, roads).
We take villages as the smallest geographical unit in Ethiopia. Hence, we prepare a list of
existing peasant associations and villages that will be included in the sampling frame
with their estimated population or number of households.
Calculation of the cumulative population
A list of section/village is established, as well as their respective population. In a third
column, the cumulative total is calculated by adding the population of each unit to the
sum of the population of the preceding sections. See the following example, where we
take PAs as geographic unit and cumulative population was calculated for children under
five.
Geographical
unit or PAs
Estimated
population
Estimated
children
(6-59 moths) Cum. Pop.
Attribute
numbers
Location
of
clusters
PA1 3000 600 600 1 - 600 1, 2
PA2 2230 446 1046 601 - 1046 3
PA3 1324 265 1311 1046 - 1311 4
PA4 2340 468 1779 1311 - 1779
Etc.
Total
9
To calculate cumulative population, we can either use the total population or estimated
children under five. The population of under-five is usually 20% of the total population in
the area.
Calculation of the sampling interval
The sampling interval, in cluster sampling, is the total number of population divided by
the desired number of clusters, usually 30. Example 333
Determination of the location of the first cluster
Select a random number between 1 and the sampling interval calculated in the above
section (333). It could be obtained from random number table or serial number on bill of
money. (See how to use random number). That random number identifies the first village
or cluster to be surveyed. Example 256. This number places the first cluster in locality 1
because it has the attribute number 1-600.
Selection of the other clusters: Add the sampling interval sequentially to the
starting (random number) until 30 numbers are chosen. Each number chosen
represents the population of a geographic unit. In our example, the first cluster is
256 (locality 1), the second cluster will be at 256+333=589 and falls in Locality 1,
again, the third cluster is 589+333=922 locality 2. The fourth
cluster is at 922+333
= 1255 locality 3. Locality=PA in our example.
Stage two Selection of households/children in a cluster
Random walk method
Having identified the 30 clusters, a team of data collectors goes to the center of
the selected village/unit.
Randomly choose a direction in which to walk by throwing a pen in the air, and
walking in the direction that it points when it falls on the ground.
Walk in the direction indicated by the pen, from the center to the outer perimeter
of the locality, counting the number of households along this line.
Select the first household to be visited by drawing a random number between one
and the number of households counted when walking. For example, if the number
of households counted was 12, then select a random number between 1 and 12. If
the number five was chosen, then the fifth
household on the walking line is the
first household you should visit.
Go to the first household and examine all children aged 6-59 months in the
household.
The subsequent households are chosen by proximity. In a locality where there is a
high population concentration, proceed always by choosing the next house to the
right or to the left (Decide which at the beginning of the survey and stick to it).
Continue to go to left/right until the required number of children has been
measured. The same method should be used for all clusters. However, if the
locality has a very spread-out population, then proceed by simply choosing the
nearest house (the one with the door nearest to the last house surveyed) whether it
is on the right or left. And continue the process until the required number of
children has been measured (30 children).
If there are no children under five in the household, proceed to the next house
after collecting other data like mortality and morbidity.
10
All eligible children are included and thus should be measured and weighed. This
means that all children in the last house should be measured even if it exceeds the
number required.
If a child is not present at the time of the survey, go back to the house later to find
the child. If you cannot find the child then you need to replace it with another by
continuing the sampling methodology.
If you run out of houses in a locality and have not found sufficient children then
you should proceed to the nearest locality. When you arrive the nearest locality
you should repeat the process of spinning a pen and randomly selecting a house to
start at (1-8 steps described above). Proceed from house to house until you have
measured sufficient children.
Segmentation method
Divide the selected clusters into smaller segments of approximately equal size
Choose one segment randomly from clusters
Interview/measure all children in that chosen segment
2.4 Calculating sample size
For cluster sampling, number of children to be measured is usually 900 (30 clusters by 30
children). For other survey methodologies we need to calculate number of children to be
measured. Sample size needed is related to the following factors.
The expected precision: - The greater the precision desired the more
households needed in the sample.
The probability of error chosen: - The smaller the probability, the more
households needed in the sample
Expected prevalence: - the nearer the expected proportion of children
presenting with malnutrition is to 50%, the greater the sample size required.
The available means: - the ideal objective in determining the sample size is
to have the highest degree of precision for the smallest error risk. The limiting
factor is the available means. How many children can be surveyed in a day? How
much time do we have? How much money do we want to spend?
Sample size calculation
n = Z2 (pxq)(deff)
d
2
Z = parameter related to the error risk, equals 1.96 for an error risk of 5%
P = expected prevalence of malnutrition in the population, expressed as a fraction of 1
q. = (1-P), expected proportion of children not presenting with malnutrition expressed
as fraction of 1
Deff = the expected design effect, 2 is commonly used for nutrition surveys
(cluster sampling)
d = absolute precision, expressed as a fraction of 1
11
For Non-Cluster sampling we use the following formula
n = Z2 (pxq)/ d
2
2.5. Practical steps to undertake a nutrition survey
Decide whether or not the survey is necessary
define objectives
define geographical target area
meet the people in charge
determine timing
select sampling method
gather available information
Decide what information to collect and design questionnaire
Obtain and prepare equipment
Field test questionnaires
Select survey team
Train survey team members
Implement the survey
Analyze and interpret your findings during the survey
Write the report
2.6 Data to be collected
During Anthropometric survey the following basic data need to be collected.
Weight
Height/length
Age
Sex
Oedema
Other data like
Mortality,
Morbidity,
Family size
Vaccination coverage,
Food security
Copping mechanisms,
Operational and relief activities,
Causes of crises and agro-political context,
Nutritional status and diet of the population
Population figures, population movement and vulnerable groups.
And so on.
12
CHAPTER THREE ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES, ANALYSIS
AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 3.1. Anthropometry defined
Can be defined as the single most universally applicable, inexpensive, and non-invasive
method available to assess the size, proportions and compositions of the human body. Or
one can say Anthropometry is body measurement such as weight, height, and arm
circumference, which, are used as a direct, measures of an individual's nutrition and
growth (their nutrition status). Data such as low birth weight, stunting, thinness, and
overweight are obtained from measurements of height and weight. They reflect
inadequate or excess food intake, insufficient exercise and diseases.
3.2. Nutrition indices: -
Indices are a combination of measurements compared to a reference population.
Measurements such as weight or height alone do not give sufficient information on
nutritional status when analyzed individually. The combination of weight and height
make sense only when compared to a normal value, derived from a reference population.
Such combinations of measurements compared to a reference value are called indices.
There are about five nutrition indices discussed in this manual.
1. Weight for height index
It expresses the weight of a child in relation to his height
It is measure of current status
Low weight for height is called wasting, some times called acute malnutrition
It is very sensitive to the loss of weight, which can be influenced by illness, low
food consumption, or poor care.
It reveals whether the child is thin or not, but does not discriminate between two
children of the same height and weight one being older than the other, and
possibly stunted.
Errors can be made in height/Length measurements
Very good indicator of short term problems i.e. famine or epidemics
Not a good long-term indicator for monitoring and evaluation
Advantage: - does not depend on knowing the child's birth-date
2. Height for age index
It expresses the height of a child in relation to his age
Measure of long-term growth
Low height for age is called stunting, some times called chronic malnutrition
Good long-term indicator of general welfare (directly affected by food
consumption, health and care)
Not sensitive to short term fluctuations
Once stunting occurs, child may not catch up
Errors can be made in measurement of height or age
Does not discriminate between two children of the same age and height, one being
thin (wasted), the other one being heavier
13
3. Weight for age index
It expresses the weight of a child in relation to his age
It is a composite measure
Low weight for age is referred to as underweight, meaning less than expected
weight for a given age and sex
Low weight for age can reflect either stunting or wasting
Most useful as a monitoring indicator
Errors can be made in determining age
Does not allow differentiation between two children of the same age and weight,
one being tall and thin (wasted), the other shorter but not wasted.
4. Mid upper arm circumference/MUAC
Can be measured on all ages
Can give a quick estimate of wasting in a population
Theoretically, it correlates to WFH, but is a cruder measure and not as accurate. WHO
actually recommends using WFH instead, even in extreme emergency situations.
5. Body mass index (BMI)
A numerical index of the weights and heights of adults used as a basis for making
comparisons.
BMI = Weight in kg/(Height in m)2
Measure of current status
Sensitive to short term gains and losses in weight
Can be used with all ages, so tends to be used for adults
No standardization required, so independent of age
3.3 Means of expressing nutritional indices and indicators
a. The Percent of the median: - the ratio of a measured value in the individual, (for
instance weight) to the median value of the reference data for the same age or height,
expressed as a percentage. The index of weight for height median compares the weight of
the measured child to the median weight of children of the same height in the reference
population. The calculation of a WHM for each child is based on the child's weight.
Percent of the median = (individual weight/median reference weight) x100
b. The Z scores: - The Z scores express a child's weight as multiple of the standard
deviation of the reference population. A Z score is a measure of how far a child is from
the median weight of the reference population for children of the same height, taking
into account the standard deviation of the reference population.
Z score = Observed value of individual child - median reference value
Standard deviation of children of same height (reference population)
Example: - In a nutritional survey a male child of 84 cm height weighs 9.9kg. The
reference median weight for boys of 84 cm is 11.7kg. We can also see that the standard
deviation for the reference distribution for boys of height 84cm is 0.908.
Hence Z-score will be 9.9-11.7/0.908=-1.98
14
c. The Percentile: - The rank position of an individual on a given reference
distribution, stated in terms of what percentage of the group the individual equals or
exceeds.
3.4. Nutrition indicators
Nutrition indicators are an interpretation of nutrition indices based on cut-off points.
Whereas, indices are simply figures, indicators represent an interpretation of the indices.
Nutrition indicators are used for making a judgment or assessment.
Cut -off points for describing nutritional status
Status Z-score % of median Percentile MUAC
Moderate acute
malnutrition between -3
and <-2
between 70%
and <80% 3rd
to 5th
between 11cm
and <12.5cm
Severely
malnourished <-3.0 or
oedema
<70% or
oedema <3rd
<11cm or
oedema
Global Acute
malnutrition <-2 or
oedema
<80% or
oedema
<12.5cm or
oedema
Results expressed in different methods are not directly comparable
3.5 Causes of malnutrition
The objectives of most emergency nutrition assessments include trying to understand
what the causes of malnutrition are. Malnutrition starts with either the failure of an
individual to acquire enough to eat, or ill health, which is known as immediate causes of
malnutrition and they frequently occur together. In turn these immediate causes are
determined by numerous underlying and basic causes. (See figure 1).
Adequate nutrition is the means, by which people thrive to maintain growth, resist and
recover from diseases and perform their daily tasks. When nutrition is inadequate,
vulnerable populations are likely to become malnourished. Malnutrition includes a wide
range of clinical disorders in which an individual's physical functions are handicapped.
Common consequences of malnutrition include growth failure, decrease resistance to
disease and reduced ability to work.
It is extremely important to understand the causes of malnutrition in order to plan and
undertake appropriate response and intervention. The cause of malnutrition should
always determine the intervention. For example, if malnutrition is due mainly to
infectious diseases, then it would be more appropriate to respond with a health
intervention.
15
Fig. 1 UNICEF's conceptual framework of the causes of malnutrition.
IMMEDIATE CAUSES Affecting the individual
UNDERLYING CAUSES At the community or HH level
LOCAL PRIORITIES
BASIC CAUSES
FORMAL AND INFORMAL INFRASTRUCTURE
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
RESOURCES
Human
Structural
Financial
Basic causes for malnutrition and death (potential resources human economic and
organizational resources and control)
Underlying causes: - insufficient household food security, inadequate maternal and
childcare and insufficient health services and unhealthy environment.
Immediate causes: - inadequate dietary intake and diseases leading to malnutrition and
death.
MALNUTRITION
HOUSEHOLD FOOD
SECURITY
Access to food
Availability of food
ADEQUATE CARE OF
WOMEN AND
CHILDREN
Access to health care
Direct caring behaviors
Women's' role, status and
rights
Social organization and
network
PUBLIC HEALTH
Basic health services
Health environment
INADEQUATE FOOD
INTAKE
DISEASE
16
3.6. Data analysis, Interpretation of results and recommendations
3.6.1. Data Analysis
Data analysis means studying the organized material in order to discover inherent facts
and the data is studied from different angles to explore new facts.
Data preparation and cleaning
Missing data: If we are missing any important data (sex, weight, height, age, oedema) on
any of the children, then we cannot include this child in our analysis. For example, if data
on oedema is missing then we cannot know whether or not the child is malnourished.
Data out of required range: - Children outside of the standard range like 6-59 months of
age and 65-110 cm height should not be included in our analysis. (DPPC
guideline…pp105)
Extreme weight for height data: - As well as excluding children who have information
missing, or who are out of the required range, we also exclude children who have an
extremely high or low WFH index during data cleaning. By extreme we mean
biologically unlikely. It is very unusual to find any child with a WFH <-4.00 or >+6.00 Z
scores. In very extreme famine conditions, where many children are severely
malnourished, it is possible that there may be children with WHZ <-4.00 and that the
results are not false. In this case you can change lower level of exclusion to WHZ<-5.00.
Data analysis is composed of two parts:
There are two approaches when presenting and analyzing results:
Descriptive analysis consists of building distributions according to the variables and in
interpretive analysis cross tabulations are used to make comparisons between groups.
These two approaches are complementary. If the survey objectives are to quantify the
number of children who may benefit from intensive feeding program or from
supplementary rations based on a cut-off value of the index, the first approach is
appropriate. However, if the objective is to assess the overall impact of a program on the
whole population of children, the second approach is preferred. In this part, we will see
the first approach.
A. Descriptive analysis 1. Distribution according to age and sex, children 6-59 months, region X, period Y
Age in
months
Boys Girls Total
n % n % n %
6-17
18-29
30-41
42-53
54-59
Total
17
2. Distribution according to the WFH index expressed in Z scores or presence
of oedema, by age, region X, period Y
Age in
months
Severe
malnutrition
<-3 Z scores
Moderate
malnutrition
>=-3 &<-2
Normal children
>=-2 Z scores Oedema
n % N % n % n %
6-17
18-29
30-41
42-53
54-59
Total
Children with oedema should not be included in the Z score column
Global Acute malnutrition Proportion of children with a weight/height index <-2 Z scores or oedema
(Severe Acute Malnutrition + Moderate Acute Malnutrition)
Severe Acute malnutrition = proportion of children with a weight/height index <-3 Z
scores or oedema
Moderate Acute malnutrition = proportion of children with weight/height index
>= -3 and <-2 Z scores
Normal children = proportion of children with weight/height index >=-2 Z score
A distribution table can be drawn up using the value of index and presence of oedema in
order to determine the number and proportion of children presenting:
Kwashiorkor: Oedema + index > -2 Z scores
Marasmus/Kwashiorkor: Oedema + index <-2 Z scores
Marasmus: No Oedema + Index < -2 Z scores
Normal: No oedema + index > -2 Z scores
Weight/height index
< -2 Z scores >= -2 Z scores
Yes
Oedema
No
Marasmus/Kwashiorkor Kwashiorkor
Marasmus Normal
18
B. Interpretive Analysis
Some variables can be cross-tabulated. For example, nutritional status (defined according
to a cut-off value) of the weight/height index and the date of arrival in the camp.
Nutritional status according to the date of arrival, children 6-59 months, region X,
period Y
Malnourished Not Malnourished Total
Last arrived
First arrived
In cluster sample survey figures should not be analyzed for each cluster. It is the whole
section, which is representative of the population.
3.6.2. Interpretation of results
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after
analytical and/or experimental study. The task of interpretation has two major aspects.
a. The establishment of some explanatory concepts In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data,
partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypothesis. Thus, interpretation is the
device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by
researcher in the course of the study can better understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception, which can serve as a guide for further researches.
Accordingly, the result of our nutrition survey could be compared to the following
standard prevalence of low Anthropometric values (<-2SD) for under five children.
(DPPC guidelines 2002)
Indicators Stage of Alert
Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence >=20%
AND/OR
Severe acute malnutrition prevalence >=5% Critical
Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 15-19%
AND
Aggravating factors
Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 15-19%
Serious Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 10-14%
AND
Aggravating factors
Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 10-14%
Poor Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 5-9%
AND Aggravating factors
Global Acute Malnutrition prevalence 2-9% Normal for chronically malnourished
population.
19
Potential aggravating factors include
Epidemics of measles, cholera, shigelloses and other important communicable diseases.
Poor household food availability
Inadequate shelter and severe cold
Low levels of measles vaccination and vitamin A supplementation
Inadequate safe water supplies (quality and quantity) and sanitation
Consideration of aggravating factors is an essential part of a good interpretation of anthropometric data. If more than one aggravating
factors are present then the situation may be worse than if there is just one.
Summary of nutritional survey indicators
Indicator Measures
Type of
malnutrition Program uses Problems to be aware of
WFH Current status
Wasting, Acute
malnutrition Emergency program Errors in measurement
HFA
Long term status
Past malnutrition
Stunting
Chronic
malnutrition
Development program
Program impact
Poverty indicator
Errors in measurement
Errors in birth date
Catch up problem
WFA
Composite measure of
stunting and or wasting Underweight
Child survival project
Growth monitoring with
EPI program
Errors in birth dates
Interpretation
MUAC Current status Wasting Emergency programs
High rate of error
Should follow up with a WFH
survey
BMI Current status Wasting
Emergency programs for
high risk adults
The classification of the severity of malnutrition rates in a population according to WHO
(WHO 2002).
Severity of malnutrition Prevalence of wasting (<-2 z scores)
Acceptable <5
Poor 5-9
Serious 10-14
Critical <=15
However, this is not suitable for use in Ethiopia due to different reasons. For decision-
making we use the above cut-off points presented in DPPC guidelines December 2002.
b. Interpretation in context
Nutrition status data only detects the symptom of malnutrition but can not explain the
causes of malnutrition. Nutrition status data should therefore, never be interpreted alone
for decision-making purpose. Corroborative information is needed to seek possible
explanations and causes for poor nutritional status and especially deterioration. In
planning response and intervention, we have to use UNICEF causal framework. High
mortality rates are also very important indicators of a crisis. See annex 3 for details.
When we interpret nutritional status data looking at copping mechanisms adopted by the
community will be very important. If a large section of the population is practicing
unusual copping mechanisms, particularly strategies that will affect their long-term
ability to survive, then this is an indication that the situation is severe.
Moreover, seasonal variations in food supply and in disease patterns will affect
nutritional status and must always be considered during the interpretation of nutritional
status data. The proportion of malnutrition observed in the sample can be compared to
malnutrition rates observed in a previous survey. If there is information from different
surveys, some idea of the trend in nutritional status can be inferred. One can only
conclude that there was statistically significant difference between two surveys if
confidence intervals do not overlap or P-value <0.05.
Example of variation of nutritional status in different seasons
Season
Global Acute Malnutrition
Woreda 1 Woreda 2 Woreda 3
No % No % No %
Belg 2002 900 36.7% 899 36% 912 32%
Meher 2001 905 22.9% 900 20% 900 19%
P-value
3.7. Differences between results expressed in percentage of the median & z-scores
When the results of malnutrition is expressed both in percentage of the median and Z
scores, it may lead to some confusions during interpretation. Malnutrition expressed in
percent of the median and Z-scores are not the same. Typically the prevalence of
malnutrition is higher in Z scores than in percentage of the median (often about 1.4 times
as much).
21
When the prevalence of acute global malnutrition shows a difference >=5% between the
results expressed in percentage of the median and z-scores, it is necessary to consider the
prevalence of severe malnutrition and mortality rate to correctly interpret the results.
3.8. Expression of results with their confidence intervals
When calculating the sample size, the notion of precision was introduced. This is the
reason why the proportion of children presenting with malnutrition should be expressed
with a corresponding precision, which determines the 95% confidence interval. The
confidence interval is the prevalence found plus or minus the precision achieved.
Calculation of the precision uses the formula already used for determining the sample
size (n), but in another way. As a mater of fact, when calculating the sample size (n), an
expected prevalence (p) was estimated and a desired precision (d) was used. Now that the
survey has been carried out, the approach is reversed: the sample size is known, and the
prevalence has been measured, what is going to vary is the precision achieved.
Simplified formula for calculation of cluster survey precision:
d = Zx2xpq/n
Z = 1.96
P = proportion of children with malnutrition
q. = Proportion of children with out malnutrition
Therefore, a 95% confidence interval is
C.I. = p+d
Confidence interval could be calculated for both Global Acute Malnutrition and Severe
Acute Malnutrition.
For non cluster sampling d = Zxpq/n
Recommendations to be drawn from nutrition survey results
1. General ration :-It is intended to provide every body with their nutritional
requirement.
2. Supplementary feeding: - It is set up to treat children who are moderately
malnourished and to prevent severe malnutrition and vulnerable groups could be
included.
3. Therapeutic feeding: - Intended to rehabilitate severely malnourished children
and adults through intensive feeding of special food and health care.
4. Health care especially in therapeutic feeding programs.
3.9. Analysis of Mortality rates
High mortality rates are very important indicators of a crisis. If the rates of both acute
malnutrition and mortality rates are high, then it is clear that you have a more serious
situation than if the malnutrition rates are high and crude mortality rate is low.
The following table shows some rates for crude and under five mortality in developing
countries and stage of alert (USAID 200). We can use the table as a guide to classifying
the stage of alert with regards to mortality, but remember that the classification was not
specifically designed for Ethiopia.
22
Mortality rates and stage of alert
CMR U5MR
Average for developing
world 0.27 deaths/10,000/day 1.0 deaths/10,000/day
In an emergency not critical <1 deaths/10,000/day <2 deaths/10,000,day
In emergency serious 1-2 deaths/10,000/day 2-4 deaths/10,000/day
In an emergency out of
control > 2 deaths/10,000/day >4 deaths/10,000/day
For more details see annex 3, the standard that is widely used.
3.10. Reporting
A report should have at least the following contents 1. Summary of the Report (1-2 pages only)
Area surveyed
Date of survey
Methodology employed
Main anthropometric results (prevalence of global & severe acute malnutrition in
terms of z-score and/ or oedema and 95% confidence intervals)
Other important results (mortality rates, food security indicators etc)
Explanation of the causes of malnutrition in the area
Recommendations
2. Introduction
Description of survey area
Survey area
Name of town/ woreda/ zone/ region/ country
Name of nearest large town / city – administrative center
Population data
Number of people living in survey area
Population density
Ethnic group
Geography of area
Town / camp/ rural etc
Altitude/ mountainous / flat etc
Total area (hectares)
Way in which people live
Agriculturalists/ pastoralists / agro-pastoralists / refugees / merchants etc
Type of land farmed or animals kept
Any important political/ security information If refugees, how long have they been there
Any instability in the area
Services available
Health
Education
Markets, roads
23
Assistance received by the population
Relief program in area
Number of people on food aid etc
Other initiatives, particularly work of your agency in the area
Date survey undertaken
Other survey results from the area or nearby areas
3. Survey Objectives
For example,
Estimate the prevalence of acute malnutrition
Estimate retrospective mortality rates
Understand the causes of malnutrition
Estimate the coverage of a feeding program
Estimate the measles vaccination rate
Make recommendations for a program
4. Methodology
General approach
Type of sampling (for example, 30*30 cluster)
Age of children measured
Number of children measured
Date of survey
Sampling procedure and Sample size
How did you choose the clusters?
What population figures did you get and who from (for example, kebele population
figures from woreda council)?
How did you calculate the sampling interval (for example, the cumulative population
was calculated and a sampling interval determined)?
How did you assign the clusters (for example, thirty clusters were randomly selected
by assigning probability proportional to population size)?
Did you alter the method from the standard method at all (for example, because of
insecurity etc.)?
Describe any changes to the selection of the clusters during the survey.
Selection of Households and Children
How did you choose the households and children within a cluster?
Where was the starting place? (Middle of the kebele? Or did you randomly choose a
Village within a kebele and start in the middle of the village)
How did you choose the direction to follow? (Spin a pen?)
Did you walk to the end of the village/kebele and count the houses?
How did you choose subsequent houses?
How did you choose children within the houses?
Did you measure all children aged 6-59 months in the houses selected?
24
If age was unknown how did you decide whether or not to measure children? (Height
between)
What happened when the child was away?
Did you measure all children in the last house?
5. Training and Supervision
Who was trained?
Who did the training?
What did the training cover (survey design, anthropometric measurements, signs and
symptoms of malnutrition, data collection and interview skills)?
Did the survey teams measure children and compare their results? (Inter-observer
error)?
6. Pilot survey
Was there a practice/ pilot survey?
Who supervised the teams during the practice survey?
Were data collection forms piloted during the practice survey and changes made to
them if necessary?
7. Supervision during the survey
Who supervised the teams (a nutritionist, a nurse or someone else)?
How many times did the supervisor visit the teams?
Who were the team leaders, were they experienced?
8. Data Collected
Children’s data
Anthropometric data
Age, proxy heights used for age
Weight (type of scales used, precision of measurement)
Height (type of height board used, how children were measured (standing-up/
lying down/ both), precision of measurement)
Oedema (how did you define oedema)
Retrospective morbidity of children
Who did you ask about the children’s illness?
Over how long were questions about illness asked?
How did you define illness?
Vaccination Status and Coverage
How did you check for vaccinations?
Did you look at MCH cards?
Program Coverage
How did you assess this?
What did you do if you found a malnourished child who was not registered?
25
Mortality data
Which households did you ask the mortality questionnaires to?
Over how long did you estimate mortality (number of months)?
Did you categorize deaths by age?
Did you record cause of death? How did you define causes?
Household questionnaires
How were the household questionnaires developed?
Were the questionnaires adjusted after the practice survey?
What kind of data did you collect in the household questionnaires (health/food
security/care/relief)?
Were the data qualitative or quantitative?
Who did you ask the questions to (how many households, which people in the
household)?
Key informant questionnaires and interviews
How were the key informant questionnaires developed?
Were the questionnaires adjusted after the practice survey?
What kind of data did you collect in the key informant questionnaires (health/food
security/care/relief)?
Were the data qualitative or quantitative?
Who did you ask the questions to (community leaders/ women etc)?
Did you visit any woreda officials? Who? For what information? Any other NGOs?
9. Data analysis
How did you analyze the data?
What type of computer program did you use or did you do it by hand?
10. Results Anthropometric Results:
Definitions of acute malnutrition should be given (e.g., global acute malnutrition is
defined as <-2 z scores weight-for height and/or oedema, severe acute malnutrition is
defined as <-3z scores weight for height and/or oedema)
The following tables should be included in the result part of the report.
Table 1: Distribution of age and sex of sample
Age
(mth)
Boys Girls Total Ratio
No. % No % No. % Boy: Girl
6-17
18-29
30-41
42-53
54-59
Total
26
Table 2: Prevalence of acute malnutrition based on weight for height z-scores and/or
oedema
6 - 59 months
n=
6 - 29 months
n=
Prevalence of global malnutrition
(<-2 z-score and/or oedema)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
Prevalence of severe malnutrition
(<-3 z-score and/or oedema)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
The prevalence of oedema is ____ %
Table 3: Prevalence of malnutrition by age based on weight for height z-scores and
oedema
Severe
Malnutrition
(<-3 z-score)
Moderate
Malnutrition
(>= -3 and <-2
z-score)
Normal
(> = -2 z score)
Oedema
Age
(mths)
Total
No
No. % No. % No. % No. %
06 - 17
18 - 29
30 - 41
42 - 53
54 - 59
Total
Table 4: Distribution of acute malnutrition and oedema based on weight for height
z-scores
<-2 z-score >=-2 z-score
Oedema present Marasmic Kwashiorkor
No.
(%)
Kwashiorkor
No.
(%)
Oedema absent Marasmic
No.
(%)
Normal
No.
(%)
Table 5: Prevalence of acute malnutrition based on the percentage of the median
and/or oedema
6 – 59 months n=
6 - 29 months n=
Prevalence of global acute
malnutrition
(<80% and/or oedema)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
Prevalence of severe acute
malnutrition
(<70% and/or oedema)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
(no.) %
(95% C.I.)
The prevalence of oedema is ___ %
27
Table 6: Prevalence of malnutrition by age based on weight for height medians and
oedema
Severe
Malnutrition
(<70% median)
Moderate
Malnutrition
(>=70% and
<80% median)
Normal
(> =80%
median)
Oedema
Age
(mths)
Total
No
no. % no. % no. % no. %
06 - 17
18 - 29
30 - 41
42 - 53
54 - 59
Total
Table 7: Mean percentage of the median weight-for-height
6-59 months
n= 6-29 months
n=
Mean percentage of weight-for-
height median
%
(95% C.I.)
%
(95% C.I.)
Children’s morbidity
Table 8: Prevalence of reported illness in children in the two weeks prior to
interview (n=)
6-59 months
Prevalence of reported
illness
%
Table 9: Symptom breakdown in the children who reported illness in the two weeks
prior to interview (n=)
6-59 months
Diarrhoea %
Cough %
Fever %
Measles %
Other %
Vaccination Results
Table 10: Vaccination coverage: BCG for 6-59 months and Measles for 9-59 months
BCG n=
Measles (with card)
n= Measles
(With card or confirmation from
mother) n=
YES
(No.) %
(95% C.I.)
(No.) %
(95% C.I.)
(No.) %
(95% C.I.)
28
Mortality Results (retrospective over.__ Months prior to interview)
The Crude Mortality Rate (CMR) for the total population is estimated at:
Deaths/10,000/day
The under-five Mortality Rate (U5MR) for the population is estimated at:
Deaths/10,000/day
Main causes of death.
The mean household size is calculated as. (Mode =, range)
Programme Coverage The program coverage = 100 * number of registered malnourished children
Number of malnourished children found
Causes of malnutrition
Quantitative data
Give proportions, or use frequency tables and/or bar charts to show the results of the
quantitative data
For example, in answer to the question what was the main source of staple food over last
month?
43% sourced their main staple from EGS.
20% sourced their main staple from purchasing.
18% sourced their main staple from the sale of assets.
17% sourced their main staple from their own production.
Source of staple Proportion
EGS 43%
Purchasing 20%
Sale of assets 18%
Own production 17%
Qualitative data
Leave this for the discussion
11. Discussion
Nutritional status
Discuss sample sex ratio – any bias? If so, explain why you think there is bias.
Prevalence of acute malnutrition
If previous survey results are available, how do these results compare to before or to
other areas nearby?
How does the prevalence compare to national international benchmarks of
malnutrition (e.g., DPPC, MSF or WHO)?
What is the community’s current food source? What are they eating?
29
Food security
Agriculture
General discussion on agricultural practices in the area (Belg-dependent/ meher-
dependent etc)
Current situation – try to compare to a normal year. What are the farmers doing now?
What would they normally be doing?
What are the prices of the agricultural products compared to other years? Seasons?
Future prospects – for the next 3-6 months. What are the constraints (no seeds, rain
etc)
Livestock
Uses of livestock in the area
Current pasture and livestock condition
Terms of trade data compared to other years/seasons/areas?
Future prospects - what are the constraints?
Relief
Amount and type of relief food going into the area
Who is receiving the relief
Is the targeting working (what are the constraints)
What is future plans for relief?
What other relief projects are ongoing (restocking, supplementary feeding etc) and
what effects are they having on the community?
Income generating activities & migration
What are they?
Are they normal for this time of year?
Are more people than normal migrating to find work?
Are whole households migrating? Why?
Health & Care
Mortality rates
CMR and U5MR compared to international benchmarks
Causes of death – any epidemics?
Morbidity
Rates reported by mothers for children.
Any epidemics?
Possible effects of morbidity reported on nutritional status
Vaccination
Rates and 95% confidence intervals for different vaccination rates
Any recent campaigns
Are rates high or low compared to internationally recommended standards?
Mother’s caring practices
30
Information from questionnaires
General information from discussions and observations
Possible effects of caring practices on nutritional status
General health care in area
Number of clinics etc for the population (compare to Government policy guidelines)
Health education programs
Access to clean water etc
Living conditions
Possible effects of health care on nutritional status
12. Program Coverage
Rate of coverage for any SFP/TFC programs
Explanation for rates (good/bad/why)
Given the prevalence of malnutrition found, how many children should be enrolled?
13. Conclusions
Diagram to show causal framework of malnutrition may be useful to show the most
important factors affecting nutritional status, or food security in the study area.
Nutritional status
Food security
Health and care
Other issues
14. Recommendations and Priorities
Remember to prioritize recommendations and try to put a time for when action should be
appropriate (e.g., immediate, medium term or longer term).
Food security
Does the amount of relief food need to be increased? How should it be provided –
EGS / free general ration / supplementary feeding program / blanket feeding
program? For how long should relief be given? What should the ration be? Who
should implement the program? How should the ration be targeted?
Does the community need other inputs to promote food security
(seeds/tools/restocking/fertilizers/ water/veterinary care program)? Who should get
these inputs? Who will carry out the program?
Are program needed to improve income generating opportunities?
Health and care
Has there been an epidemic – has it been treated or is action still needed? Who should
act? When?
Vaccination – do the rates need to be improved? With a campaign or by increasing
regular EPI?
Should access to clean water be improved as a priority?
31
Is a health education campaign needed? Who will carry out the training? Who will the
beneficiaries be?
Other recommendations
Future nutrition monitoring
Is it necessary to carry out another nutritional survey in this area in the near future?
Who should do it? Should there be any changes to the survey methodology? When
should the survey take place?
Should there be food security indicator monitoring in this area? Who should do it?
15. References
List all documents referred to.
Annex
Maps of area
Questionnaires
List of clusters (village and kebele names)
32
CHAPTER FOUR HOW TO WEIGH AND MEASURE CHILDREN
(Adapted from UN Department of Technical Co-operation
for Development and Statistics office.)
4.1 Procedures and precautions before measuring
A. Layout of the Procedures
Each step of the measurement procedures is directed at specific participants, who are
named in bold letters at the beginning of each step: e.g. 'Measurer", "Assistant", etc.
B. Two Trained People Required
Two trained people are required to measure a child's height and length. The measurer
holds the child and takes the measurements. The assistant helps hold the child and
records the measurements on the questionnaire. If there is an untrained assistant such as
the mother, then the trained measurer should also record the measurements on the
questionnaire. One person alone can take the weight or arm circumference of a child and
record the results if an assistant is not available.
C. Measuring Board and Scale Placement
Begin to observe possible places where the board can be positioned and the scale hung as
soon as you walk towards a sample household. Be selective about where you place the
measuring board and scale. It is best to measure outdoors during daylight hours. If it is
cold, raining, or too many people congregate and interfere with the measurements, it may
be more comfortable to weigh and measure a child indoors. Make sure there is adequate
light.
D. Age Assessment
Before you measure, determine the child's age. If the child is less than two years, measure
length. If the child is two years of age or older, measure height in standing position. If
accurate age is not possible to obtain, measure length if the child is less than 85-cm.
Measure heights if the child is equal to or greater than 85 cm.
E. When to Weigh and Measure
Weigh and measure after verbal information has been recorded on the questionnaire. This
will allow you to become familiar with the members of the household. DO NOT weigh
and measure at the beginning of the interview, i.e. as soon as you enter a household,
which would be more of an upsetting intrusion.
F. Weigh and Measure One Child at a Time
If there is more than one eligible child in a household, complete the entire questionnaire,
including the weighing and measuring of one child. Then proceed with the next eligible
child's questionnaire in the household. DO NOT weigh and measure all the children
together. This can easily cause confusion and will create a greater chance for error such
as recording one child's measurements on another child's questionnaire. Return measuring
equipment to their storage bags immediately after you complete the measurements for
each household.
33
G. Control the Child
When you weigh and measure, you must control the child. The strength and mobility of
even very young children should not be underestimated. Be firm and gentle with children.
The mother and the child will feel your own sense of calm and self-confidence.
When a child has contact with any measuring equipment, i.e. on a measuring board, in
the weighing pants or with an arm circumference tape, you must hold and control the-
child so the child will not trip or fall. Never leave a child alone with a piece of
equipment. Always have physical contact with the child except when you must let go of
a child for a few seconds while taking the weight.
H. Coping with Stress
Since weighing and measuring requires touching and handling children, normal stress
levels for this type of survey work are higher than for surveys where only verbal
information is collected.
Explain the weighing and measuring procedures to the mother, and to a limited extent,
the child, to help minimise possible resistance, fears or discomfort they may feel. You
must determine if the child or mother is under so much stress that the weighing and
measuring must stop' Remember, young children are often uncooperative; they tend to
cry, scream, kick and sometimes bite. If a child is under severe stress and is crying
excessively, try to calm the child or return the child to the mother for a moment before
proceeding with the weighing and measuring.
Do not weigh or measure a child if:
a. The mother refuses.
b. The child is too sick or too distressed.
C. The child is physically deformed which will interfere with or give an incorrect
measurement. To be kind, you may want to measure such a child and make a note of the
deformity on the questionnaire.
Recording Measurements and Being Careful
Record the measurements in pencil. If you make an error, completely erase the error and
rewrite the correct numbers. Keep objects out of your hands and pencils out of your
mouth, hair or breast pocket when you weigh and measure so that neither the child nor
you will get hurt due to carelessness. When you are not using a pencil, place it in your
equipment pack, pencil case or on the survey form. Make sure you do not have long
fingernails. Remove interfering rings and watches before you weigh and measure. Do not
smoke when you are in a household or when you weigh and measure.
Strive for Improvement
You can be an expert measurer if you strive for improvement and follow every step of
every procedure the same way every time. The quality and speed of your measurements
will improve with practice. You may be working with a partner to form a team. If so, you
will be responsible for not only your own work, but also for the quality of work of your
team.
34
You will be required to weigh and measure many children. Do not take these procedures
for granted even though they may seem simple and repetitious. It is easy to make errors
when you are not careful. Do not omit any steps. Concentrate on what you are doing.
4.2. Summary procedures for body measurement
A. Child Height Summary Procedure (Illustration 1. photo copy to be attached.)*
1. Measurer or Assistant: Place the measuring board on a hard flat surface against a
wall, table, tree, staircase, etc. Make sure the board is stable.
2. Measurer or Assistant: Ask the mother to remove the child's shoes and unbraid
any hair that would interfere with the height measurement. Ask her to walk the
child to the board and to kneel in front of the child (if she is not the assistant).
3. Assistant: Place the questionnaire and pencil on the ground (Arrow 1).
Kneel with both knees on the right side of the child (Arrow 2).
4. Measurer: Kneel on your right knee only, for maximum mobility, on the child's
left side (Arrow 3).
5. Assistant: Place the child's feet flat and together in the centre of and against the
back and base of the board. Place your right hand just above the child's ankles on
the shins (Arrow 4), your left hand on the child's knees (Arrow 5) and push
against the board. Make sure the child's legs are straight and the heels and calves
are against the board (Arrows 6 and 7). Tell the measurer when you have
completed positioning the feet and legs.
6. Measurer: Tell the child to look straight ahead at the mother if she is in front of
the child. Make sure the child's line of sight is level with the ground (Arrow 8).
Place your open left hand on the child's chin. Gradually close your hand (Arrow
g). Do not cover the child's mouth or ears. Make sure the shoulders are level
(Arrow 10), the hands are at the child's side (Arrow 11), and the head, shoulder
blades and buttocks are against the board (Arrows 12, 13, and 14). With your
right hand, lower the headpiece on top of the child's head. Make sure you push
through the child's hair (Arrow 15).
7. Measurer and Assistant: Cheek the child's positions (Arrows 1-15).
Repeat any steps as necessary.
8. Measurer: When the child's position is correct, read and call out the measurement
to the nearest 0.1 cm. Remove the headpiece from the child's head, your left hand
from the child's chin and support the child during the recording.
Assistant: Immediately record the measurement and show it to the measurer.
NOTE: If the assistant is untrained, the measurer records the height.
10. Measurer: Cheek the recorded measurement on the questionnaire for accuracy and
legibility. Instruct the assistant to erase and correct any errors.
*If the assistant is untrained, e.g. the mother, then the measurer should help the assistant
with the height procedure.
35
B. Child Length Summary Procedure (Illustration 2)*
1. Measurer or Assistant: Place the measuring board on a hard flat surface, i.e.
ground, floor or steady table.
2. Assistant: Place the questionnaire and pencil on the ground, floor or table
(Arrow 1). Kneel with both knees behind the base of the board, if it is on the
ground or floor (Arrow 2).
3. Measurer: Kneel on the right side of the child so that you can hold the foot-piece
with your right hand (Arrow 3).
4. Measurer and Assistant: With the mother's help, lay the child on the board by
doing the following:
Assistant: Support the back of the child's head with your hands and gradually lower
the child onto the board.
Measurer: Support the child at the trunk of the body.
Measurer or Assistant: If she is not the assistant, ask the mothers to kneel on the opposite
side of the board facing the measurer to help keep the child calm.
Assistant: Cup your hands over the child's ears (Arrow 4). With your arms comfortably
straight (Arrow 5), place the child's head against the base of the board so that the child is
looking straight up. The child's line of sight should be perpendicular to the ground
(Arrow 6). Your head should be straight over the child's head. Look directly into the
child's eyes.
5. Measurer: Make sure the child is lying flat and in the centre of the board (Arrows
6. Place your left hand on the child's shins (above the ankles) or on the knees (Arrow
7. Press them firmly against the board. With your right hand, place the foot-piece
firmly against the child's heels (Arrow 9).
8. Measurer and Assistant: Cheek the child's position (Arrows 1-9). Repeat any steps
as necessary.
9. Measurer: When the child's position is correct, read and call out the measurement
to the nearest 0.1 cm. Remove the foot-piece, release your left hand from the
child's shins or knees and support the child during the recording.
10. Assistant: Immediately release the child's head, record the measurement, and
show it to the measurer.
NOTE: If the assistant is untrained, the measurer records the length on the questionnaire.
11. Measurer: Check the recorded measurement on the questionnaire for accuracy and
legibility. Instruct the assistant to erase and correct any errors.
If the assistant is untrained, e.g. the mother, then the measurer should help the assistant
with the length procedure.
36
C. Child Weight Summary Procedure (Illustration 3)*
1. Measurer or Assistant: Hang the scale from a tree branch, ceiling beam, tripod or
pole held by two people. You may need a piece of rope to hang the scale at eye
level. Ask the mother to undress the child.
2. Measurer: Attach a pair of the empty weighing pants, infant sling or basket to the
hook of the scale and adjust the scale to zero, and then remove from the scale.
3. Measurer: Have the mother hold the child. Put your arms through the leg holes of
the pants (Arrow 1). Grasp the child's feet and pull the legs through the leg holes
(Arrow 2). Make certain the strap of the pants is in front of the child.
4. Measurer: Attach the strap of the pants to the hook of the scale. DO NOT
CARRY THE CHILD BY THE STRAP ONLY. Gently lower the child and allow
the child to hang freely (Arrow 3).
5. Assistant: Stand behind and to one side of the measurer ready to record the
measurement. Have the questionnaire ready (Arrow 4).
6. Measurer and Assistant: Cheek the child's position. Make sure the child is
hanging freely and not touching anything. Repeat any steps as necessary.
7. Measurer: Hold the scale and read the weight to the nearest 0.1kg. (Arrow 5). Call
out the measurement when the child is still and the scale needle is stationary.
Even children, who are very active, which causes the needle to wobble greatly,
will become still long enough to take a reading. WAIT FOR THE NEEDLE TO
STOP MOVING.
8. Assistant: Immediately record the measurement and show it to the measurer.
9. Measurer: As the assistant records the measurement, hold the child in one arm and
gently lift the child by the body. DO NOT LIFT THE CHILD BY THE STRAP
OF THE WEIGHING PANTS. Release the strap from the hook of the scale with
your free hand.
10. Measurer: Cheek the recorded measurement on the questionnaire for accuracy and
legibility. Instruct the assistant to erase and correct any errors.
*If the assistant is untrained, e.g. the mother, then weight should be taken by one person
only, the trained measurer, who should also record the measurement on the questionnaire.
D. Summary Procedure (MUAC) (Illustration 4)*
1. Measurer: Keep your work at eye level. Sit down when possible. The mother
during this procedure can hold Very young children. Ask the mother to remove
clothing that may cover the child's left arm.
2. Measurer: Calculate the midpoint of the child's left upper arm by first locating the
tip of the child's shoulder (Arrows 1 and 2) with your fingertips. Bend the child's
37
elbow to make a right angle (Arrow 3). Place the tape at zero, which is indicated
by two arrows, on the tip of the shoulder (Arrow 4) and pull the tape straight
down past the tip of the elbow (Arrow 5). Read the number at the tip of the elbow
to the nearest centimetre. Divide this number by two to estimate the midpoint. As
an alternative, bend the tape up to the middle length to estimate the midpoint. A
piece of string can also be used for this purpose. Either you or an assistant can
mark the midpoint with a pen on the arm (Arrow 6).
3. Measurer: Straighten the child's arm and wrap the tape around the arm at the
midpoint. Make sure the numbers are right side up. Make sure the tape is flat
around the skin (Arrow 7).
4. Measurer and Assistant: Inspect the tension of the tape on the child's arm. Make
sure the tape has the proper tension (Arrow 7) and is not too tight or too loose
(Arrows 8-9). Repeat any steps as necessary.
5. Assistant: Have the questionnaire ready.
6. Measurer: When the tape is in the correct position on the arm with the correct
tension, read and call out the measurement to the nearest 0.1cm. (Arrow 10).
7. Assistant: Immediately record the measurement on the questionnaire and show it
to the measurer.
8. Measurer: While the assistant records the measurement, loosen the tape on the
child's arm.
9. Measurer: Check the recorded measurement on the questionnaire for accuracy and
legibility. Instruct the assistant to erase and correct any errors.
10. Measurer: Remove the tape from the child's arm.
If the assistant is untrained, e.g. the mother, then arm circumference should be measured
by one person only, the trained measurer, who should also record the measurement on the
questionnaire.
4.3 Age assessment
A. Introduction
Determining the correct age of a child is extremely important in evaluating
anthropometric data since reference standards for growth are broken down into age
categories by month. The age of a child should be determined as the number of years or
months of life completed. For example, a child who is three years old has completed
three years of life.
38
B. Birth-date Sources
Birth-dates can best be determined by obtaining a documented record such as a birth
record, clinic card, baptismal record, etc., where a birth-dates is recorded. Written home
records may be reliable in some settings but should be verified. A "Local Calendar of
Events" can be used to estimate age or to verify stated ages, home or other records. Using
this method, a child's birth-dates can be estimated by relating the year and month of birth
to well known local or national events.
C. How to Make a Local Calendar of Events
1. The objective of a local event calendar is to identify a discrete monthly event for
each of the twelve months and a discrete special event for each of the years of age
covered, i.e. below six.
Determine well-known local or national events for a period of one year more than
the upper age limit of children who will be weighed and measured in the survey.
For example, if the population of children being surveyed is 3-59 months of age,
then determine events for the past six years. You may have to meet with local
officials, village leaders, etc. to determine events that took place in the area where
the survey will be conducted.
Ask about important special events that took place that everyone who lives in the
area would know, such as a marriage or death of an important person, a flood, an
election, etc. Begin with the current year and work backwards when you ask
people to remember events. Place these events on a calendar, with the years on the
top of the page and the months on one side. Try to obtain at least one special
event per year.
In the columns marked "Repeated Annual Events", place well known events that
take place each year next to the appropriate month, such as Christmas, Rainy
Season, Independence Day, etc. Try to obtain at least one event per month.
39
Sample Local Calendar of events
Month
Repeated
Annual
events
Special annual events
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
January New year
February
Presidents'
birth date
Fire in
village
March
Annual
spring
festival
Village
chief
died
April Easter
Flood
in
village
May
Spring
harvest
National
census
June
Schools
summer
holidays
July
Independenc
e day, July
21
Chief's
son
married
August Planting
September
School
begins
National
election
October
Autumn
harvest
November Rains
December Christmas
How to Use a Local Calendar of Events?
1. The objective is first to locate a child's birth date between two special events.
First, select an event on the calendar, for example the fire, which took place in
February 1986. Next, ask the mother, "Was your child born before or after the fire
in the village?"
2. If the mother responds, "Before", identify the next special event that took place
just before the fire. In this case, the event before the fire was, the marriage of the
village chief's son, which took place in July 1985. Ask the mothers "Was your
child born before or- after the marriage of village chief's son?"
3. If the mother responds ''after", then you know that the child was born between
July 1985 and February 1986. You have just located the child's birth-date between
two special events, which took place in the village. If the mother responds
''before'' you should continue to search for an event where the parent will respond
after so that the birth-date will fall between two special events.
40
4. Once you have located the birth-date between two events, look at the repeated
annual events, which take place every year between the two, identified special
events, i.e. between July and February.
5. You will now determine the exact month of birth. Choose one event that takes
place every year, for example, Christmas. Follow the same procedure to locate the
child's birth-date between two repeated annual events. In this case ask the mother,
''was your child born before or after Christmas?" If she responds after, select a
repeated annual event after Christmas. Continue this process until you have
located the month of birth.
Remember
a. Locate the birth-date between two special annual events.
b. Next, locate the birth-date between two repeated annual events until the exact
month of birth is determined.
c. Use the question, "Was your child born before or after _____________? (Select
an event)
E. Training for Age Assessment
Role-playing is a useful training tool to practice using a local calendar of events. Sketch
the calendar of events on a blackboard in front of the enumerators. Have two enumerators
sit in front the room. One plays the role of a mother. the other plays the role of the
enumerator. Write down a fictitious birth-date of the mother's child on a piece of paper.
Show it to the mother, so the mother will know how to respond to the question. Show the
birth date to the rest of the enumerators in the training room so they can follow the
questioning. DO NOT show the birth date to the person playing the role of the
enumerator.
F To get rough estimate of the age of a child of under 2 years old, use the
following general methods:
A. Number of teeth
Child's age in months = Number of teeth + 6.
However, please note that some children get their erupted very late while occasionally a
newborn baby might be born with one or two teeth and a child that has 20 teeth may be
aged between 2 and 6 years. So, the developmental stage of the child has to be also
observed simultaneously when assessing age. The following Table shows the ages at
which the deciduous or baby teeth erupt and will give some guide in the estimation of the
ages of children:
Ages (in months) for early, average and late eruption of deciduous teeth
Deciduous teeth Early Average Late
Lower central incisors 5 7.8 11
Upper central incisors 6 9.6 1
Lower lateral incisors 7 11.5 15
Upper lateral incisors 7 12.4 18
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Lower 1st " molar 10 15.1 20
Upper 1st " molar 10 15.7 20
Lower cuspid 11 18.2 24
Upper cuspid 11 18.3 24
Lower 2nd
molar 13 26.0 31
Upper 2nd
molar 13 26.2 31
B. Locomotion
The locomotion of the first year is creeping, of the second year, walking. Each of these
patterns of moving can be traced from early beginning. Thus, for an infant the age can be
estimated by using the following various stages of development reached:
Locomotion Average age (in month)
Chin up (Lying on chest) 1
Chest up (lying on chest) 2
Reach and miss 3
Sit with support 4
Sit on lap, grasp objects 5
Sit on high chair, grasp-dangling object 6
Sit alone 7
Stand with help 8
Stand holding furniture 9
Creep 10
Walk when led 11
Pull to stand by furniture 12
Climb stair steps 13
Stand alone 14
Walk alone 15
Walk 10 steps without support 18
Say single words 21
Speak short phrases 36
In addition to the above age estimation methods, one has to consider the child's siblings.
If the mother can recall the age of the sibling at the time when she gave birth to the index
child, make an estimate of the age of the index child on the basis of this age recalled. If
the age can not be recalled ask for the developmental stage of the sibling at the time of
the delivery of the index child. Make an estimate and use this estimated age to use it as a
basis and make comparison with the estimated age of the index child.
Never estimate the age of a child by looking at the size. If the child is malnourished, the
small size will deceive you and think that the child is younger than he/she actually is.
Only children more than 65 cm and less than 110 cm tall should be included in the
sample.
42
CHAPTER FIVE HOW TO USE EPI INFO COMPUTER
SOFTWARE
Extracted from ‘The EPI INFO Manual, Version 6, by Andrew G.Dean, April, 1994’
5.1. Definition
EPI-INFO is a series of microcomputer programs for handling epidemiological data. It
has a database system to record data and statistical programs to analyze and produce
frequencies, cross tabulations, means, graphs and other related statistics.
5.2. Steps in EPI -Info program
There are three main steps in EPI-INFO for processing questionnaire or other structured
data.
Step I Make a questionnaire to use in entering data into EPI INFO using EPED Program
Step II Entering data in the questionnaire using the ENTER
Program
Step III Analyzing the data using the ANALYSIS Program
5.3. Running EPI INFO program
Start your computer in DOS Prompt:
C:\>
If you have already installed EPI INFO in your computer,
CD\EPI6 and press <Enter>.
Type: EPI6 and Press <Enter>. You should see the main EPI INFO menu.
But, if you do not have EPI INFO in your computer, follow the following steps to install
it.
-Restart your computer in DOS prompts or changes your computer to DOS prompt
-Place Disk 1 of EPI INFO System in Drive A
-Type
A: INSTALL and press <Enter>
Then, follow the directions given by the program.
After installation is completed, change the directory to EPI6, then
Type EPI6 and press <Enter>.
You should see the main EPI INFO Menu.
At the top of the menu you will see Programs -
5.4. The main programs of the EPI INFO system
Tutorials - Interactive tutorials to introduce EPI INFO
Examples - Sample files that illustrate particular aspects
Manual - The entire manual for EPI INFO
File - Open, create, view, or print text files from the EPI6 menu
43
EDIT - Edit, copy, cut, and paste text files opened with the FILE menu.
To select an item from the menu:
Move the highlighter bar with the arrow keys. When the correct item is highlighted, press
the <Enter> key to run the program. You may also type the highlighted capital letter of
the selection, for example, E for the EPED editor or N for ENTER, and then press
<Enter>.
Pressing the <F10> key will exit from the menu or any other EPI INFO program.
Leaving the menu will bring back to the DOS prompt.
Step I: Creating Questionnaire Using EPED
Run the main EPI6 menu.
Select EPED to make a questionnaire.
Press <F6> to see the SETUP menu. The first choice is WW/TXT/QES mode. Press the
space bar one or more times until QES mode is selected and then press <Esc>. This
establishes page size and other settings with convenient values to make a questionnaire.
When a questionnaire is being developed for data entry, a few simple rules are necessary
to tell the program where to create data entry fields or variables and what kind of data to
accept at these locations.
5.5. Field Types in EPI INFO
Text or “underline” fields: _________
Indicated by continuos underline characters. The length of the variable or field will be the
number of underline characters used. The maximum length of a text field is 80 characters.
Example: the filed type for name is text or underline.
Numeric fields: ######
Only numbers or spaces will be accepted. If nothing is entered, the result will be a blank.
The number of digits is indicated by the number of #s. If a decimal point is given, the
field will be in “fixed decimal” format, allowing exactly the indicated number of digits to
the right of the decimal point. ###.### to enter data from 000.000 to 999.999
EPI INFO has more facilities to choice the filed type, like
Date filed <mm/dd/yy> or <dd/mm/yy>
“Yes/No” field. Only Y, N and Space or <Enter> are accepted.
There is a special command in EPED to make it easy to insert fields in your
questionnaire. To see it in action, type <Ctrl-QQ> (hold down the control key, type Q
twice). It can also be accessed from the Text menu, but <Ctrl-QQ> is easy to remember.
A menu of filed will appear on the screen. To insert one in the questionnaire, move the
bar cursor to the choice and press <Enter>. For text and numeric fields EPED may ask
about the length of the field or he number of digits. After you have provided this
information, the field will be inserted in the questionnaire at the current position of the
cursor.
44
Suppose you want to create a questionnaire consisting of Name, Age, Sex and Salary of
respondents.
The variable names and the filed types will be as follows.
Name _______________ (Length of the filed is 15 characters and type of filed is text).
That means you can enter names that have utmost 15 letters).
Age ## ( Age will have a numeric field and the length is 2. Ages between 0 to 99 can be
entered)
Sex _ (can be a one length text field to enter either “m” or “f” or a six length text field to
enter “male” or “female”).
Salary ####.## (Salary will be a numeric filed with decimal point. The length of the filed
depends on the maximum salary).
The questionnaire looks like
Name_______________ Age ## Sex______ Salary ####.##
If you have a long question in the questionnaire, the filed name can be shorten by using
curly brackets {} or EPED considers the first 10 letters only as a field name.
Example: {Edu}cational status of {Moth}er: the filed name will be
Edumoth
But if you write the question as it is without curly brackets {} EPEP will give a
variable name as Educational. Therefore, it is advisable to choice a field name which is
more convenient to remember.
When you have finished typing or developing a questionnaire, press <F9> key to save the
file, give it a name with extension .QES. (Example, MARY.QES) and press <F10> key to
leave EPED.
Note: for additional options go through the tutorial section.
Step II. Entering data using Enter program
On the main EPI menu, move the cursor bar to the ENTER program choice “Enter data”
and press <Enter> or simply type “N” and press <Enter>. A screen will appear, asking for
the name of the data file, and displaying the following menu choices:
1. Enter or Edit data
2. Create new data file from .QES file
3. Revise structure of data file using revised .QES
4. Reenter and verify records in existing data file
5. Rebuild index file(s) specified in .CHK file
45
5.6. Creating a New Data (.REC) File (Menu Choice 2)
ENTER constructs a new data file by reading the questionnaire (.QES) file and using the
information to set up a new data (.REC) file.
To make a new data file, first make a .QES file as described in the previous section. In
the ENTER program, give the name of the data file to be created (the .REC file), press
<Enter>, and then enter “2” for the menu choice. ENTER will now ask for the name of
the .QES file. Usually it is convenient to use the same file name for the data and
questionnaire files, calling MARY.QES and MARY.REC for example. There is no need
to type the suffixes .REC and .QES because they are supplied by the program.
When you specified both the .REC and .QES files, ENTER takes a few seconds to read
the questionnaire and make a data file and then displays the questionnaire on the screen.
Your are now ready to enter data.
5.7. Entering Data
Entering data means typing the appropriate responses in the blanks on the screen. The
cursor will move automatically from blank to blank. Each blank is called a “field”. Each
copy of the questionnaire you complete is called a “record”. The records are stored in the
file with the name ending in .REC, called either the data file or the .REC file.
At the bottom of the cursor the prompt line displays the available commands with the
current record number at the right end of the line.
After the information has been entered in the last filed of a questionnaire, the question
“write data to disk (Y/N)?” appears at the bottom of the screen. Replying “Y” saves the
record and brings up the next available empty record. Note that the record number on the
lower right changes. If the reply is “N”, the cursor jumps to the first filed in the
questionnaire and you have the opportunity to edit the record.
To exit from the program at any time, use the F10 function key. If you
Haven’t saved the current record, ENTER asks if you would like to save it and then
returns to the EPI6 menu or to DOS.
5.8. Moving from Record to Record
The current record number is always shown in the lower right corner of the screen. To
move to the previous record, press the <F7> key. <F8> will go to the next record in the
file, if any.
5.9. Finding Records that Match Criteria
ENTER allows you to search the data file and find records that match your criteria. To
find a record, first be sure the current record has been saved, if necessary. Then press
<Ctrl-F> for ‘Find,’ and type in the items you want to find, followed by <F3> for ‘Find
first’. You might type the entered name in a “Name” field and then press the <F3> key.
All the records with the specified name will be listed on the screen.
46
5.10 Editing Records
To edit a previously entered record, first find and retrieve it as described above. Then
change any of the items in the record, entering a new item with the aid of the arrow,
delete, and insert keys. Be sure to press <Enter> when leaving a field that has been
changed. When you have made all the desired changes, go to the last field in the record
and press <Enter> or press END key. The question “Write data to disk (Y/N)?” will
appear at the bottom of the screen. If you reply “Y”, the record as it now appears will
replace the old record in the file. If you type “N” the cursor will return to the
questionnaire. If you move to another record with <F7> or <F8> without saving the edits
you have made, they will be discarded and the edited record will revert to its previous
form in the file.
5.11. Deleting or Undeleting Records
Pressing the <F6> key will mark the current record as deleted. An asterisk (*) will appear
next to the record number in the lower right corner of the screen. The data items in the
record are still visible in the ENTER program, but tabulations done in the ANALYSIS
program will skip this record. Record, once deleted, may be made active again
(undeleted) by pressing the <F6> key again. This key thus alternates between deleting
and un-deleting.
Step III. Calculating Anthropometric Indices Using Epinut Program
What are the anthropometric Indices? Anthropometric indices are the most commonly
used proxy measures of nutritional status. Anthropometric measures reflect the adequacy
of nutrition over time to support linear growth in children (Height/age) and the adequacy
of energy stores (weight-for Height) in children.
Weight-for-height (WFH)
Defined as the ratio of weight in grams to height in centimeters.
Measure of current status
Low weight for height is called wasting
Sometimes called acute malnutrition
WFH is sensitive to the loss of weight which can be influenced by illness, low
food consumption and poor care
Advantage: doesn’t depend on knowing the child’s birth-date
Very good indicator of short-term problems. i.e. famine or epidemics
Error can be in height measurements
Not a good long term indicator for monitoring and evaluation
Height for Age: Measure of long-term growth
Low HFA is called stunting
Sometimes called chronic malnutrition
Good long-term indicator of general welfare, affected by food consumption &
health care
Not sensitive to short term fluctuation
Error can be made in measurement of height and age.
47
Weight for Age:
A composite measure
Low WFA is referred to as underweight, meaning less than expected weight for a
given age and sex
Low WFA can reflect either stunting or wasting
Most useful as monitoring indicator
Error can be made in determining age
Calculation of WFA, WFH and HFA
To calculate the anthropometric indices information is needed on each individual’s sex,
age, weight and height. From these data it is possible to form different indices, including
those that relate to height-for-age, weight-for-age and weight for height. These indices
can be expressed in terms of Z-scores, percentiles, and percent of median relative to the
international growth reference population. Z-scores are the most frequently used.
The Z-score in the reference population has a normal distribution with mean of zero and
standard deviation of 1. Mean, median and mode are the same in normal distribution. For
example, if a study population has a mean of 0, this would mean that it has the same
median WFH as the reference population. The Z-score cutoff point recommended by
WHO and others to classify low anthropometric level is less than –2 Z-score for the three
indices. The proportion of the population that falls below a Z-score of –2 is generally
compared with the reference in which 2.3% fall below this cutoff. The cutoff for very low
anthropometric levels is usually less that –3 Z-score.
Z-Score = Individual’s Value – Mean value of reference PopulationS.D value of
reference Population
Z-Scores are useful because they have the statistical property of being normally
distributed, thus allowing a meaningful average and standard deviation for a population
to be calculated. In addition, Z-scores have a greater capacity to determine the proportion
of a population that falls below extreme anthropometric values than do percentiles.
Percentiles range from zero to 100, with the 50th
percentile representing the median of the
reference population. Cutoff points for low anthropometric results are generally< 5th
percentile or 3rd
percentile. In the reference population, 5% of the population falls below
the 5th
percentile; this can be compared with the proportion that falls below this cutoff
point in the study population.
The calculation of the percent of median does not take into account the distribution of the
reference population around the median. Therefore, interpretation of the percent of
median is not consistent across age and height levels or across the different
anthropometric indices.
48
5.12. Anthropometric calculation using EPINUT
EPINUT is a program for performing calculations with anthropometric data in EPI Info
files and for displaying summary statistics from the data. To use EPINUT, you must have
a .rec file with relevant information already entered (e.g., sex, age, weight, and height).
EPINUT can be used to add nutrition indices to an existing Epi Info data file containing
these variables, or to display frequency distribution tables and graphs for each nutrition
index.
EPINUT can add anthropometric indices to an Epi Info file that already contains data in
fields called AGE, SEX, WEIGHT, and HEIGHT.
AGE should represent biologic age, in months
SEX can be coded as “1”, “m” or “M” for boys and “2”, “f” or “F” for girls
WEIGHT and HEIGHT should be numeric, in Kg and Centimeters, respectively
When all indices are calculated, 10 new variables are added to the file: HAZ, HAM,
HAP, WAZ, WAM, WAP, WHZ, WHM, WHP and FLAG.
The first nine fields contain the results of the anthropometric calculations. For the Z-
scores, a code of 9.99 means that the index could not be calculated because if missing
data or data values that were out of the appropriate range. Example: an age of 18 years.
A code of 9.98 for Z-scores denotes that the Z-score was greater than or equal 9.98 and
most likely indicates an error in measurement.
For percentiles and percent of median, a similar coding scheme is used (99.9 and 99.8 for
percentiles and 999.9 and 999.8 for percent of median, respectively)
A tenth field, the record FLAG field, is used to identify records where there are missing
data points or a strong likelihood that some of the data items are incorrect (based on
extreme Z-Scores). The criteria for “flagging” an anthropometric index is as follows:
Index Minimum Maximum
HAZ -6.00 +6.00
WHZ -4.00 +6.00
WAZ -6.00 +6.00
Two additional criteria for “flagging” a record are combination of data items:
(HAZ > 3.09 and WHZ < -3.09) or (HAZ < -3.09 and WHZ > 3.09)
Common errors include incorrect data entry, incorrect age/dates, weight or height
measurements entered incorrectly or in the wrong units, and missing/blank data. When
anthropometric data are being analyzed in the EPI Info Analysis program, or elsewhere, it
is recommended that missing cases excluded from analyses.
49
Step IV: Analyzing the Data using ANALYSIS Program
ANALYSIS produces lists, frequencies, tables, statistics and graphs from EPI INFO
Files.
Run the ANALYSIS program from the main menu.
To leave the program at any time, press <F10>.
By running ANALYSIS from the EPI6 menu, you will see a lower window for
entering commands and a larger one above where the results of the commands
will appear.
Pressing the function keys shown at the bottom of the screen allow selection of
help topics, and variable names from lists that appear on the screen.
After pressing one of the function keys, choose an item by moving the highlight
bar with the up- and down- arrow keys and pressing <Enter>.
The First Step- Reading a File
Analysis must be performed on the records in a file. The command that tells ANALYSIS
what file to use are READ <file name>, and this is usually the first command given in
ANALYSIS.
To see a list of available files, type
EPI>READ and press <Enter>. A directory of files will appear in a window. Move the
cursor bar with the arrow keys and choose a file by pressing <Enter>.
Whether you use the file directory or simply type READ and the file name, ANALYSIS
will use this file for all subsequent operations until another READ are performed. It has
become the ‘active data set’.
5.13. Producing a Line Listing
The first step in data analysis is to scan the data visually to gain an overall impression
and see what further analysis might be appropriate. A ‘line listing’ is helpful for this
purpose. To produce a listing of the records in the file, type:
EPI>LIST
The command LIST will display only as many variables as will fit across the current
screen width. EPI>LIST *
The ‘*’ is shorthand for ‘all fields’. LIST followed by one or two variable names lists
only these variables.
Frequencies
The frequency command (FREQ) will count each category for a specified variable and
give the absolute and relative frequencies for each category.
EPI> FREQ SEX
Produces this result:
Sex Freq PercentCum.
----------------------------------------------------------
M 44 58.7% 58.7%
F 31 41.3% 100%
----------------------------------------------------------
Total 75 100.0%
50
If the field types are numeric, the FREQ command will also calculates the sum, mean and
standard deviation.
EPI> FREQ WHZ, WAZ, HAZ
Cross Tabulations: the TABLES Command
The TABLES command will count the records in which the values fulfill criteria for two
fields at the same time. Thus, the command
EPI>TABLES SEX ILL will result in:
ILL
Sex + - Total
F 30 14 44
M 16 15 31
-------------------------------------------------------
Total 46 29 75
The MEANS Command
The TABLES command is for data items that are arranged in categories and counted.
There is another whole word of statistics for numbers that are continuos, such as height,
weight and age. The MEANS command produces a table that displays continuous or
ordinal data and then performs appropriate statistical analysis.
The MEANS command requires two items of information: the variable containing data to
be analyzed and the variable that indicates how groups will be distinguished. The
command is:
MEANS [Numeric variable to be analyzed] [Variable for Grouping]
Example: MEANS AGE ILL
5.14 Charts and graphs
ANALYSIS produces histograms, scatter plots, pie charts, and bar and line graphs
directly from data files. Making a graph requires a single command
Example: EPI>Pie Race
EPI> Line WAZ, WHZ, HAZ
5.15. Sending Results to the Printer or to a File
Before using the print commands, be sure that a printer is connected to the computer,
turned on, and supplied with paper. Pressing the Printer On key <F5> will send all
subsequent output to the printer. It does not print results already on the screen. To do this,
turn the printer on with <F5> and then press the up arrow to recall the previous
command. Pressing <Enter> will run the command again, and this time the results will be
printed. To stop sending output to the printer, press <F5> again.
51
Note that when you press <F5>, the command ROUTE PRINTER or ROUTE SCREEN
appears. This key provides a shortcut to these commands, but you can also type them on
the command line to control printing.
The ROUTE command will also direct the results to a file by the name of your choice.
NOTE:
As your knowledge of the program grows, you will use additional features to shape data
entry and analysis to your needs. You will probably want to:
Insert error checking; skip patterns, and automatic coding in the questionnaire using
the CHECK program.
-Select records, create new variables, recode data, manipulate dates, and carry out
conditional operations with IF statements during ANALYSIS.
-Import and Export files from other systems like SAS, SPSS, dBase and Lotus 1-2-3.
-Change the names of variables in the data file using the CHECK program and some
others.
Therefore, you will master the program through practical exercise.
Moreover, EPI INFO has many other programs, which make it special and unique from
other statistical softwares like,
EPI-TABLE- An epidemiological calculator, containing many useful statistics.
Csample- performs analyses of data from surveys of complex design, taking into account
cluster sampling, stratification and weights.
52
CHAPTER SIX: MARKET SURVEY
6.1 Introduction
Price and market data are indicators of a number of economic phenomena that are of
paramount importance to policy makers, donors, NGOs and economic agents including
farmers, consumers, traders, etc. Thus, all of them require relevant, timely and accurate
price and market information to assist them to understand underlying economic processes
and take appropriate measures in their respective areas of interest. In Ethiopia, for
example, lack of timely and reliable food price and market information could be an
impediment to the development of an efficient marketing system that promotes
agricultural productivity growth, encourages the smooth flow of food commodities from
surplus to deficit areas, and improves the food security situation of the country. The
development of an efficient and competitive food market relies, among other things, on
the collection, analysis and dissemination of food price and market information to policy
makers, farmers, traders, consumers and NGOs.
In the context of food security monitoring by NGOs in particular, two areas where food
price and market information is particularly crucial are the provision of early warning of
food deficiencies and the effective management of food aid supplies. Price and market
information can furnish valuable supplementary evidence and reinforce indications of
possible food shortages that could be obtained from different sources including crop
forecasts, rainfall and weather reports, etc. Although price and market data are
categorized among the late indicators of food security problem, they play a crucial role in
identifying localized shortages, which may be overlooked by other evaluation methods.
Another weakness of price and market information as a means of monitoring food
security problems is its focus on effective demand and it reveals nothing about
households who don not depend much on the market because of poor purchasing power.
Different types of price and market data are normally collected, analyzed and
disseminated with a view to monitoring the different aspects of food security. Ideally, the
type of price and market data to be collected should include:
Prices of different food crops
Prices of cash crops
Livestock prices
Prices of root crops and other staples
Quantity and seasonal pattern of different food products sold
Quantity and seasonal pattern of different food products consumed
Grain inventories, market inflows and outflows
Consumer, producer or general price index, etc.
The establishment of such database would eventually allow appropriate analysis of the
magnitude and direction of price changes of different commodities, provide insights into
the underlying cause of such changes and their impact on the food security situation of
different socio-economic groups, to assist in constructing different aggregate indices that
portray an overall picture of the changes over space, time and commodity. For instance,
53
price analysis could allow concerned institutions to measure the deviation of current
prices from their historical averages/patterns and ascertain whether the deviations reflect
normal price fluctuations or abnormal trend that indicate the need to take appropriate
intervention measures such as undertaking relief food reallocation, distribution, targeting
food aid to those most in need/vulnerable or carry out local purchase and build up food
aid stock in a cost effective manner.
Comparison of prices of food items consumed and livestock or cash crop prices may also
indicate whether the terms of trade between different foods systems (for example
between crop dependent and livestock dependent communities) has improved or
deteriorated. Comparison of area based aggregate price indices could also help in
identifying priority areas where limited food aid resources could be most effectively and
efficiently utilized in mitigating food security problems.
The reliability of the results of price and market data analysis depends on the relevance
and quality of the data collected. In Ethiopia, for example, marketed agricultural
commodities, particularly grains, flow from producers to consumers through a number of
channels that represent different transaction levels. As can be seen from the market
structure depicted below, consumers buy grain from a number of different market
participants including directly from farmers, wholesalers, consumers, etc. Because of the
existence of such transactions, a careful analysis of the market structure and
determination and definition of appropriate transaction levels is of crucial importance
before starting collecting relevant price data – producer price, wholesale price, and retail
price – at different market levels.
54
Producers
Subsistence Farmers Commercial Farms
Assemblers
Inter-Regional Traders
Private Traders
Private companies
Wholesalers/Brokers in Terminal Markets
Processors
Private Public
Retailers
Another important factor that should be taken into consideration in establishing a price
and market monitoring system is the technical and resources capability of the concerned
organization. Although establishing such a monitoring system is advantageous, attention
should be paid to the capability of the organization both in terms of technical capability
and ability to meet recurrent costs.
International experience in market information collection and utilization clearly shows
that, at least at the initial stage, the system should start on a limited scale and then
gradually expand as resources permit. This means that the system should start with a
limited number of important markets and products, and the sample size is limited and its
data collection system should be simple. The amount of work involved and resources
required to implement, a small-scale price and market data collection system is in fact
enormous. For example, if a small size of 3 observations for each of the 3 market levels
(wholesale, retail, producer) are to be made on of 5 important commodities selected each
with two varieties, the total number of observations to be carried out every week by an
assigned enumerator would be 90. This will be too much work per day for one
enumerator and could eventually be one reason for the deterioration of data quality.
Consumers
55
The above discussion, therefore, suggests that a number of important issues should be
clarified before the formulation of a final manual for the collection and analysis of price
and market data for food security monitoring. The most important questions that need to
be addressed include the following:
Where should it be located within the organization?
What are the crucial information needs of the organization? (Retail price,
wholesale price, producer price, stocks, inter-market grain flow)
Which products, varieties, and of what quality and grade should be included in the
survey?
Which markets and market levels should it initially focus on? (Small assembly
markets, medium size markets, large markets; retail level, wholesale level,
producer level)
How should non-standard units be-treated and converted into standard metric
units of measurement?
How frequently should the data be collected?
How large should the sample size be and what data collection method be utilized?
What analytical techniques are feasible in the short term?
These and other important issues will be discussed during the training session.
6.2. Objectives of the Manual
The major objectives of the Manual are the following:
a. To ensure that the participants appreciate the purposes of collecting price and
market data so that they collect reliable and timely data on regular basis.
b. To help participants develop a common understanding of definitions and a
common framework for collecting price and market data in their respective areas
of assignment,
c. To aid as a training materials for enumerators involved in collecting price and
market data.
6.3. Definition of Terms and Concepts
The following terms and definitions shall be used in collecting market and price data by
enumerators.
Price Value expressed in terms of money.
Market The area within which buyers and sellers are in communication with one
another and where exchange takes place.
Producer’s Price of Grain
For the purpose of this manual, Producer’s price shall be defined as the price farmers
receive from grain merchants or assemblers operating in the market for the sale of up to
200 kgs or 2 quintals only.
56
Wholesale Price of Grain
Whole sale price of grain is the price received by a grain merchant from grain buyers at
the market place they normally operate for a grain sales amounting greater than 2 quintals
but less than 150 quintals.
Retail Price of Grain (in standard units or kilogram)
Retail price in standard units or kilogram is the price paid by consumers to retail
merchants for a kilogram of grain, for grain purchase amounting up to TWO quintals
required for their own consumption but not for resale.
Retail Price of Grain (in non-standard units)
Retail price in non-standard units means the price paid by consumers to retail merchants
who use local/ traditional units measurement for the purchase of up to 2 quintals for their
own consumption but not for resale. Local/ traditional units of measurement should be
converted into kilograms or metric units using the conversion table shown in Annex.
Producer’s Price of Live Animals
For the purpose of this manual, producer price of a live animal is the price farmers
receive for the sale of a live animal (medium un-castrated he-goat, medium un-castrated
ram, an ox, a cow) to a buyer.
6.4 Type of Products for Which Market Information is collected
A. Grains
The varieties of whole grains, for which market information will be collected, are listed
below.
Mixed Teff (with no more than 30% contrasting class of the same type of grain
and with impurity level of up to 12% and moisture content of up to 13%)
Mixed Wheat (with no more than 30% contrasting class of the same type of grain
and with impurity level of up to 12% and moisture content of up to 13%)
Mixed Barley (with no more than 30% contrasting class of the same type of grain
and with impurity level of up to 12% and moisture content of up to 13%)
White Sorghum (with no more than 10% contrasting class of the same type of
grain and with impurity level of up to 12% and moisture content of up to 13%)
White maize (with no more than 10% contrasting class of the same type of grain
and with impurity level of up to 12% and moisture content of up to 13%)
B. Live Animals
The types of live animals for which price data will be collected are the following:
Plough Oxen
Dry Cow
Medium size un-castrated ram
Medium size un-castrated he-goat
57
6.5. Market Levels for which Market Information will be gathered
A. Grains
Data on grain prices shall be collected at the retail level. Two types of retail grain prices
shall be collected as follows:
Retail price in kilogram
Retail price in local units
B Live Animals
Data on live animals prices shall be collected at the producer level. Producer prices of
live animals will be collected for the above-mentioned animal types.
6.6. Timetable for Collecting Market Information
Market information for each type of grain will be gathered from the selected
market places, once a week on the main market day.
Market information will be gathered in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. As
the number of days in any one-month varies from 28-31 there may be four or five
weeks in a month. Therefore, enumerators shall collect data and transmit four or
five weekly reports per month. The number of calendar weeks in any one-month
could be obtained from any CALENDAR.
In the selected markets, market information will be gathered Two times a day on
the main market day of the week as follows:
First observation in the morning
Second observation in the afternoon
6.7. Sample Size and Selection Procedure for Gathering Market Information
A. Sample Size
For each type of crop and live animal listed above, the number of samples to be taken
in the selected markets shall be two. For example, if all the commodities shown above
are traded at all market levels in the selected market during the main market day, the
total number of price samples to be taken will be as follows:
Number of samples for crops: 5 varieties x 2 types of prices/crop x 2 observations
= 20 samples
Number of samples for live animals: 4 types of live animals x 1 type of price x 2
observations = 8 samples
Total samples = 20 + 8 = 28 samples
B Method of Data Collection
Price data for grains shall be collected using direct observation method. For
example, an enumerator assigned to a particular market shall collect retail price in
kilogram of, say mixed teff, by actually observing or seeing retailers sell up to 2
quintals of grains (in kilogram) to consumers, and receiving money for it.
Similarly, the enumerator shall collect retail price (in local measurement units) of
mixed teff by actually observing or seeing retailers sell up to 2 quintals of grain in
local measurement unit to consumers, and receiving money for it.
58
Price data of live animals shall be collected using the interview method. For
example, an enumerator collecting producer price of, say an ox, shall interview a
farmer who has sold an ox and register the price he received from the buyer.
C Sample Selection Procedures
a. To collect grain retail price (in kilogram), two retail merchants selling in
kilograms should be selected using a systematic sampling procedure as follows:
The enumerator goes to the grain selling section of the market in the morning;
draws lot to determine whether to take the right or left direction; stands in the
direction randomly selected and then advances from the first retailer he meets to
the third one, and takes the first sample to observe. He continues the procedure
until he collects sample for all grains traded in the market.
In the afternoon, he takes the direction opposite to the one he took in the morning,
advances from the first retailer he meets to the third, and takes the second sample.
He continues the procedure until he collects samples for all grains traded in the
market.
b. Similarly, to collect grain retail price (in non-standard units), two retail merchants
selling in traditional/ non-standard measurement units should be selected using a
systematic sampling procedure as follows:
The enumerator goes to the grain selling section of the market in the morning;
draws lot to determine whether to take the right or left direction; stands in the
direction randomly selected and then advances from the first retailer he meets to
the third one, and takes the first sample to observe. He continues the procedure
until he collects samples for all grains traded in the market.
In the afternoon, he takes the direction opposite to the one he took in the morning,
advances from the first retailer he meets to the third, and takes the second sample.
He continues the procedure until he collects samples for all grains traded in the
market.
To collect producer price of live-animals, two farmers who sell live-animals
should be selected using a systematic sampling procedure as follows:
The enumerator goes to the livestock section of the market in the morning; draws
lot to determine whether to take the right or left direction; stands in the direction
randomly selected and then advances from the first farmer he meets to the third
one, and takes the first sample farmer to interview. He continues the procedure
until he collects samples for all the live-animals traded in the market.
In the afternoon, he takes the direction opposite to the one he took in the morning,
advances from the first farmer he meets to the third, and takes the second sample.
He continues the procedure until he collects samples for all the live-animals
traded in the market.
59
6.8. Data Collection Forms and Mode of Form Filling
A Price Data Collection Form
The enumerator shall register the price data he collects weekly in the form titled Price
Data Collection Form shown in Annex A.
The enumerator shall prepare the form in two copies and send one copy to the supervisor
every week. The second copy shall be retained by the Project for analysis.
Procedure for Filling the Price Data Collection Form
Year
In the blank space following the word year, the year in which the price data is collected
shall be entered in Gregorian calendar.
Month
In the blank space following the word month, the month in which the price data was
collected shall be entered in Gregorian calendar.
Week
In the blank space following the word week, the week number in which the price data
was collected shall be entered as week 1, week 2, week 5, etc., in Gregorian calendar.
Market
In the blank space following the word market, the name of the market where the price
data was collected shall be entered.
Column One
The types of grain for which market information will be collected are indicated in column
one.
Column Two
In column 2, the enumerator shall record the two retail prices (in Birr/kg) collected
through actual observation. The retail price (in Birr/kg) information recorded in this
column is the amount which consumers pay to retail merchants expressed in birr per
kilogram.
In column 2, three rows are provided for recording three retail price observations (in
Birr/kg) for each crop types.
The recording shall be done as follows:
In the first row the retail price in kilogram sample taken in the morning will be
recorded.
In the second row the retail price in kilogram sample taken in the afternoon will
be recorded.
In the third row the average figure for the two samples will be recorded.
60
Column Three
In column three, the enumerator shall record the two retail prices in local measurement
unit collected through actual observation.
In column three, two rows are provided for recording two retail price observations
expressed in Birr/local measurement unit.
The recording shall be done as follows:
In the first row, the retail price observation (Birr/local measurement unit) taken in the
morning will be recorded.
In the second row, the retail price observation (Birr/local measurement unit taken
in the afternoon will be recorded.
Column Four
In column 4, the enumerator shall record the volumetric measures of grains (expressed in
liters) transacted in local measurement units.
In order to convert a local measurement unit into liter, the enumerator should record the
accurate liter level, by transferring the content of a local measurement unit into a 1,000 or
2000-milliliter beaker and thereby reading the beaker.
For each type of grain, two rows are left open for recording two volumetric readings of
local measurement units in liters. The recording shall be done as follows.
In the first row, the volumetric reading (in liter) of the local measurement unit
observed in the morning will be recorded.
In the second row, the volumetric reading (in liter) of the local measurement unit
observed in the afternoon will be recorded.
Column Five
In this column, the average weight of one liter of grain in grams is shown. The average
weights were computed from an earlier study conducted at various localities for various
types of grain.
Column Six
In this column, the products obtained by multiplying each of the figures recorded in
column four and column five will be recorded.
Column Seven
In this column, the quotients obtained by dividing each of the figures recorded in column
three by those recorded in column six will be recorded.
Special Comment Column
The enumerator should record, in the space left for Special Comment, at the bottom of
the page any special incident encountered during exchange of information, major
problems or special information obtained outside the prescribed manner.
61
Finally, the enumerator should write his name and sign the form in the space left for this
purpose before sending it to the HQ/ Center, in order to confirm the form has been filled
in by him/her.
If one particular type of grain is not available in the market or is not traded at one
particular market level during the data collection process, the enumerator should enter
code number 9999 in the rows provided for recording average price information figures.
If market information is not collected because of diverse reasons (illness, public holiday,
etc.) in selected market, on the major market day, the enumerator should enter code
number 8888 in the rows provided for recording average price information figures.
Live Animals Price Data will be recorded in the form in Annex B. For each type of live
animal, three rows are left open for recording three price data samples. The recording
shall be done as follows.
In the first row, the producer price observation (Birr/ live-animal) taken in the
morning will be recorded.
In the second row, the producer price observation (Birr/ live-animal) taken in the
afternoon will be recorded.
In the third row the average figure for the two samples will be recorded.
B. Form for Collecting Information Regarding Flow of Grains
Information regarding flow of grains shall be collected for grains traded at the wholesale
level only, and the quantity will be that transacted within a week in the selected market.
The enumerator should use different data collection methods including direct
observation, interview, and own assessment in order to collect data regarding weekly
inflow and outflow of grains to and from the selected market.
The enumerator shall record information regarding weekly flow of grains, in the form
show in Annex C.
Procedure for Filling the Weekly Grain Flow Form
Year
In the blank space following the word year, the year in which the weekly grain flow data
was collected shall be entered in Gregorian calendar.
Month
In the blank space following the word month, the month in which the weekly grain flow
data was collected shall be entered in Gregorian calendar.
Week
In the blank space following the word week, the week number in which the weekly grain
flow data was collected shall be entered as week 1, week 2, week 5, etc., in Gregorian
calendar.
62
Market
In the blank space following the word market, the name of the market where the weekly
grain flow data was collected shall be entered.
Column One
The types of grain for which weekly grain flow data will be collected are indicated in
column one.
Column Two
In column two, the estimated quantity of each type of grain purchased within the week by
the wholesale merchants operating in the selected market will be recorded.
Column Three
In column three, the quantity purchased within the woredas expressed as a percent of the
total quantity recorded in column two, will be recorded.
Column Four
In column four, the quantity purchased outside the Woredas expressed as a percent of the
total quantity recorded in column two, will be recorded.
Column Five and Six
In column five and six, the names of two important markets outside the woredas from
which large purchase were made during the week will be recorded, in order of their
importance.
Column Seven
In column seven, the estimated quantity of each type of grain sold within the week by the
wholesale merchants operating in the selected market is recorded.
Column Eight
In column eight, the quantity sold within the woredas expressed as a percent of the total
quantity recorded in column seven, is recorded.
Column Nine
In column nine, the quantity sold outside the woredas expressed as a percent of the total
quantity recorded in column seven, is recorded.
Columns Ten and Eleven
In column ten and eleven, the names of two important markets outside the woredas to
which large quantities of grain outflows are destined during the week will be recorded, in
order of their importance.
No product in market = 9999
No observation made (omission, illness, etc.) = 8888
No product transacted at a particular market level = 7777
63
Annex A – Grain Price Data Collection Form
Year ________ Month __________ Week ___________ Market ____________
Product Retail
Price (kg)
Retail Price (NSU)
Price per
kg (Birr)
NSU Price Conversion Price per
kg (Birr) Price per
NSU (Birr)
No of liters
in NSU (use
procedure)
Kg per
liter
Kg in
NSU
1 2 3 4 5 6= 4x5 7= 3/6
Mixed Teff Morning 0.929625
Afternoon 0.929625
Average
White Wheat 0.89826
0.89826
Mixed Wheat 0.670625
0.670625
Food Aid
Wheat
White
Sorghum
0.8413
0.8413
White
Sorghum
0.89826
0.89826
Red Sorghum 0.81754
0.81754
White Maize 0.83224
0.83224
Special
Remarks ___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
No product in market = 9999
No observation made (omission, illness, etc.) = 8888
No product transacted at a particular market level = 7777
64
Annex B Livestock data collection format
Year ______ Month ______ Week ______ Market __________
Product Producer Price (Birr/
live-animal)
(1) (2)
Ox
Cow
Medium size un-castrated
ram
Medium size un-castrated
he-goat
Special Remark
No product in market = 9999
No observation made (omission, illness, etc.) = 8888
No product transacted at a particular market level = 7777
65
Annex C – Grain Flow Data Collection Form
Year _______ Month _________ Day ___________ Market ____________
Product Estimat
e of
total
quantity
of
product
purchas
ed at
the
wholesa
le level
in this
market
this
week
(in
quintals
)
Source of Product Purchased at
the Wholesale Level in this
market (sum=100%)
Estimat
e of
total
quantity
of
product
sold at
the
wholesa
le level
in this
market
this
week
Destination of Product Sold at the
Wholesale Level in this market
(sum=100%)
%
Procured
by
wholesal
ers from
sources
within
the
woreda
%
Procured
by
wholesal
ers from
sources
outside
the
woreda
Primary
source
markets
for
supplies
coming
from
outside
the
woreda
% Sold
by
wholesal
ers
within
the
woredas
% Sold
by
wholesal
ers
outside
the
woreda
Primary
destination
markets for
supplies
exported
from this
market
area
1st
Mk
t
2nd
Mk
t
1st
Mkt
2nd
Mkt
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Teff
Barley
Wheat
Sorghum
Maize
Others
Special Comments:
66
CHAPTER SEVEN: CROP AND LIVESTOCK ASSESSMENT
7.1. Objectives: -
As the crop and livestock are the main sources of income for the majority of rural
household in Ethiopia, monitoring of crop and livestock conditions is a key component of
the households food and livelihood security surveillance system. At the same time, crop
and livestock production is highly variable over time, as it is largely rain-fed and pest
control measures are often late and ineffective.
The major objective of crop and livestock assessment is to identify changes in crop and
livestock production prospects from the normal and to find out reasons for these
changes.
7.2. Assessment schedule:
Livestock assessment is a continues activity through out he year. The information is
collected, communicated and analyzed on monthly basis.
Crop assessment is a seasonal activity. It includes not only the assessment of crop
conditions of standing crops but also land preparation in the pre-planting period and the
conditions at harvesting time.
Crop and livestock assessment procedures
Pre-planting/planting assessment
It evaluates
Have farmers started land preparation on time?
Any major and unusual problem during land preparation
Factors that may limit timely planting, such as low availability of seed, fertilizer,
and oxen.
Have farmers started planting on time?
Has the rain started on time?
Estimate of area planted and cultivated
Mid-season (pre-harvest) crop and livestock assessment
To conduct a crop assessment, the team should describe the economic characteristics of
area to be covered, in order to provide a context-specific interpretation of the findings.
Monthly rainfall pattern
Area planted by crop type
Crop performance, yield and production prospect
Livestock performance
Final (harvest) crop and livestock assessment It is to predict next years food supply prospect in the area under study.
Beneficiary and needs assessment
Production of crops for the season
Extent of food production
Productivity/yield
67
7.3. Checklist for meher pre-harvest crop & livestock assessment
(Adapted from DPPC checklist)
A. Data to be collected from district offices
Information to be collected from district agriculture office
1. Weather conditions
Description of 2002 Meher season rainfall performance
Rainfall performance (please specify the months and weeks)
Onset
Distribution
Amount (should be supported by Rainfall data)
Cessation
Dry spells (when they happened and how long)
Adversities of unusual weather events such as excessive rain, landslide and
hailstorm
Impact
2. Crop area and performance
Important cash and food crops in the area, planted area, which crops increased, decreased
or equal to normal1
Planted area
Main constraints to planting,
Why planting decreased if this is the case?
Measures taken to compensate for the decline
Timeliness of planting
If there were delays in planting, where, why and its impact
Crop germination
Early season crop performance and replanting)
Weather condition and how it influenced crop yields,
Which crops were affected and Where (in which Agro ecology and PAs)?
Extent of damage in hectare
3. Input supplies,
Were there any major changes in input supplies? Or utilization? If so what was the
impact on the crop yield?
4. Unusual outbreak of crop pests and diseases,
Which pests and diseases?
Which crops affected?
At what stage were affected?
Which areas were affected?
1Normal means the typical or the most frequent condition over the last five years of that variable. This
should be seen as opposed to favorable/good condition or the average condition.
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Get an impression of the magnitude of loss
Other factor that caused significantly reduction in yield
Overall Meher crop production prospect
Try to get a good idea of the condition of crops in the current season)
Is surplus production expected in the woreda?
In which crops
In which areas,
Estimated area, yield and production of the Meher season by crop type as
compared to normal year and last year. (See Annex for detail) from MOA office
5. Livestock number and quality
Pasture and water availability
Access to pasture and water
Livestock diseases prevalence
Evidence of unusual movement of herds (in or out)
Current livestock quality and herd size
6. Income sources and market condition
List of income sources known in the area
Current opportunities and prospect for additional sources
Cash crops
Wage labor
Petty commodity production including fuel products such as fire wood and
charcoal
Change in daily wage rates for manual labor
Current market prices and market conditions for animal and grains
Type of animal being sold, condition of animals for sale and volume of animal
sales
Price of cash crops produced in the area; better or worse than normal (please
analyze)
Prices and supplies of major staple foods; higher, lower, or around seasonal norms
Accessibility situation to usual markets
7. Food security prospects for next year
Taking in to account all sources of food and income, what is the prospect of food
security for the coming six months?
Comment food situation in the past six months
Has the food security situation improved or deteriorated?
Highlight the areas that are likely to suffer from food crises in the coming six
months
Are there signs of major food related problems in the woreda?
Include evidences of abnormal food stress responses, malnutrition, or nutritional
related mortality
Make sure to state whether evidence of food related problems were observed
firsthand by the team or only reported to the team
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Information to be collected from district health office
8. Human health and nutrition)
Evidence of unusual outbreak of human diseases
Were there abnormal mortality rate?
Main types of diseases with abnormal outbreaks
Areas most affected
Measures taken
Effectiveness of these measures
Current meal frequency as compared to normal years
The second category of information will be collected at community level.
We take 25% of the peasant association in our operation area (district) and these peasant
associations will be selected by stratification method. (See chapter two)
B. Checklist for community interview
1. Livelihood and income share
In normal years what are the important activities in the area?
Which activities provide the household with the most food or cash on average?
Which are the most important crops in the area?
How much of crop production of these crops comes from the Meher season?
Sources of income or food Rank %
Food crop production
Cash crop production
Sales of livestock
Livestock products
Wage labor
Petty trading
Petty commodity production (honey clothing, Teji, Tella)
Firewood and charcoal production
Food aid
Loans and remittances or food gifts from friends and relatives
2. Food consumption pattern
What is the main staple food commodities consumed in the area in a normal year?
What are the first, second, and third most important commodities consumed by a poor
family?
What do families consume in hard times?
Is there any toxic, foul tasting or taboo foods, which people will consume, in hard time?
3. Chronic food insecurity status
In how many years has relief assistance been distributed in the last five years?
In how many years in the last five years has hunger been experienced in the Bega/kiremt
season?
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4. Copping strategies
How many meals do people normally consume in a day?
During the lean season, when do people do these types of things? (See table below)
Type of behavior Never
Same
year
Most
years
Every
year
Only
famine
years Sell draft oxen
Sell bridal wealth
Consume wild foods
Reduce number of meals
Withdraw children from school
Borrow food/cash from neighbor
Reduce size of meals
Migrate long distance to find food
FOOD
5. Rainfalls and Meteorology
Describe rainfall and temperature situation month by month for the last few months, were
they normal? Low? Excessive? In months with unusual pattern ask for explanation
Ask respondents to indicate the timing or any other identified adversities such as
hailstorm, flooding, high winds etc.
6. Crop production
When did planting take place? How does this compare to normal?
If delays have occurred, find out the why
Low rainfall at planting time
Unusual shortage of oxen? Why?
Seed shortage
Low farm get prices at planting time
Was it necessary to replant any crop? If so which crops and why? In which altitude zone?
Roughly how much land was replanted? When did replanting take place?
Rate planting as 5 = much lower than normal
4 = somewhat lower than normal
3 = about normal
2 = somewhat higher than normal
1 = much higher than normal
Was fertilizer used this year in normal quantities?
At what stage were crops when pest infestation or disease occurred? What control
measures were taken?
Rate main crops as 5 = well below normal
4 = below normal
3 = about normal
2 = above normal
1 = well above normal
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7. Livestock
How does access to communal grazing compared to normal?
How do conditions of pasture in communal grazing lands compared to normal?
Are usual watering holes being used? If no why?
Rate livestock numbers as : 5 = a large decrease
4 = below normal
3 = normal
2 = above normal
1 = a large increase
8. Other income sources
Which food commodities are purchased for food consumption
Are milk cows or draft oxen being sold?
Are the animals being sold much younger than usual?
What is the daily wage rate for unskilled labor? How does it compare to normal?
If the wage rate has decline, are people looking for wage labor or are fewer people
hiring?
How do price of petty commodities compared to normal?
Are fewer or more people selling than usual?
Are more people engaged in petty trade (firewood, charcoal) than usual? Why?
9. Food security situation
Fewer or more HHs gathering firewood or making charcoal? Where
More or less prostitution? Where?
More or fewer people migrating long distances to find work? Where?
Fewer or more HHs moving out of the area? Where?
Reduction in the size of meals? Where/
More or fewer people eating toxic or taboo food/ where?
Withdrawing children from school? Where? Is school enrolment higher or lower
this year?
Postponement of wedding ceremonies? Where?
More or less sales of pride wealth than usual? Where?
More or less sales of water pores or other HH cooking utensils? Where?
Sales or draft oxen? Where/
Has there been an increase in the number of funerals in the area? Why? Where?
Who?
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CHAPTER EIGHT REPORT WRITING
8.1. Introduction
Whatever profession you choose, it is almost certain that you will be asked to write and
read reports. It has been estimated that an engineer, a business executive or a government
officer spends about 75 percent of his time at the desk either writing reports, letters etc. or
processing them.
A large number of important decisions in business, industry or government are taken on
the basis of information presented or recommendations made in reports. Whenever a
problem comes to notice, a need is felt to analyze a situation, or detailed information is
required to take a decision, the report writer comes into the picture. A commission or a
committee, a study group or a panel is required to present its findings and/or
recommendations in the form of a report. Today when an industry employs thousands of
workers, many of them specialists' in particular fields of operation, it is not possible to
keep oneself informed of what others are doing with out the aid of reports. It is
undeniable fact that a report helps an executive perform his functions of planning and
evaluating men and material resources efficiently.
It has highly been said that for running an industry or a business efficiently the skill of
report writing is as necessary as good equipment and quality raw materials.In
development organizations, inability to write a quality report has been a prominent
problem for long. This could be attributed to limited materials on the subject, lack of
report writing background at school (Colleges and Universities) and report writing not
considered as skill.
For the matter of convenience the topics are divided into three parts. The first part
introduces the concept and some basic classifications of reports. The second part deals
with preparatory steps in report writing. Report organization or arrangement of the
findings into the appropriate order and writing final report will be discussed in the third
part of the chapter.
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8.2. Report and its classifications
8.2.1. What is a report?
Some writers and researchers agree that it is not quite possible to give precise definition
of a report today because of its extensive use in all organizations such as business,
government agencies, civic groups, and so on. Its use in these organizations ranges its
definition from one extreme to another. A number of writers have made an attempt to
answer the question 'what is a report?' Let us see some definitions of a report made by
scholars.
The word “report” is derived from the Latin “reportare” which means to carry back.
Re = back
Portare = to carry. A report, therefore, is a description of an event carried back to
someone who was not present on the spot.
A report is a communication from someone who has information, to someone who wants
to use that information.
A technical report is a written statement of the facts of a situation, project, process or test,
how these facts were proved; their significance; the conclusions that have been drawn
from them; the recommendations that are being made.
A report is a formal communication written for a specified purpose, it includes a
description of procedures followed for collection and analysis of data, their significance,
the conclusions drawn from them, and recommendations, if required. A report conveys
certain specific information to specific reader or readers. It is not written because you feel
good one morning and want to reveal to mankind your particular joys. A report is usually
an answer to a question, or a demand from some other person for information.
8.2.2. Classification of reports
In their attempts to investigate the nature of a report, scholars have classified reports in to
different types. So far there is no standardized rule to be followed and no agreement
reached among scholars on the classification of reports. Classification of reports helps
greatly to understand the complex nature of a report. Hence, discussing some of the basis
that the scholars used to classify reports is important.
1. Subject matter; - accounting, management, economics, engineering, etc.
2. Time interval: - periodic reports, and special reports
3. Function: - The most popular means of classification of reports is by what they do or
function. Informative report, Examination report, and Analytical report
4. Formality: -Formal and informal reports
5. Writer reader relationship: -Administrative reports, Professional reports, and
independent reports
6. Status of authorship: - Private reports, independent reports and public reports
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The following diagram shows the report classification on the basis of formality.
An oral report: - is apiece of face-to-face communication about something seen or
observed. Though it saves the reporters time, it is more time consuming for the receiver
as he has to listen to every word of the report
A written report: - is relatively more accurate and permanent. In certain cases the
reader may just skim through it, or read the abstract or the conclusions or
recommendations only. It can be referred to again and again and is by its very nature
more formal than an oral report. Written reports could be classified in to two major
categories.
Formal report: - vary a great deal according to their purpose and contents, and different
organizations have different ways of classifying them. For our purpose we may classify
these reports into three broad categories.
Informational: - An informational report contains only the data collected or the facts
observed in an organized form. It presents the situation as it is and not as it should be. It
does not contain any conclusions or recommendations. It is useful because it presents
relevant data put together in a form in which it is required by the management to take
decisions.
Interpretive report: - An “Interpretive “, takes an informational report, contains facts
but it also includes an evaluation, interpretation, or analysis of data and the reporter’s
conclusions. It may also have recommendations for actions. An interpretive report that
consists principally of recommendations is also called a recommendation or
recommendatory report.
REPORT
Oral reports Written reports
Informal Formal
Informational Interpretive Routine
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Routine reports: - There are some reports, which are written, in a prescribed form. All
that the report writer has to do is to put a tick mark against certain items listed in the form
or write very brief remarks against them. These reports are written usually for recording
routine matters at regular intervals, example confidential reports on employees, periodic
reports on the progress of projects, reports on inception of equipment, etc. Though these
reports are formal and contain information and sometimes recommendations also, they
are called routine reports.
When a long -term project or work is undertaken, the administration keeps itself informed
through progress reports. The project may be the construction of a bridge or building, the
layout of a residential colony, the installation of equipment in a factory, or the
investigation of some problems. These reports help the officers and workers immediately
responsible for the job to take stock of what has already been done and to relate it to the
total amount of time and /or money available. Laboratory reports inspection reports;
inventory reports and annual confidential reports on employees are examples of routine
reports.
Informal reports: - Such reports are written in the form of a memorandum and range
from a few lines to several pages of detailed information. Sometimes they are written in
the letterform too. E.g. Field visits (tour) reports.
8.3. Preparatory steps in writing reports
Report writing is a laborious work that requires time, patience, knowledge, new insight
(wisdom) and creative power. In other words it is not apiece of work that one performs at
a spot or over night. Preparing a report is in many respects like learning to walk: it must
be done one step at a time. The trouble is that many writers in their haste to finish the task
as quickly as possible often try to exclude a step or more, as a result, stumble, and fall.
This kind of action is often self-defeating for it can delay the report and diminish its
impact. Therefore, a report writer should make careful preparation, make decisions
especially about the following before he sits down at his desk, and start writing.
Determining the audience/Reader
A report is always written with audience in mind. To write a good report, a writer should
understand the need, interest, attitude and knowledge of a reader and able to organize
information for him. Generally speaking, you will find that your report has any of the
following six kinds of audience.
Superior officers,
Colleagues and counterparts in other organizations,
Subordinate employees,
Other organization engaged in similar activities,
Shareholders,
Customers and members of the public.
Remember that a report is a piece of communication and can be considered successful
only if it produces in the reader the desired response. One way of testing this is to place
your-self in the position of the reader and then examine the effect it produces. Therefore,
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clear perception of the reader's outlook and need is the first and most important thing in
report writing. In fact, it may be difficult for a report writer to identify particularly a
report user; but he has to make all possible attempts to discover who his principal reader
is. Cooper's word may be good conclusion for this point. He stated:
…Remember that the report is not being written for your benefit but for use by someone
else. It is not important what you think of the report, how it satisfies you, but it satisfies
somebody else, possibly very different from you.
Objectives Having clearly stated objectives is very important in preparing a report. Objective in
report writing refers to what a writer hopes will happen as a result of his work. It is often
helpful for report writer to write down his objectives precisely before he begins his work.
Stating objectives may be sometimes difficult for inexperienced report writer. To
overcome this problem, Emden and Easteal (1987) proposed eight questions that if they
are honestly asked and answered can help one to set his objective(s) clearly.
These are:
What does the reader know about the subject?
What does the reader want to know?
What do I want the reader to know about this subject?
Is there a discrepancy between (2) and (3), and if so, what is its importance?
What actions does the reader expect to take as a result of this report?
What actions do I want the reader to take as a result of this report?
Is there a discrepancy between (5) and (6) and if so, what is its importance to the
reader and to me?
What am I writing for this particular reader?
The Subject
Some questions that a report writer ask himself through out his work:
Why is this being written?
What ought to be done about it?
If I want action, are my recommendations clear enough, specific enough?
Have I defined the expected result quite precisely to myself?
In general, when a report writer makes preparation to write a report, he has to make sure
that he has stated his objectives clearly, has collected all necessary information about his
readers and has understood clearly the subject on which he is going to write a report.
Data collection
After the purpose and scope have been specified and audience determined, the next step
is to gather the relevant data. Before you set about this task, you must know the various
methods of collecting information and the sources from which you can gather the
relevant material. Many reports turn out to be ineffective because the writer did not use
the proper method, consult the right documents, approach the right people or secure the
right answers. There are a number of methods and sources for collecting data. All and
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every collected information may not be pertinent to the objectives of a report and some of
them may not be so significant to be included in a report. Hence, sorting out materials for
information according to their usefulness is very important from the very beginning.
Suggested techniques in collecting information
Collecting and sorting out information according to the stated problem require skilful
activities. Different writers suggested similar techniques to be used and step to be
followed in collecting important facts for a report. Five key activities or steps that have to
take place during collecting information for a report are:
Decide what information is required.
Discover the source of information.
Go to the source and obtain the information.
Check that the information is accurate.
Check that information is relevant to the subject
In general a report writer has to investigate the possible sources of information, and be
able to solve the problem that has been already stated.
Data could be collected through
Personal observation
Personal interview
Telephone interview
Questionnaire etc.
Sources of data could be -
Internal records
Library
Evaluation of materials
Note making etc.
Processing and analysis of data
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the report plan. The data
collected for the purpose of statistical inquiry sometimes consists of a few fairly simple
figures, which can be easily understood with out any kind of special treatment. But more
often there is an overwhelming mass of raw data and detail with out any form of
structure. Data obtained from primary sources, obviously enough, are in a raw state for
they have not gone through any statistical treatment.
This unorganized and shapeless mass of collected data is not capable of being rapidly or
easily assimilated or interpreted. In order to make the data easily understandable, the first
task of the statistician is to condense and simplify them in such a manner that irrelevant
details are eliminated and their significance features stand out prominently. The
procedure adopted for this purpose is known as the method of classification and
tabulation.
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8.4 Principles of organizing and writing report
8.4.1 Principles of report organization
Logical or inductive order
According to this order, organization of information moves from known to unknown. It
begins with an introductory part, which orients a reader about the problem and presents
facts sometimes with their analysis. Then from the analysis of the facts conclusions and
summaries are derived. Thus in indirect order the arrangements are typified by an
introductory section, the report body, and summary, conclusion, or recommendation
section.
Direct order (Psychological and Deductive):
This order follows the deductive fashion and hence presents the most important
information (conclusion and recommendation) at the beginning and facts and analysis are
followed by.
Chronological Arrangement:
This is used to present problems that have historical nature or in some other way related
to time. The time pattern may be from past to present or from present to future.
Chronological order may begin with an introductory section or with a conclusion,
summary, or recommendation. In other words, it uses either indirect or direct order to
which the chronological sequence is usually applied.
Report format
When you complete the outline of a report, the next task is to plan the make up of the
report. This task is complicated by the fact that report types are numerous and reports are
far from standardized in regard to physical arrangement. In other words, the format of a
report depends mainly on the type of a report to be produced. In general the formats have
three main parts.
Prefatory parts/ front matter
Titles fly – contains only the report title. Therefore, make the title describe the report
precisely.
Title page: - In addition to the presentation of the title, like the title fly, the title page also
displays the identification of a writer and authorizer and date.
Letter of Authorization: - A report may be authorized orally or in writing. In written
reports, a report writer usually inserts a letter or memorandum to the intended reader after
the title page. The objective of this letter is to authorize the investigator to begin the
investigation.
Preface or forward: - This is a letter/personal message from the writer to the reader.
Table of content and list of illustrations: - In long formal reports in which a guide to
contents is needed, a table of content with page numbers is included. If a report has a
number of chars, tables, illustrations, and the like, a separate table of contents may be set
up for them.
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Summary and Abstracts: - The main difference between abstract and summary is that
of function. An abstract tells in concentrated form what the report is about whereas a
summary gives the substance of the report. Like summary abstract presents a summary of
major findings, but unlike the summary it contains a list of the major supporting facts. By
its nature an abstract is shorter than a summary. As the purpose of these both elements is
to enable the busy reader to gather important information quickly with out having to go
through the whole report, they should be self sufficient and understandable, with out
reference to any other part of the report.
In a long and complex report it is very helpful to provide a summary of conclusions and
recommendations. It concentrates the reader's mind and can be as an agenda in presenting
and discussing the report. It is useful to cross-reference the items to the relevant
paragraphs or sections of the report.
The Report Proper/Main Body
There is no standardized set for the arrangements of the report content. Different writers
use different arrangements for technical matters and needs of the intended readers.
Therefore, the following review of the makeup of the logical report arrangement should
equip one to adopt the other patterns.
Introduction: - The main aim of the introductory part is to orient the reader about the
problem. It is to say what the report is about, what work has already been done on the
subject and what new grounds are covered in the present study. It helps the reader to
understand and appreciate the problem.
In specific terms, the items of information that may be included in it are the following: -
Origin of the problem: -
Purpose/objective/problem/aim.
Scope
Source and methods of data collection.
Limitations.
Historical background.
Definitions.
Report preview.
Since the introduction sets the scene and prepares the reader for what is to follow, take
utmost care in writing it. The introduction of a report is however, different from that of an
essay or a popular article in which you are expected to quickly arrest the reader's
attention and gradually lead him on to the subject matter. The introduction to a report
states in a forthright manner what you are going to discuss and does not admit of any
vagueness.
In general, introduction should explain: why the report has been written, its aims, its
terms of reference, and why it should be read. It should then state the sources of
information upon which the report was based. Finally, if the report is divided in to
various sections, the arrangement and labeling of these sections should be explained.
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The report body: - This is the heart of the report that presents and analyses the gathered
information. It encompasses all that appears in the logical order report between the
introduction and conclusion sections, including supporting tables and charts that relate to
this part. Usually it has several sections grouped under different headings and sub-
headings. It is however; not necessary to use the term "Discussion or Description " itself
as heading, other apt words or phrases may serve the purpose better. The main function
of this section is to present data in an organized form, discuss their significance and
analysis and the results that flow there from.
Generally, the middle of the report should contain the facts you have assembled and your
analysis of those facts. The analysis should lead logically to the conclusions and
recommendations included in the final section. One of the most common weaknesses in
reports is for the facts not to lead on naturally to the conclusions; the other is for the
conclusions not to be supported by the facts.
Ending of a report: - The report can end with: -
Conclusion: - The term conclusion is used to describe remarks at the end of a piece of
writing. All conclusions must be supported by what has gone before; nothing new should
be included at this stage. It is to bring the discussion or description to a close and to
signal to the reader gracefully that he has reached the end.
Recommendation: - The terms of reference would usually indicate whether
recommendations are required. As we have indicated earlier, conclusions embody the
inferences and findings where as the function of recommendations is to suggest the future
course of action. The busy executive may sometimes read only this part of the report and
take decisions. It is not wise to make recommendation if not asked to do so not to assume
the authority of the decision-makers. As in the case of conclusion, you should list
recommendations in the descending order of their importance.
The final section of the report should set out the recommendations, stating how each of
them will help to achieve the stated aims of the report or overcome any weaknesses
revealed by the analytical studies. The benefits, costs, and costs of implementing the
recommendations should then be explained. The next stage is to propose a method of
proceeding - the program of work, complete with deadlines, and the name of people who
would carry it out. Finally, tell the recipients of the report what action, such as approval
of plans or authorization of expenditure, you would like them to take.
Appended parts /Back matters.
The appendix contains materials, which is needed to support the main body of the report
but is too detailed to be included in the text. It should be such that the reader can safely
omit reading it with out any loss of understanding of the contents of the report. But if he
wishes to examine in detail the supporting or related evidence, and documents he should
be able to find it in the appendix.
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Thus in deciding which material should be relegated to the appendix, bear in mind the
following two factors.
Whether the material sustains the theme and forms an essential and integral part
of the report.
Whether it would interrupt the train of the reader's thought if included in the main
body,
All appendices should be referred to in the text and their significance or meaning pointed
out. If their number is more than one, they should be designated as Appendix A,
Appendix B and so on. Generally, the kind of materials included in the appendix are
questionnaires, statistical data, samples of forms or data sheets used in the investigation,
detailed calculations, derivations of questions, illustrative materials, worked out
examples, sample documents, specimens, tables of definitions and symbols.
Correspondence, summaries of results achieved by other organizations, views of others
on similar topics and other materials, which must be included for record, are also
appended.
8.4.2. Principles of writing a report
When the necessary information is collected, the next stage in report writing is the
arrangement of the finding into the appropriate order. If the organization is poor, the
effort that has been made may not be fruitful. It is obvious that if you start preparing the
first draft straightaway, you are likely to be lost in the mass of data and it will be difficult
for you to adhere to the sequence of your ideas. The best way to organize material is to
prepare the outline of a report before you actually start writing it.
The outline will provide you with a framework into which you can fit in an orderly
manner various bits and pieces of information you have collected and your own
conclusion. It will indicate the pattern of your report and provide you with a starting point
for writing. It will also serve as a map, which will not only lead you to your destination
but also enable you to ensure that you are on the correct track. The various headings and
sub headings contained in it will act as traffic signs, directing you on the right course.
Preparation of the final outline: - Outlines are the framework upon which long written
works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a
remainder of the points to be stressed in the report.
Preparation of the rough draft: - You should also first write a rough draft of your
report on the basis of the outline that you have prepared from your notes. The first draft
may be crude and inadequate; however, it will be improved through careful revision.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: - This step happens to be most difficult
part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in
logical development or presentation. The report writer should also see whether or not the
material, as it is presented, unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and
exhibit a definite pattern like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering
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cement and loose bricks? In addition the report writer should give due attention to the
fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. One should check the mechanics
of writing -grammar, spelling and usage.
Writing the final draft: - Though the process of revision is largely of a mechanical
nature, it provides you the only chance
1. To check the structure and layout of your report
2. To improve its language and style
It is therefore, advisable to go through the rough draft at least twice before preparing the
final draft checking one aspect at a time. If you try to keep both the aspects in mind at the
same time, you are likely to miss one or the other. The final report should be written in a
concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as
"it seems," "there may be", and the like once. While writing the final draft, the report
writer must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Given below is a checklist in the form of question, which should help you, revise your
rough draft.
Revision of structure and layout
1. Does the title reflect the nature of the report content?
2. Have you adhered to the terms of reference?
3. Does your report contain all elements needed?
4. Have you clearly stated the purpose, scope and plan of presentation in the
introduction?
5. Have you dealt with all the aspects mentioned in the preface and introduction?
6. Are the conclusions based on the findings of your investigation?
7. Are recommendations clearly stated, and itemized, where necessary?
8. Have you arranged various sections in such away that one logically leads on to the
next?
9. Have you insured that there are no repetitions?
10. Do the heading, sub-headings, and page numbers as mentioned in the table of
contents agree with those in the text?
11. Are the illustrations listed in the order, which they are mentioned in the text?
12. Is there a proper margin on all side and the material properly spaced?
13. Does the report bear an over all attractive appearance?
Revision of language and style
14. Have you kept an audience in mind while writing?
15. Is your language suitable for the audience you have written for?
16. Does each paragraph deal with one main topic or sub topic adequately?
17. Have you used suitable and effective transitional devices from one sentence to
another and between paragraphs?
18. Have you removed any redundancy that might have crept in?
19. Have you insured that the report does not contain unnecessary clichés, jargon, and
informal words?
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20. Have you used, as far as possible, concrete, short and familiar words?
21. Have you avoided the use of too many complex and compound sentences?
22. Have you been cautious in the use of intensifiers?
23. Are there any passive constructions, which could be changed to the active for
greater effectiveness?
24. Is your writing free from all errors of spelling, grammar and punctuation?
25. Have you checked of all facts, figure, calculations, quotations, citations, dates and
references?
Some considerations in word selection, sentence construction, and paragraph
designing.
When you write a report to a single person or homogeneous group of readers there are no
many problems because in most cases the identity of the readers are known. The problem
is when you have a group of readers comprised of people with varying characteristics.
For a readership with mixed knowledge and abilities, write so that the lower levels can
understand and the higher levels can maintain interest.
Therefore, a report writer should be very careful in word selection, sentence construction,
and paragraph designing.
Word selection
The main purpose of a writer is to produce in his reader's mind the meaning that he has
formulated in his mind through the words that he use to express the intended meaning.
However, the nature of words, complexity of word meaning, their inexact symbols of
meanings and their countless shares of differences in meaning usually create problem to
understand exactly what the writer wants to communicate. Though it is impossible to
avoid all these difficulties, scholars suggested using certain techniques to lessen the
degree of difficulties.
Use words that the reader understands and expects.
Use familiar words: - as a general rule, the familiar every day words are the best to use in
report writing because familiar words communicate more effectively than unfamiliar
words. Using large unfamiliar word is not the way to impress your readers. Use the same
vocabulary you would use if you were conversing your reader.
Use concrete words: - words which form sharp and clear meaning in the reader's mind
rather than abstract words which are words of fuzzy and vague meanings.
Use specialized terms appropriately: - all fields have specialized terms that are useful in
the field. If we are writing to a lay audience about specialized area, make the appropriate
adjustments in your vocabulary: - never try to impress your reader with jargons.
Prefer active to passive verbs: - this does not mean that one should eliminate passive
voice, for passive voice has a definite place in good report writing. But it does not mean
that the good report writer uses as much active voice as he logically can.
Avoid over use of normalized words: - abstract nouns formed from verbs usually
hindrance to understand a text.
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Sentence construction
Arranging words into sentences, which communicate clearly and easily, should be always
a goal of report writer. Therefore, when you write a report: -
Use short and precise sentences
Use words economically
Avoid the use of surplus words
Do not use roundabout construction
Avoid unnecessary repetition
Paragraph designing
Paragraph is a small unit of writing composition and is defined as a group of sentences
relating to one topic or expanding a single central idea. A good paragraph should have the
following structures.
Unity of thought: - A paragraph should have only one central idea. The first sentence
can state the idea and the rest of the paragraph can define it.
Order: - the idea of the paragraph should be developed in a logical order where one
thought leads to another. The theme should be unbroken. If an event is dealt with, it
should be written in a natural sequence.
Coherence: - To connect sentences and make the paragraph a well-knit whole, certain
conjunctions are useful. Example, hence, but, then, therefore, so are some which can be
used. Some times themes have to be contrasted and before expressing them, the following
can be used; on the other hand, still, nevertheless, on the contrary, but and yet.
Variety: - To compose a good paragraph, the sentence patterns must be varied. Long and
short sentences, simple and complex, straightforward and inverted, and direct and
involved should be used.
Keep the paragraph short: - short paragraphs have many advantages. They help the
reader to follow the organizational plan of the paper, help him see the beginning and
ending of each item covered, and gives added emphasis to the facts covered. In addition,
they are more inviting to the eye.
Put topic sentences to good use: - the main idea of a paragraph can be placed at the
beginning, end or within a paragraph. Even though placing a topic sentence in one of the
mentioned positions is acceptable, it would be advantageous to be a topic sentence at the
beginning in report writing. (See subject six)
Presentation of Tables and figures
Tables’ information is presented with numbers, whereas figure information is presented
visually. Often visual information is easier to understand.
Tables and figures MUST be self-explanatory. The reader should not need to look f or
the explanation in the text.
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Each table or figure needs a header that includes the number of the table or figure,
followed by the title. The table or figure number can then be referred to in the text.
Tables and figures should be numbered separately in sequence through the report.
The title of a table or figure should summarize briefly the information in the table or
figure.
Each column in a table should have a header.
Use the same style for tables throughout the document.
Precise units of measurement should be used whenever possible i.e. %, months, etc.
If a table or figure is taken from another publication, the source must be identified.
Whenever percentages are used in tables, the raw figures should be included. This assists
the reader in checking the validity of interpretation.
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ANNEX
Appendix 1 USES OF NUTRITIONAL INDICATORS
1. Targeting
Community targeting for community development programming can be facilitated by
data on prevalence of stunting.
2. Monitoring
In emergency programs, WFH is the primary indicator for screening and monitoring
progress in recovery from severe malnutrition.
3. Evaluation of impacts
The prevalence of stunting is an important impact indicator because it is directly the
result of both food and health insecurity
Appendix 2 TYPES OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS DATA
1. Clinical examination data: - carried out by a person with medical training
2. Anthropometric data: - body measurement
3. Laboratory tests: -hemoglobin, examination of stool, blood for parasites, HCT
4. Dietary survey
5. Vital statistics: - related to birth and death in the community
6. Additional health statistics and medical information
The top ten diseases observed during a certain period
The break out of epidemics
7. Agricultural data relevant to food production and food balance sheet
8. Economic data related to purchasing power, food prices and food distribution
9. Scio-cultural data including food consumption patterns and food practices
10. Food science information such as nutrient content of food, the biological value of
dietes, the presence of toxic factors such as goitrogens.
Appendix 3. MORTALITY RATES
Mortality rates are expressed as a number of deaths per 1,000 or 10,000 populations
within a given time frame usually three months (crude mortality rate/CMR). This means
that in order to calculate rates, all deaths have to be recorded and the total population of
the camp has to be known, or it must be possible to estimate the total population with
confidence.
During the emergency phase, when death rates are likely to be high, the CMR is usually
expressed as 'number of deaths per 10,000 per day'. The following benchmarks for
evaluating the seriousness of the situation are now widely accepted:
Crude Mortality Rate: 0.5 per 10,000 per day 'normal' in developing countries
< 1.0 per I 0,000 per day under control
>1.0 per 10,000 per day very serious situation
>2.0 per 10,000 per day out of control
>5.0 per 10,000 per day catastrophic
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Young children are often severely affected by camp conditions, and death rates among
under-fives are likely to show the greatest increase. If possible, under-five mortality
figures should therefore be dissaggregated. The benchmarks for the under-five mortality
rate (< 5MR) are approximately double those of the CMR.
Under-five Mortality Rate: <1.0 per 10,000 per day 'normal'
<2.0 per 10,000 per day under control
>2.0 per 10,000 per day very serious situation
>4.0 per 10,000 per day out of control
>10.0 per 10,000 per day catastrophic
Calculating crude mortality rates over short periods of time
(Less than one month)
I total the deaths for a given number of days.
2 Divide the total by the number of days over which data were gathered this gives
the average number of deaths per day.
2 Divide this number by the size of the displaced population. (Average population)
3 Multiply by 10,000 for a daily crude mortality rate. (CDC, 1992)
If the camp has been established for some time and there has been no mortality
surveillance, there may be a need to conduct a retrospective mortality survey, asking a
random sample of the population about deaths in the family over given recall period.
The length of recall period should not exceed six months even if the camp has existed
for longer than that, because reliability of recall will be a problem.
Mortality is commonly under-reported, for a number of reasons because a death reduces
the family entitlement to food and other relief goods. It is important to make every effort
to encourage reporting, for example, by providing burial cloth to relatives of the
bereaved. It is also important to mortality registration reports and to complement with
other systems, such as paid 24-hour grave-watchers.
Appendix 4 DRAWING OF A RANDOM NUMBER A random number is a number chosen from a list of numbers in a way, which gives the
same chance to each number being selected.
To start with, the interval in which the number should fall is determined. For example, a
random number is required to choose the first cluster in a range 0001 to 1342.
This means that a 4-digit number is always required, and must be less than 1342. Several
draws may be necessary in order to get a random number to fall in the interval.
A. RANDOM NUMBER TABLE: - A random number table can be used.
1st step: the direction for reading the table must be chosen first. A random number table
can be read in any direction: from top to bottom, from bottom to top, from left
to right or from right to left.
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2nd
step: the required number of digits is determined according to the range of the
required value. Hence in order to draw a random number falling into a 0001 -
1342 range, 4 digits are necessary.
3rd
step a pen is randomly pointed anywhere on the table. The pen is then moved
according to the reading direction chosen to read the first 4-digit number. If it
falls within the set interval, this number is kept.
4th
step if the number falls outside the interval, the first 3 steps are repeated until an
eligible number is drawn.
B. BANK NOTE TECHNIQUE:-If a random number table is not available, the
serial number written on a bank note can be used.
lst step: a direction for reading the number is chosen. From left to right or from right to
left.
2nd
step: the number of digits requested is determined according to the range needed.
For example to draw a number falling in the range 01 - 13 a 2-digit number is
required.
3rd
step: the necessary number of digits is read on the bank note in the chosen direction.
If this number falls outside the interval, another bank note should be used for a
new draw.
Appendix 5. CONTEXTUAL FACTORS IN THE INTERPRETATION OF
ANTHROPOMETRIC SURVEYS
Household food security
Access to food/household food stock
Mortality figures
Food habit and dietary practices
Major epidemic outbreaks
The survey data thus need to be complemented with the following additional
information
Market prices of important food grains and livestock
Information on access and availability of food
Prices and availability of food and tools
Rainfall, pests and other agricultural information
Major events with respect to mortality and morbidity
Specific nutritional deficiencies (e.g. micro-nutrient deficiency diseases)
Information from health centers or clinics
Information on migration.
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Appendix 6. PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITION (PEM)
SEVERE PEM
Marasmus
Kwashiorkor
Marasmus kwashiorkor
Sign and symptom of severe PEM
1. Marasmus
Less than one year old
Severely retarded growth
WFA below 60%
Wasted muscles
Flabby muscles
No oedema
Hungry
Old man face
Kwashiorkor
1-3 years
Retarded growth
Wasted muscles
Flabby muscles
Oedema
Moon face
Red brown or Grey hair
Anemic
Flaky paint dermatosis
Miserable and apathetic, no appetite
Marasmus-kwashiorkor
A combination symptoms and signs of marasmus and kwashiorkor
APPENDIX 7. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN THIS MANUAL
1. ANTHROPOMETRY: - It is the measurement of human body. Body parameters such as weight and height/length
are used to assess nutritional status.
2. BASIC MEASUREMENTS: -
The basic measurements to be considered in Anthropometry are weight and
height/length
3. CUT-OF POINT:
The point on a nutrition index, such as WFH, used to categorize or screen individuals.
For example children below the cut-off point of 70% WFH/L are categorized as seriously
malnourished.
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4. DISASTER: An event in which a society or community undergoes acute deprivation of food and other
basic necessities due to natural and human made calamities to such an extent that the
normal functioning of the society or community is disrupted and can not subsist with out
outside intervention.
5. EARLY WARNING: -
A process of monitoring indicators affecting livelihood with the view to warn the threat
of disaster ahead of time. This warning should normally, trigger timely and appropriate
preventive and/or mitigation measures.
6. INDICES:
Indices are combination of measurements. Thus it is evidence that a value for weight
alone has no meaning unless it is related to age or height. Indices are necessary for the
interpretation of measurements and for grouping them.
7. NUTRITIONAL SURVEILLANCE: The regular collection of nutrition information that is used for making decision about
actions or policies that will affect nutrition.
It is used to describe systems of continuos monitoring of certain factors related to
or affect the nutritional status in a community
The system should indicate when a nutrition intervention is needed
It should be simple and sensitive to detect any change in the nutritional status for
the worse or better
It is a tool for planing
8. NUTRITION SURVEY: -
A nutrition survey is a 'one-off' assessment of the nutrition situation a 'snapshot' in time,
which may be referred to as a cross sectional survey.
11. PERCENTAGE OF REFERENCE VALUE: The best way to assess nutritional status of an individual child is to measure the child
regularly and see if the child is growing as the same rate as the reference population.
However, this is often not possible and thus we find out what the percentage or
proportion of the measured parameters of the child is in relation to the standard/reference
value and classifies the child's nutritional status according to anthropometric
classification.
12. POPULATION/UNIVERSE:- The aggregate of all units
13. REFERENCE POPULATION: The indices are compared to values for a reference population to see if they are worse
than expected from the reference. For the same age, the height or the weight of a child
from the sample is compared to the height or weight of the child of the reference
population. For the same height, the weight of a child from the sample is compared to the
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weight of the children from the reference population. Reference tables have been drawn
up for both sexes. For field use, sex combined tables have also been drawn up.
14. SAMPLE: - A proportion of a population or a universe.
15. SAMPLING: - The process of selecting a sample.
16. SAMPLING FRAME:- A convenient list of all units in the population. It forms
the basic material from which a sample is drawn. It has to be updated regularly.
17. SAMPLING UNIT:-
A distinct element from which required information/observation is collected or made.
Example- farms, farmers, plot of land, household, plant, village, etc…
18. Z SCORE:-The Z score for an individual is given by the following formula
Z score = Individual value - median value of reference population
SD value of reference population
The reference values for the various indices have been calculated from data
collected by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) in the United
States of America.
19. DISASTER:
Disaster is an event in which a society or community undergoes acute deprivation of food
and other basic necessities due to natural and man made calamities to such an extent that
the normal function of the society is disrupted and that it can not subsist with out outside
intervention. (DPPC, Disaster Policy)
It is a serious disruption of the functions of society, causing widespread human, material,
or environmental losses, which exceeds the ability of the affected society to cope using
only its own resources. (Disaster Management training program, UNDP 1992)
20. PREVENTION
Disaster prevention refers to measures taken to eliminate the root causes that make
people vulnerable to disaster.
21. PREPARDNESS
Disaster preparedness is building up of capabilities before a disaster situation prevails in
order to reduce the impact.
22. RELEIF
The provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and emergency medical care
necessary to save human lives. Relief supplies and services are provided in the period
immediately following a sudden disaster.
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23. EARLY WARNING SYSTEM
It is a system to monitor and warn of the threats of disasters ahead of time so that
appropriate measures, which prevent famine and food shortages, could be planned and
executed as early as possible.
24. FAMINE
Extreme and protracted shortage of food, causing widespread and persistent hunger,
starvation of the affected population, and a substantial increase in the death rate. Famine
can be classified according to who is affected and where the affected population is
located.
General famine affects all classes or groups within the country or region of food
shortage, although often not all the groups of people suffer to the same degree.
Regional famine is concentrated in only part of a country but all groups within the
region of shortage are usually affected.
Class famine describes a condition in which certain population groups suffer the greatest
hardship in a country short of food, regardless of the geographic concentration of the
famine.
Causes of famine could be natural or physical causes destroy crops and food shortage and
include drought, heavy rain, and flooding, unseasonable cold weather, typhoons, vermin
depredations, plant diseases and insect infestation.
25. DROUGHT: -
Lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period that causes a considerable
water/hydrologic imbalance and consequently, water shortages, crop damage, stream
flow reduction, and depletion of ground water and soil moisture. It occurs when
evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation for a considerable period.
26. DISASTER MANAGEMENT
A range of activities designed to mitigate disasters including early warning,
preparedness, prevention, and response.
27. VULNERABILITY: -
The degree to which an individual, household, community or geographic area is likely to
be affected by a disaster. Vulnerability is also a risk of exposure to different types of
shocks or disaster events, combined with the ability of the population to cope with these
disasters or shocks.
28. VULNERABLE GROUPS
Categories of people suffering from high degree s of risk and likely to be the most
adversely affected by disaster. These may include but are not limited to women,
children, elderly, disabled. Refugees, IDPs, food insecure families and the poor.
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29. EMERGENCY: -
An extra ordinary situation in which people are unable to meet their basic survival
needs, or there are serious and immediate threats to human life and well being.
30. CHRONIC FOOD INSECURITY: -
A long-term inability of households to ensure sustained access to sufficient quantity and
quality of food to live active and healthy life.
31. ACUTE FOOD INSECURITY: -
A transitory/temporary inability of households to ensure sustained access to sufficient
quantity and quality of food to live active and healthy life.
32. TARGETING: -
The process by which areas and households are selected to receive emergency food aid
and then provide with it.
33. HAZARD: -
A rare or extreme event in the natural or human made environment that adversely affects
human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster.
34. ASSISTANCE: -
The provision on a humanitarian basis of material aid and services necessary to enable
people to meet their basic needs for shelter, clothing, water and food. Assistance is
available for extended period.
35. DATA: -
Units of information (perceptions, numbers, observations, facts & fig.)
36. INFORMATION: - useful data
37. PERCENT OF THE MEDIAN: -
A fraction or ratio based on a total of 100, where the median value of the data set equals
100; a value that equals a proportion or part of distribution where the median represents
100 percent.
Weight for Height/Length (WFH, WFL)
%WFH/WFL = Actual weight x100
Weight of reference child having the same length
Weight for age (WFA)
%WFA = Actual weight x100
Weight of reference child of the same age
Height for Age
% HFA = Actual height x100
Height of reference child of the same age
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