Foreign Policy and Empire

HI290- History of Germany

The Bismarckian System

• After 1871 Germany needed peace and stability in order to consolidate the gains of the Wars of Unification.

• Bismarck thus needed to persuade Europe that Germany was a “satiated power”.

• The key to German security was keeping France isolated.

• There were 5 Great Powers so Germany always needed to be part of a bloc of 3.

• The nightmare scenario of encirclement and a war on two fronts needed to be avoided at all costs.

The Making of the Alliance System• The Dreikaiserbund (1873)

• An informal agreement that contained no binding military alliance but committed all three powers to consult on matters of common interest.

• The Dual Alliance (1879)• Signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary.• Each agreed to come to the others aid in the event of war with Russia or to remain neutral in a

war with any other power.• The treaty was to last for 5 years, but in the event remained valid until 1918.

• The Three Emperor’s Agreement (1881)• Germany, Austria-Hungary & Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of any of them being

involved in a war with another power.• The Balkans divided into spheres of influence.

• The Triple Alliance (1882)• Between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.• Germany & Austria agreed to intervene if Italy were attacked by France.• Italy agreed to support Germany if she were attacked by France.

• The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)• Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of either one of them being involved

in a war with a third power.

Bismarck’s Colonial Policy• Bismarck was generally ambivalent

about colonial expansion, considering an overseas empire to be an expensive indulgence.

• But public pressure for a colonial empire led to the acquisition of a number of territories in Africa.

• The Berlin Conference of 1884-5 laid down the rules for European expansion in Africa and granted colonies to Germany.

• However, Bismarck’s flirtation with colonialism was short-lived – by 1887 he was resisting pressure to acquire more colonies on the grounds that to do so would needlessly antagonise Britain.

‘The “irrepressible” Tourist’, Punch, 29 August 1885

German Acquisitions in Africa 1884-85Source: Farmer & Stiles, The Unification of Germany 1815-1919

Wilhelm II

Imperial Chancellors

Leo von Caprivi1890-1894

Chlodwig zu Hohenloe-Schillingfurst

1894-1900

Bernhard von Bülow1900-1909

Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg

1909-1917

Minister for the Navy:Alfred von Tirpitz

Philipp zuEulenburg

The Foreign Office

Baron Friedrich von Holstein

The ‘New Course’, 1890-94

• Not a coherent policy.• Caprivi favoured a cautious foreign policy focused on continental Europe

designed to ensure German security.• 1890: Germany allows the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse

• Russia no longer considered Germany’s natural ally.• Considered incompatible with Germany’s other commitments.

• Overtures to Britain• Close dynastic relationship.• 1890: Anglo-German Convention.

• Result: drives an alienated Russia into the arms of France.

Weltpolitik“We definitely do not feel the need to have a finger in every pie. But we believe it is inadvisable, from the outset, to exclude Germany from competition with other nations in lands with a rich and promising future. . . . We must demand that German missionaries, merchants, goods, as well as the German flag and German vessels be treated with the same respect in China that other powers enjoy. We are happy to respect the interests of other powers in China, secure in the knowledge that our own interests will also receive the recognition they deserve. In short, we do not want to put anyone in our shadow, but we also demand our place in the sun.”

Bernhard von Bülow (1897)

The Debate over Weltpolitik

• Fritz Fischer et. al: Three main aims of Weltpolitik: to create a large German Navy demonstrating her claim to be a world power, a Central African Empire (Mittelafrika) and a Central European customs union (Mitteleuropa). All part of a master plan to achieve World Power (Weltmacht).• Wehler, Berghahn, Geiss: Weltpolitik motivated by domestic concerns and a

substitute for unwanted social change (‘Social Imperialism’).• David Kaiser: Weltpolitik was ‘a patriotic umbrella, not a magic wand’ – rather

than being designed to outflank the Socialists, it was a means to unite the Conservatives, National Liberals and the Centre Party behind the government. Appearances more important than realities. • Hull, Zimmerer, Kundrus et al: German colonial history shows us new aspects of

Imperial Germany as well as possible (genocidal) continuities

Flottenpolitik

German Navy League Postcard (1902)

Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849-1930), the architect of Germany’s naval expansion.

German ColoniesAfrica (1884):

• German South West Africa• Togo• Cameroon• German East Africa (1885)

Asia:• German New Guinea (1885-

1914)• German Samoa (1900-1914)• Kiaochow (leased 1898-1914)

Race and Kultur

"Pictures from our Colonies“, Der wahre Jacob, no. 291 (September 14, 1897)

The reality: Photograph of a German settler (1885)

Rebellions against German Rule1904-1907: Herero Genocide in German South West Africa – over 20,000 Hereo and 10, 000 Nama killed. The first genocide of the twentieth-century.

1905-1907: Maji-Maji War in German East Africa – up to 200,000 Africans killed.

Lothar von Trotha (1848-1920)

German colonial troops in combat with Herero insurgents, by Richard Knötel

The Diplomatic Revolution, 1900-1907

• 1902: Anglo-Japanese Alliance• Marked an end to Britain’s isolation.• Led to negotiations with France, as Britain feared that growing

Russo-Japanese tensions would drag the UK and France into war.

• 1904: Entente Cordiale• Not an alliance as such.• France agreed to give Britain a free-hand in Egypt in return for

acceptance of her domination of Morocco.• Opened the way for future co-operation.

• 1907: Anglo-Russian Convention• Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan divided into spheres of

influence.• Further aligned Britain with France and Russia against

Germany and the Triple Alliance.

Cartoon depicting Britain walking off with the ‘trollop’ France, while Germany pretends not to care.

The Agadir Crisis (1911)

• July 1911: Germany sends to gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir in an attempt to force territorial concessions from the French.

• Alarmed by these bullying tactics Britain threatens to intervene.

• Austria makes it clear that she will not fight over Morocco and Germany is forced to back down.

• An example of Weltpolitik at its worst.

The Balkan Wars (1912-13)

"The boiling point", Punch, 2 October 1912.

Conclusion

• German Unification upset the balance of power.• Despite Bismarck’s best efforts, Weltpolitik convinced the other Great Powers

that Germany was dangerous to the peace and stability of Europe.• But Germany’s foreign policy based on the principle of the search for security.• By 1914 Germany felt surrounded by hostile powers, was slowly being

bankrupted by the arms race, and under pressure from social change at home.• War was thus seen by some as the ideal way out of Germany’s problems.