2 Platypus Magazine

The past four years have seen very

significant initiatives for the Forensic

Services group including major

investments in new equipment, $5 million

for a new laboratory facility at our Weston

site, and new or refurbished facilities in

other AFP locations, all funded in the main

as part of the Federal Government’s AFP

Reform Program.

Forensic has also benefited with support from

the National Illicit Drugs Strategy (NIDS) and has

established a drug intelligence team and a National

Heroin Signature Program (NHSP). The recently

launched $50 million federally funded CrimTrac

initiative included a new National Automated

Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS) and the

launch of the National Criminal Investigation

DNA Database (NCIDD). Many of these

in it iat ives are the subject of more detai led

coverage in this feature on the forensic sciences.

However, the renewal of infrastructure and the

introduction of new systems, important as they are,

are not the complete picture. At the risk of stating

a modern day cliché, ‘we cannot afford to stand

still’. Hence, we have been giving considerable

thought to how to best position Forensic Services

to serve the AFP and more generally Australian

law enforcement interests.

Last year I had the good fortune to be a member

of a working party that prepared a paper on

science and law enforcement for the Pr ime

Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation

Council (PMSEIC). In her presentation to

AFP Forensic Services:

Prepared for the 21st Century!By Dr James Robertson, Director Forensic Services

Forensic Services provides a range of scientific support to the AFP's international and

national operations areas and to ACT Policing. These services include biology, chemistry,

crime scene, document examination, firearms and ballistics, fingerprints, forensic imaging

and physical evidence support. While the major facil i ty is in the Canberra suburb of

Weston, forensic services officers are present in major AFP establishments throughout

Australia.

F O R E N S I C S

Dr James Robertson,Director Forensic Services

No. 72—September 2001 3

F O R E N S I C S

The new Forensic Services office and laboratory complex at Weston wascompleted in January 2000 and provides the AFP with a state-of-the-artforensic facility.

PMSEIC, Minister Vanstone commented on the

need for law enforcement and the science

community to engage with each other to ensure

the potential oppor tunities from emerging

technologies were realised for law enforcement.

The report recognised the need for ‘technology

trawling’ to identify these emerging opportunities.

It also stressed the need to ensure that results were

available in real time to assist investigations and

the importance of the key themes of intelligence

and the need to verify personal identification in a

world where increasingly business is done at a

distance and, effectively, anonymously. Add to the

above the increasing international role the AFP is

being asked to play and our requirement to be

able to respond quickly to crisis situations.

Forensic Services have taken a proactive

position to attempt to address some of these

emerging demands and expectations. Senior staff

have undertaken some key overseas study visits to

‘trawl’ new and emerging science and technology.

In this feature Chris Lennard and Julian Slater

will cover their experiences in areas as diverse as

biochips and mobile forensic laboratories. We are

in the process of introducing digital technology to

complement and, ultimately, largely replace

conventional silver halide photographs. Hilary

Fletcher will describe the new NAFIS system,

once again based on digital technology and

offering the exciting future capability to accept

digitally captured latent fingerprints from scenes

in close to real time. Julie Sutton will describe the

latest developments in DNA including the

NCIDD, biochip technology, and the ‘future’

possibilities for the field use of DNA technology.

Forensic Services have just taken delivery of a

number of field portable instruments and will be

trialing a ‘mobile laboratory’ at CHOGM in

October . We have studied the approach of

agencies in the United States such as the Bureau

of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms in fast response

forensic support for overseas incidents and are

working on an appropriately scaled AFP strategy.

As the new CEO of CSIRO, Geoff Garrett has

stated: “...strategy is not about rolling forward

from the present, it’s rolling back from the future

….. we don’t need a crystal ball, we need a wide-

angle lens, because the future is all around us and

it’s happening now.” (Australasian Science, May

2001, pp 14-15). Our approach in Forensic

Services has been to get out into the broader

world and see what is happening now.

Garrett also goes on to comment on the need to

‘partner or perish’. We need to work harder to

develop partnerships with other agencies, with

research institutes, with academia, with anyone

and everyone who can help us ensure that we do

realise the opportunities for law enforcement in

the 21st century. I believe we have made an

excellent start building on our steady progress

through the 1990s.

Finally, I want to comment on what we have

been doing with the people side of our preparation

for the 21st century. Throughout the 1990s we

worked hard to present the best opportunities to

existing staff and we recruited at all levels. We

were especially fortunate in the late 1990s to have

a period of significant recruitment. About half of

our staff has less than five years experience. We

now have a team of experienced leaders and

young, enthusiastic, motivated and very talented

younger staff. Part of the partnership we need to

emphasise in the AFP is the internal partnership

within functional streams such as ours and

between functional streams. This starts at the

individual level by recognising and respecting our

different and complementary skills, knowing each

others roles, and working towards a clearly

understood and shared game plan. I have asked

Suzanne Stanley, who heads up the School of

Forensic Investigation in Learning and

Development, to round off this feature on the

forensic sciences by outlining some of the ways in

which we are working to grow our people

professionally and to build these professional

partnerships.

Being prepared for the 21st century is about

trying to be in control of our future. The best way

to be in control is through knowledge. I hope this

series of articles provide useful information about

the work being done in Forensic Services to

ensure we can best support the AFP and our

partners and clients.

4 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

There are many reasons for this, including the

inherent conservative nature of forensic science

(due in par t to cour t and accreditat ion

requirements), and the general lack of resources

that limit the research and development required

to validate and implement new procedures.

Forensic Services have made a concerted effort,

particularly over the past 12 months, to survey the

advances being made in the wider scientific

community. Part of this exercise has involved

attendance at a number of overseas symposia,

including the annual Pittsburgh Conference and

Exhibition, held this year at the New Orleans

Convention Center. This meeting, in particular,

showcases current research across a range of

scien t ific discipl ines as well as giving

manufacturers the opportunity to display their

latest equipment.

So where is technology heading with respect to

analytical instrumentation? What types of new

laboratory equipment can we expect within the

next five years? A trend towards miniaturization

of equipment predominates the hor izon as

consumers look towards increased portability.

Technologies such as microchips (including 'lab-

on-a-ch ip' systems), nanotechnology, and

microsensor arrays are permitting the manufacture

of smaller instruments that offer more sensitive

and faster analyses, using smaller sample

volumes, with lower reagen t consumption

(leading, in turn, to lower per sample costs).

Miniatur isat ion has been l isted along with

automation , standardisation , and buil t-in

intelligence as one of the four key drivers for

growth in today's laboratory instrument industry.

Laboratory space is a high-cost commodity, so

consumers are increasingly demanding space-

saving options when purchasing new equipment.

In response to this demand, manufacturers are

focusing on mobi l i ty (on -si te, field-based

instrumentation), miniaturisation, multipurpose

products, and new technology (such as better,

smaller, and cheaper microprocessors). Methods

and products are evolving at a rapid rate and,

while it is difficult to predict what equipment will

be on the market within five years, instruments

will continue to shrink in size as lab-on-a-chip

technologies become commonplace.

So what is ' lab-on-a-chip'? It is l i teral ly

reproducing the functionality of a complete

laboratory system down to the size of a microchip

no more than several square centimetres in size.

While this technology is still in its infancy, there

are already working prototypes in a number of

research laboratories around the world. DNA

analysis is one area where this technology is being

applied, with at least two manufacturers

producing commercial systems where DNA

separations can be conducted on a microchip. The

instruments required to run the microchips are

still bulky and laboratory-based, due largely to the

size of current power supplies and DNA detection

systems. A number of research groups are

developing miniaturised power supplies (working

prototypes are about the size of a cigarette packet)

and are incorporating sensitive electrochemical

detectors directly on to the microchips. Prototype

systems for DNA analysis can therefore be

constructed that are no bigger than a shoebox,

controlled from a laptop computer. It may take

several years, however, before such systems are

commercialised. In addition, while the separation

of DNA on a chip is already possible, more

research is required before the whole DNA

profiling process (including the amplification

step) can be incorporated on to one microchip.

Another area of significant research activity is

in the field of gas chromatography. Gas

chromatography (GC) has traditionally been a

laboratory-based technique for the analysis of

Instrument miniaturisation and

portability

Traditionally, the forensic science field has been slow at

implementing technological advances achieved in the

wider scientific community, and generally only well-

established techniques or instruments are adapted for

forensic applications.

DNA analysis on a disposable chip of this type is likely to becomecommonplace over the next 5 to 10 years. Field portable instruments based onthis technology will take DNA profiling to the crime scene.

No. 72—September 2001 5

F O R E N S I C S

mixtures including hydrocarbons (such as petrol

residues in fire debris), explosive residues, and

il l ici t drugs. Conventional instruments are

relatively large, requiring a supply of specialty

gases (such as helium and hydrogen) in order to

operate. Significant research is being undertaken

to produce miniaturised GC systems for field-

based applications such as the on-site analysis of

chemical warfare agents. Shoebox-size prototype

systems are already available, with one group in

particular developing a vacuum-outlet GC with

atmospheric-pressure air as a carrier gas. The

ultimate goal of the project is to produce a wrist-

watch size, microfabricated, high-performance

GC. One by-product of the min iatur isat ion

process is much faster analysis t imes. For

example, while a full hydrocarbon analysis may

take 40 minutes on a laboratory instrument, some

portable systems can produce results in as little as

10 seconds!

The push towards miniaturisation has been

driven to a large extent by significant research

funding, particularly in North America, directed

towards the field-based analysis of chemical

warfare and bioterrorism agents. On-site analysis

enables real-time processing of samples, allows

decisions to be made at the scene, and permits

hot-spot sampling (source tracking). This is

cer tain ly true for the detection of chemical

warfare agents, but is equally valid in the context

of general crime scene analysis. Forensic science

can certainly benefit from the research being

undertaken to develop high-performance portable

equipment.

The latest research developments will take

several years before being fully commercialised.

However, a range of portable instruments, that

have application in the forensic context, are

already avai lable on the market . Forensic

Services, with endorsement from the AFP's

Science and Technology Steering Committee, are

committed to the on-going purchase and

validation of such equipment. It is our view that

the future of forensic analyses is towards more

field-based applicat ions using por table

instrumentation. This will allow certain analyses

to be performed at the scene, providing a more

proactive service in support of investigations.

While such analyses are unlikely to replace a full

examination back in the laboratory, it will provide

early information for the investigator and permit a

better screening of samples so that only the more

relevant items are transported to the laboratory.

All forensic laboratories suffer from a backlog of

samples for analysis, leading to long turn-around

times and a more reactive rather than proactive

approach. More field-based testing, with a better

selection of samples for full laboratory analysis,

will go a long way towards addressing th is

problem.

Forensic Services has already commenced the

evaluation of a number of portable instruments.

From funding that became available this year, the

Criminalistics Team (Laboratory Services) has

purchased a transit van that will transport a range

of equipment including an infrared spectrometer,

two portable gas chromatographs (with different

detect ion capabil i t ies), and an instrument

specifically for explosive residue detection.

Laboratory personnel wil l evaluate these

instruments on an on-going basis. Techniques and

equipment that have been fully validated will then

be passed on to our Field Services members for

casework implementation. Part of the evaluation

process will include the deployment of the fully-

equipped van to Brisbane over the period of the

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

(CHOGM) in October this year.

The US National Institute of Justice recently

published a report on the future of forensic DNA

testing. One of the conclusions in the report is as

follows:

“ With in 10 years we expect por table,

miniaturized instrumentation that will provide

analysis at the crime scene with computer-linked

remote analysis. This should permit rapid

identification and, in particular, quick elimination

of innocent suspects.” (NIJ, November 2000)

We believe that this view is conservative and

that some form of on-site forensic DNA profiling

is likely to be available within five years.

• Chris Lennard Coordinator Laboratory Services

A field-portable gas chromatograph recently purchased by the CriminalisticsTeam will be evaluated for the on-site analysis of hydrocarbon residues in firedebris samples.

6 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

In addition to these operations, major incidents

such as the Olympics, CHOGM, and unusually

large i l l ici t drug seizures often require

supplementary forensic resources to be deployed

to regional offices for short periods.

This increase in demand has resulted in Forensic

Services looking at options for developing a more

structured mobile laboratory capabil i ty

incorporat ing recent developments in field

por table analyt ical and evidence screen ing

technology.

In May 2001, I travelled to the United States, in

par t to study the mobile forensic laboratory

capabilities of the Federal Bureau of Investigation

(FBI) and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and

Firearms (ATF). Given that these agencies have

had long-established mobile forensic laboratory

capabilities, this was an opportunity to examine

their equipment and their approach to deployment,

and to discuss the problems that have been

encountered and areas of improvement. The FBI

and ATF have different approaches to the

provision of a mobile forensic capability, due to

differing needs and quite dissimilar underpinning

philosophies.

The ATF capability has been focused on a

domestic response, in particular following the

Oklahoma City bombing. To that end, the ATF has

developed a comprehensive mobile laboratory

vehicle capable of delivering a virtually self-

contained forensic capability to an incident.

Instruments are not permanently stored in the

vehicle, but are used or maintained in the

laboratory, ensuring that they are functioning

properly ready to be deployed. The vehicle can be

driven to a scene or, if necessary, flown in by

military transport and utilised on-site by ATF

forensic scientists. Three of these vehicles have

been built and are stationed at ATF laboratories

across the United States.

The FBI, by comparison, responds to major

incidents through a network of Evidence Response

Teams consist ing of federal agen ts who, in

addition to their normal duties, have been trained

in crime scene investigation techniques. These

teams are supported in the field with mobile

command centre vehicles and evidence collection

equipment transpor ted in purpose-designed

enclosed trailers. The main focus of this response

capability from a forensic perspective is in the

ability to record and collect evidence. It does not

place a strong emphasis on deploying analytical or

screening instruments into the field, however, the

flexibility of this approach means that such a

deployment would be readily achieved if the need

were identified.

The FBI capability provides a response capacity

both domestically and internationally. Examples

of recent international deployments include the

investigations of mass killings in Bosnia, the

bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen, and the US

embassy bombings in Africa. The majority of

equipment deployed for extended investigations is

assembled from stockpiles of pre-packaged

equipment, loaded on purpose-built palettes, and

transported by military aircraft. In the case of the

response to the bombings of the US embassies in

Africa, several hundred staff were deployed with

supporting equipment including accommodation,

meals, vehicles, technical equipment, etc. The

benefit of this approach is the high degree of

flexibility to scale a response to the size of an

incident, with the infrastructure and military

support available to facilitate the deployments.

In evaluating these and other models of mobileforensic capabilities, it is essential that we have aclear view of what it is we are seeking to achieve.Forensic Services are addressing the following

three objectives:

1. enhance the capacity and efficiency ofForensic Services in investigating scenes ofcrime in the ACT;

Developing a mobile forensic

laboratory capability

The US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms have three purpose-builtmobile forensic laboratories ready for domestic response.

There has been a significant increase in demand in

recent years for forensic teams to respond to incidents in

remote locations within Australia and for deployment

internationally with recent examples including Operation

Logrunner in Fiji and people-smuggling investigations in

the Cocos Islands.

No. 72—September 2001 7

F O R E N S I C S

2. enhance the capacity and efficiency of

Forensic Services in providing supplementary

resources to regional forensic teams for short-

term deployments in the case of major inci-

dents or events; and,

3. establish a structured response capability for

deployment of a self-contained forensic facil-

ity to remote areas, both nationally and inter-

nationally.

Each object ive r a ises i t s own issues, for

example in the ACT the Field Services Team is

responding to incidents in close proximity to the

main forensic laboratory. It is neither efficient nor

desirable to at tempt to conduct complex

examinations or analyses in the field when these

examinations could be more safely carried out in

the laboratory. Where a benefi t would be

provided is in the use of instruments to screen

samples and therefore allow the forensic team to

more effectively identify exhibits requiring full

examination in the laboratory, eliminating less

relevant items at the scene. Forensic Services has

recently acquired a number of instruments for

evaluation in this capacity, in particular as screens

for explosives, accelerant in fire debris, and illicit

drugs.

In terms of enhancing our capacity to deploy

additional resources for short periods, we are

looking at the range of equipment that needs to be

maintained in reserve. This includes consumables,

analytical instruments, and other equipment, and

the means for effectively packaging and deploying

such equipment. To date, deployment of such

resources has been by commercial air travel or by

land. We need to remain sufficiently flexible with

our approach to maintain this capability while also

considering the logistics required for larger scale

deployments and the poten tial for mil i tary

assistance.

The th ird object ive presen ts the greatest

challenge, but also the greatest opportunity. In

establ ish ing a capabi l i ty to deploy a self-

contained forensic facility into the field in remote

locations nationally or internationally, there are

significant areas for improvement on our current

approach . The abi l i ty to secure scenes for

extended periods while preliminary analyses are

carried out, and the flexibility to then return to a

scene for follow-up examinations, are not options

in this instance. The ability to deploy more

sophisticated analytical equipment into the field

for screening and analytical purposes can greatly

assist in the appropriate targeting of physical

evidence at a scene. Difficulties associated with

using wet chemistry techniques in the field can

also be overcome. As an example, dur ing

Operation Logrunner difficult ies were

encountered in transporting flammable solvents

and drug standards required for the presumptive

tests we currently use for illicit drugs. The use of

a portable FTIR instrument will provide the same

capability more quickly, without the need for

solvents or drug standards.

Recent equipment acquisitions within Forensic

Services provide the basis for establishing a

mobile capability to meet the needs of all three

objectives. Additional work is being undertaken

that includes the extensive evaluation of new

instruments with consideration of the logistics of

deployment for remote operat ions. These

initiatives recognise that the opportunities to

apply forensic science in the field are increasingly

dr iven by the avai labi l i ty of field-por table

instruments. The AFP is, and intends to remain, at

the forefront of this move.

• Julian Slater, Coordinator Field Services

The internal fit-out of the ATF vehicles includes an analytical laboratory areaand a fingerprint examination darkroom.

When drug seizures take place, scientific officers areused to authenticate the nature of the drug, record netweights, conduct presumptive testing, and collect sub-samples for further laboratory analysis.

In 1999, the Federal Government

committed $50 million over three years to

establish CrimTrac which was officially

launched on June 20, 2001. This enabled

law enforcement agencies throughout

Austra lia to capita lise on the rapid

advances taking place in forensic science,

in formation technology, and

communication.

CrimTrac is a new national crime investigation

system that includes the following components:

• a new and enhanced National Automated

Fingerprint Identification System;

• a National Criminal Investigation DNA

Database; and,

• a National Child Sex Offender Register.

Fingerprints have been one of the most powerful

investigative tools available to police services for

almost a century. Traditionally, fingerpr int

searches were performed manually. The fingerprint

technician, in possession of an inked fingerprint

form or a latent fingerprint developed at a crime

scene, would have to search through a paper-based

fingerprint collection in the hope of making a

‘match’ or identification. This was an extremely

time consuming exercise. Times have changed

dramatically since those days. In 1986, Australia

led the world with the introduction of the first

National Automated Fingerprint Identification

System (NAFIS). This system, although now

superseded by the new CrimTrac NAFIS, made a

dramatic difference to the process and searching

time required to make fingerprint identifications.

Gone were the days of laborious manual searching.

The CrimTrac NAFIS has been developed using

modern imaging and computing technologies. The

system records ‘grey scale’ rather than binary

fingerprint images, and has powerful matching

capabilities that produce more efficient results

from an increasing number of fingerprint searches.

The new NAFIS has the capacity to hold about 2.5

million fingerprint records, 4.8 million palm

prints, and in excess of 180,000 prints from

unsolved crimes. In the past, palm prints located at

crime scenes were generally never identified due

to the inherent difficulties involved and the lack of

a palm print collection. The CrimTrac NAFIS is

the first system to have the capacity to search palm

prints and unidentified ridge patterns using 360-

degree rotations. Already, the new system has

permitted a number of palm print identifications

that would not have been possible with the

previous technology. A significant increase in the

overall number of database-initiated fingerprint

identifications has been observed.

The CrimTrac database will accept fingerprints

taken by a range of methods. Latent impressions

developed at scenes of crime, and inked finger and

palm impressions, can be scanned directly into the

system for immediate searching. A feature of the

system is the acceptance of a search via ‘live scan’

technology. The live scan inkless process uses

electronic and laser technology to scan fingers and

palms from a flat glass surface to produce quality

reference fingerprints. This process enables an

immediate search against the national database.

8 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

The CrimTrac National

Automated Fingerprint

Identification System (NAFIS)

Forensic Services has representatives in all the major AFPlocations to support operational activities. In this photo,Catherine Farrugia of our Brisbane office is conducting alatent fingerprint examination on documents that relate to amajor taxation fraud investigation.

Fingerprint expert Marianthi Makarios inputs 10-printfingerprint forms into the new CrimTrac NationalAutomated Fingerprint Identification System.

No. 72—September 2001 9

F O R E N S I C S

‘Live scan’ is a long awaited improvement on the

messy and time-consuming ink and roller method

of taking fingerprints.

The AFP is in the process of evaluating ‘live

scan’ units. The systems are simple to use, there is

no clean up required, and quality reference prints

are obtained in a timely manner. Once ‘live scan’

units are finally installed, finger and palm prints

will be scanned and directly fed in to the

fingerprint system to check for matches. The time

taken to obtain results of fingerprint identifications

will be dramatically reduced.

Of course, a modern fingerprint database is of

litt le use if latent fingermarks deposited by

offenders on differen t sur faces cannot be

successfully developed and recorded. This is

where our ongoing research into more sensitive

detection techniques (such as Vacuum Metal

Deposition on polymer banknotes), and digital

recording and enhancement processes, is critical.

Forensic Services will continue to optimise such

procedures to complement the technological

advances provided by the CrimTrac system. In the

near future, the direct capture of fingerprint

images at the cr ime scene, and immediate

transmission of these images back to the

laboratory, will enable NAFIS searches to be

conducted while the crime scene examination is

still underway. This will permit a more proactive

approach, with the results of forensic examinations

being available much earlier in the investigative

process.

One advantage of DNA profiling today is the

increased sensitivity of analysis. Technology now

permits the analysis of minute quantities of DNA

compared to the relatively large amounts required

when DNA profiling first became available. As

DNA is present in every nucleated cell of the body,

an individual’s DNA type is consistent throughout

their body. Hence the DNA left at a scene from

blood, semen or saliva may be linked back to an

individual. The analysis of ‘trace’ DNA is also

possible, where DNA from skin cells has been

deposited by the simple handling of a surface or

object by an individual.

The National Criminal Investigation DNA

Database (NCIDD), facilitated by the CrimTrac

agency, will serve to collate and match DNA

profiles submitted to the database by Australian

forensic laboratories. This database will permit the

inter-jurisdictional comparison of DNA profiles to

identify criminals who cross state and territory

boarders to commit cr imes. All Australian

laboratories that contribute to the database use a

common set of DNA profiling techniques. In

Australia, the standard technique uses ‘Profiler

Plus' , which looks at the DNA type of an

individual at 10 separate locations. This generates

a profile that consists of a string of numbers at

each of the 10 locations. This string of numbers

can be used to search against existing profiles held

in the database according to legislative matching

rules. When a match between a suspect and a

crime scene, or a match between two different

DNA profiling: present

capabilities and future

developments

“ DNA profiling is the single most

important advance in police investigation

techniques since the development of

fingerprint classification systems in the late

nineteenth century. CrimTrac’s new

National Criminal Investigation DNA

Database will offer Australia’s police

services the enhanced ability to solve more

crimes more quickly.” — (www.crimtrac.gov.au)

Forensic biologist Liz Brooks conducts routine maintenance on the newAB-3100 DNA analysis instrument recently installed in the main forensiclaboratory at Weston.

10 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

crime scenes occurs, a message is sent to the

forensic biologist who then checks and confirms

the match. The match information is then

forwarded to the relevant AFP coordination centre

that then informs the relevant police officers.

Over the past six months, the AFP has had a

number of instances where crime scenes have

been linked or where a suspect has been linked to

a crime scene as a result of this DNA technology.

However, all of this technology would amount to

nothing if it were not for the effort of our highly

trained crime scene staff who collect the evidence

and our thorough criminalistics team who often

conduct the primary search of evidence from

exhibits received in complex cases. Forensic

science is very much a team effort.

Advances in DNA technology to date have

focused on the achievement of a greater

discriminating power so that individuals who

perpetrate crimes may be identified with greater

confidence. The DNA technology of the future is

likely to focus on greater automation and speed of

analysis. One example of this technology is

‘DNA-on-a-chip'. Although some way before they

can be applied in the forensic arena, prototypes

have been developed that are capable of analysing

several regions of DNA within a few minutes.

With further development, ‘DNA-on-a-chip’

could be used in hand-held units for field-based

DNA analysis. Although this technology is not

expected to become a reality for several years,

field testing will allow technicians to perform

DNA tests at scenes of crime to quickly identify

or eliminate suspects. By the time this portable

technology becomes available, further genetic

tests are likely to have been developed that will

give an indication of the physical characteristics

of an individual. Such techniques will further

increase the range and depth of testing currently

undertaken by Forensic Services.

The AFP also intends on introducing the testingof a second type of DNA, mitochondrial DNA(mt-DNA). Mitochondrial DNA is found in arange of different samples, including dead hairshafts and fingernails, and its analysis will be auseful additional tool to the armoury available tothe forensic biologist. Forensic Services is alsocommitted to ongoing research to develop notonly new technologies but to also focus on theinterpretation of biological evidence. Recentresearch has taken place in areas as diverse as theinterpretation of human hair evidence based ontransfer and persistence studies, the detection ofDNA on fired cartridge cases and pipe bombfragments, and the evaluation of a more sensitivemethod for the quantification of DNA extractsprior to analysis.

Forensic signal processing areas are faced

with the analysis of conventional audio and

video recordings, including the traditional

analogue media such as Compact Cassette,

Micro-Cassette dictation recorders and Video

Cassette Recorders (VCR), in addition to more

recent digital formats that include Compact

Disk (CD), Digital Audio Tape (DAT), Mini-

Disc, Mini-DV, and data captured directly on

to computer.

Often, once a particular technology has been created, it

is adopted and adapted to meet other specific

requirements. A typical example is time lapse VCR usedby the security industry, where snapshots of images, or

multiple images, are captured to tape at regular intervals.This allows the same tape to cover a much larger time

span than conventional continuous recording, or

simultaneously capture images from a number of

cameras. The problem with this approach is that quality

is often compromised to achieve this convenience, alongwith the inherent technical limitations. Often these

limitations are not known by the investigating police

members and, combined with fictitious science portrayedon television shows and movies, cause expectations to be

raised for results that cannot be achieved.

We have seen an increase in the variety of recordingformats introduced and also improvements in the ability

Forensic signal processing

and analysis

The new audio enhancement laboratories located at ForensicServices Weston provide the AFP with state-of-the-art capabilitiesin this field. The facility is operated by Graeme Kinraid(background) and Kathleen Smith (foreground).

No. 72—September 2001 11

F O R E N S I C S

Casework Example

The increased sensitivity of the DNA profilingprocess has lead to casework successes that would

not have been previously possible. An example of

this relates to a pair of white overalls that weresubmitted to Forensic Services in 1996 as part of an

investigation into an armed hold-up that occurred inthe Canberra industrial suburb of Fyshwick. The

overalls had been worn by the offender. Trace

evidence collected from the overalls at the time wasinsufficient to provide a possible link to the suspect.

In 1998, with the availability of a new DNA profilingsystem, cloth samples were taken from the overalls

from around the cuffs and the collar area (wherecontact with the skin was likely). The DNA profiles

obtained from these samples matched the profile

obtained from a reference blood samples taken fromthe suspect (with a frequency of occurrence of one in

460 billion in the general ACT population).

Recent casework successes have included several

instances where 10 to 15 burglaries have been linkedthrough DNA evidence and finally attributed to a

suspect through a matching DNA profile. DNAprofiles have also been obtained from some unusual

samples, including an apple core, a smudged

fingerprint, dentures, a half-eaten sausage role, and afalse fingernail from a burglary scene (that gave a

male DNA profile!).

• Julie Sutton,Team Leader Biology

o enhance and analyse recordings using computerechnology. In the future, we will see the on-going

replacement of existing analogue recordings with moredigital recording formats. The compact cassette and theVHS VCR will become a distant memory just as the CDreplaced the vinyl record in the mid 1980s. Theseformats will not necessarily include tangible items suchas tapes! Recordings will be made on memory cards, or

hard disk type systems and computer networks, withoutmoving parts. With increased access to computerechnology and improved worldwide communicationhrough the Internet, the opportunity exists for anyone

with the ‘know how’ to create their own audio or videoformat. The challenge for the future is the increasing

pace of the technology advancements and its acceptanceand use by the public.

In establishing the new AFP Signal Processing

Laboratory (SPL), Forensic Services have been veryaware of the potential advances in technology. While we

have ensured that equipment is purchased for today’srequirements, with continued support for common

formats into the next decade, we have also invested in

emerging computer hardware and software basedechnology for the future. The SPL accommodation has

been developed to ensure that it is capable of adapting tohe changes ahead.

• Graeme Kinraid, Team Leader Forensic Imaging

Digital enhancement of

fingerprint images

Digital imaging has become a viable

option for the recording of fingerprint

evidence due to technological advances

permitting high-resolution image

acquisition.

Digital images can be operated on mathematical-

ly in order to improve the image for examination

and comparison purposes. For example, fingerprint

images can often be improved by the removal of

interference. This may be in the form of repeated

patterns in the background of a document, machin-

ing marks on the blade of a knife, cast shadows

from uneven lighting, or anything else that inter-

feres with the fingerprint detail. By removing the

interference, the fingerprint ridges become clearer

and easier to examine. Interference may be

removed through methods of image capture, com-

bining images taken under different lighting condi-

tions, frequency domain filtering, or spatial filter-

ing. In some cases, an identifiable result will be

obtained from what previously appeared unusable.

Forensic Services have developed a digital imag-

ing system that enables the recording of high-reso-

lution digital images of fingerprints on exhibits.

The system incorporates a Zeiss microscopy cam-

era, a computer interface, and scientific image

enhancement software. The use of digital imaging,

as well as providing significant enhancement possi-

bilities, permits the direct input of enhanced finger-

prints into the CrimTrac National Automated

Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS). The

reduced processing time will mean that results from

identifications will be available to the investigator

within a much shorter time frame.

• Bruce Comber, Fingerprint Team

Fingerprints previously hidden by background patterns, can now be enhanced.

12 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

In seeking to implement digital imaging

technology within Forensic Services, an holistic,

integrated approach has been taken. The roll-out

of this new technology for operational purposes

will take place from the first quarter of 2002.

The digital imaging project seeks to provide

enhanced capabilities in the following areas:

• Image capture - through the use of Nikon D1H

and Nikon Coolpix cameras for field and labora-

tory applications respectively. These cameras

closely emulate the capabilities of the conven-

tional cameras currently in use in the field and

laboratory. The Nikon D1H will become the

mainstay within Field Services as a professional

single lens reflex (SLR) camera. Images cap-

tured through these cameras are saved to flash

card (a form of removable memory card) and

subsequently the images can be downloaded into

a case management system such as the AFP’s

PROMIS database or archived on to a server or

CD.

• Processing and printing - through the use of a

digital photographic mini-lab, photographs can

be printed from conventional film and from a

range of electronic media. The mini-lab can also

output images to electronic media including CD.

It is anticipated that our staff in regional offices

will be able to download image files directly to

the Forensic Imaging Team in Canberra where

the images will be printed and returned, signifi-

cantly reducing turnaround times. This facility

will also be available to our clients (ACT

Policing, Investigations, Surveillance, etc.), pro-

viding a means for the images captured on exist-

ing digital cameras to be printed to archival

quality media.

This project will also develop new capabilities

including:

• Digital image enhancement technology for fin-

gerprint examinations.

• Virtual crime scene recording, providing inter-

active viewing of a 3D photographic representa-

tion of a crime scene. This technology provides

the capability to record a scene photographical-

ly in “nodes” of 360-degree photographs that are

used to create a composite 3D panoramic photo-

graph. The interactive nature of this technology

allows a person to explore the scene by moving

from node to node and zooming in on areas of

interest.

• Real-time transmission of images from crime

scenes for examination, identification and infor-

mation purposes. By integrating the digital

imaging technology with digital mobile or satel-

lite phone technology (using appropriate

encryption), it will be possible to transmit

images from the scene to the laboratory or to

investigators.

• Providing image display media for courtroom

presentations as a supplement to, and potential-

ly as a replacement for, printed photographs.

As wi th the implemen tat ion of most new

technologies, digital imaging has a number of

issues that need to be effectively addressed if the

technology is to deliver the desired outcomes. It

is not just a case of acquiring this technology and

implementing it in the field. Effective protocols

and procedures have to be established to ensure

the integrity of images and acceptance by courts.

This new technology has obvious operational

benefi ts and the AFP is in the process of

developing protocols and procedures to ensure

that a l l r elevan t issues are appropr iately

addressed.

• By Julian Slater, Coordinator Field Services

Digital imaging within forensic services

The application of digital imaging technology in law

enforcement internationally has increased dramatically in

recent times and earlier this year, Forensic Services

received funding to implement this technology in both the

laboratory and the field.

The new digital mini-lab installed at Weston can process images both fromconventional film and from a range of electronic media.

No. 72—September 2001 13

F O R E N S I C S

In 1997, the Federal Government’s

‘Tough on Drugs’ program was announced,

incorporating the National Illicit Drug

Strategy (NIDS)and as a result funding was

provided to the AFP to establish a Joint

Drug Intelligence Team (JDIT).

A strategic par tnersh ip formed between

Forensic Services and the Australian Forensic

Drug Laboratory (AFDL), a unit of the Australian

Government Analytical Laboratories (AGAL) and

part of this initiative involved the development of

the National Heroin Signature Program (NHSP).

Chemical drug profiling undertaken by the

AFDL involves the analysis of seized drugs for

the presence or absence of major and minor

constituents in order to establish a characteristic

‘signature’. Combined with this information is the

data obtained by Forensic Services on the

physical characteristics of the drug material and

related packaging. There are four elements to the

signature program:

Signature 1

Chemical analysis of major components by High

Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) –

indicates broad geographical origin.

Signature 2

Chemical analysis by Gas Chromatography/

Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) – determines a

production area through the identification of

minor/trace constituents.

Signature 3

Trace element analysis by Inductively Coupled

Plasma/Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) – comple-

mentary information to Signature 2.

Signature 4

Recording of physical aspects of drug seizures,

including origin, port of entry, means of entry,

concealment method, wrapping, packaging,

drug form, markings, logos, shape, colour,

odour, tool marks, and weight.

Information and images are entered into the

Signature 4 database, and l inkage searches

conducted with signatures 1 to 3. In excess of 280

signatures have been analysed, confirming

existing strategic intelligence. The program has

identified a number of sub-types of heroin in the

one geographic location, and the presence of

South American heroin in Australia. The results

have been used in more than 50 operational

matters including tactical comparison evidence

presented in court. Future work will involve the

profiling of other illicit drug types (such as

amphetamines).

The goal of the JDIT is to establish a proactive

approach to linking scientific data and operational

in tel l igence, with a view to providing a

col laborat ive in tel l igence database for

interrogation by law enforcement agencies at a

tactical and strategic level. In addition to the

NHSP, the JDIT is coordinating a National Heroin

Street Survey across all police jurisdictions in

Australia. These samples are being profiled by the

AFDL to determine the batch membership of

heroin at the street level.

Students at the University of Technology,

Sydney (UTS), in collaboration with Forensic

Services, are actively engaged in researching the

chemical and physical properties of illicit drug

packaging materials. The outcome of this research

is to explore links between wrapping materials on

a case-to-case basis and to determine the origin of

these materials. Such data may serve to link

seizures where the actual drug material being

transported is different.

• Ian Evans, Coordinator Forensic Drug Servicesand Bruce Nelson, Team Leader JDIT.

The Joint Drug Intelligence Team (JDIT)

AFDL drug chemists loading samples for chemical profiling on a gaschromatograph.

14 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

However, for complex, multidisciplinary forensic

investigations, laboratory and field investigators

work as a team, contr ibuting to an holistic

interpretation of the scene and associated physical

evidence. The effective processing of a crime scene

is essential to a forensic investigation, and given the

increasing scientific complexity of physical

evidence analysis, it is important that laboratory and

field based forensic investigators are seen as equal

partners, with similar levels of underpinning

scientific knowledge and skills. This is becoming

increasingly necessary since increased

miniaturisation and portability of equipment means

that some chemical and biological analyses will be

conducted at the crime scene within the foreseeable

future.

AFP Forensic Services are responding to this shift

in the nature of forensic investigations. Since 1999,

all forensic recruits have completed a science degree

and therefore have similar underpinning scientific

knowledge and skills. Their training has a dual

focus – on one hand to ensure that all forensic

investigators understand and have basic skills in all

areas of forensic services, and on the other hand, to

develop appropriate specialist skills within each

area.

All Trainee Scientific Officers (TSOs) undertake

training in the principles of forensic investigation so

that they are familiar with the practices involved in

crime scene examination, fingerprint identification,

ballistics analyses, forensic chemistry and forensic

biology. As a consequence of this general training,

all forensic members are aware of the capabilities

and limitations of each discipline and are able to

contribute effectively to team-based investigations.

All members also receive training in specialist

photographic techniques, rules of evidence, and

court processes.

Specialist discipline training is provided from a

combination of experts within Forensic Services and

from other police jurisdictions, tertiary institutions,

and private industry. Because the Australian forensic

community is small, specialist training is often

facilitated through the National Institute of Forensic

Science, with instructors teaching groups from

throughout Australia and thus building partnerships

among jurisdictions.

Within the Field Services, members specialise in

aspects of crime scene investigation, including the

investigation of fires and explosions, drug

importations, fingerprint identification, firearms

examination, or the comparison of physical

evidence including shoeprints and toolmarks.

Members of Laboratory Services specialise in areas

such as general biological testing, DNA profiling,

hair and fibre analysis, arson and explosion

residues, paint, plastics, glass, or other trace

evidence materials.

However, specialist skills and knowledge are not

sufficient for effective forensic investigations.

Forensic members must also be able to work

effectively in and lead teams, manage projects and

communicate their findings to police colleagues and

courts of law. Experienced forensic scientists from

all disciplines develop skills in the management of

forensic investigations. This involves not only

management of the crime scene or the particular

laboratory analysis, but also the promotion of an

integrated, multidisciplinary approach in order to

ensure the appropriate use of technology,

prioritisation, and sequencing of analyses.

So far, I have focused on the need for effective

partnerships and ongoing professional development

within Forensic Services. Strong, informed

Training and development in forensic services – building

professionals and partnerships

In the past, forensic field investigators have sometimes

been considered as providing technical support to

laboratory scientists rather than as equal partners in

forensic investigation.

Forensic Services members (Sophie Dixon, Keith Taylor,Vanessa Goodall) participating in a workshop skills courseheld at the Canberra Institute of Technology. Such skillsare often required with the deconstruction/reconstruction ofdrug consignments.

No. 72—September 2001 15

F O R E N S I C S

partnerships with other members of investigating

teams are equally important to the successful

outcome of complex investigations. Given the

increasing significance that courts give to scientific

evidence, first officers responding and investigators

need to be aware of the capabilities and limitations

of forensic science in order to effectively assess and

preserve incident scenes. Forensic awareness

training is provided to new agents, with refresher

sessions at patrol training days. New developments

in technology will be reported on an Intraweb page

to be developed this year and will support seminars

to be given by our senior laboratory scientists

around Australia. Forensic Services members will

also benefit from seminars that raise their awareness

of new technology and techniques that are used in

other aspects of the investigation.

For several years now, Forensic Services have

been involved in providing needs analyses and

training programs in the Asia-Pacific region

through the Law Enforcement Cooperation

Program (LECP) and the Law Enforcement

Assistance Program (LEAP). In 1998, Forensic

Services developed a Crime Scene Investigation

training program that has now been delivered to

seven countries in the South Pacific. In addition,

we have undertaken training needs analyses and

contributed to capacity building projects in Sri

Lanka, Burma and Indonesia. Forensic Services are

currently preparing two new programs for delivery

in Indonesia over the next 12 months.

• Suzanne Stanley, Manager, School of ForensicInvestigation

Since their initial release in 1988, polymer

(plastic) banknotes have proven to be a

difficult surface for latent fingerprint

development with the standard fingerprint

development techniques then available being

ineffective at developing prints that were

more than a week old on the polymer notes.

Forensic Services and the University of

Technology, Sydney (UTS) have been working

together to develop a procedure that will overcome

these difficulties.

Preliminary work suggested that Vacuum Metal

Deposition (VMD) may provide a solution. VMD

is a very sensitive technique for fingerpr int

development, but was not previously available in

an operational capacity within the AFP. Hence

equipment design and purchase, along with a

significant period of research and development,

were required. Forensic Services now have the only

operational VMD unit for fingerprint development

in Australia and, in partnership with UTS, have

been able to contribute to worldwide knowledge

and understanding of this technique through

relevant research.

A sequence of techniques for treating banknotes,

incorporating the VMD process, has now been

developed. The procedure uti l ises VMD in

combination with other techniques (optical

examination, superglue fuming, and luminescent

staining) that were already in use within Forensic

Services. The optimised procedure has proven

successful at developing latent prints on banknotes

where the standard techniques alone failed. The

procedure has been successfully applied to one-

year-old pr ints on new, unused banknotes.

Unfortunately, the possibility of successful print

development decreases with notes kept in

circulation for longer periods due to damage that

occurs to the banknote surface. To improve the

possibility of good quality print development, notes

must be forwarded to Forensic Services as soon as

possible as any prints on the notes are quickly

degraded due to the semi-porous nature of the

banknote surface.

The success of this research project illustrates the

significant benefits of par tnerships between

industry and academia, where practical difficulties

encountered operationally can be solved through

appropriate academic research.

• Naomi Jones, University of Technology, Sydney

Fingerprints on

banknotes

UTS student Naomi Jones operating the Vacuum Metal Deposition (VMD) unit.This technique has proven successful for the development of aged fingerprintson polymer banknotes whereas other techniques have failed.

Inset: A six-month-old fingerprint on a polymer banknote developed bysuperglue fuming followed by vacuum metal deposition and treatment with afluorescent stain.

16 Platypus Magazine

F O R E N S I C S

Analysis of packaging used in illicit drug

shipments is an example of how forensic

science can take a role in the current trend

towards ‘intelligence-lead’ policing.

For many years, forensic laboratories around the

world have used chemical and physical profiling of

confiscated drugs to investigate possible links

between individual drug seizures. Cooperative

research between the University of Technology,

Sydney (UTS) and AFP Forensic Services is

seeking to expand the understanding generated by

such intelligence, by also examining the materials

used to package the illicit drugs.

The specific focus of the research is on

packaging tapes, and ways in which they can be

exploited for useful information. The interpretation

of the analytical results is important, as analysts

need to know how significant a particular similarity

between two shipments actually is. The work will

enable investigators to characterise a seizure more

thoroughly, so that a seized package will not be

limited to a description of “wrapped with

packaging tape”, but will instead encompass a

more thorough description of the tape, including

physical features, colour and chemical content.

This is achieved through a variety of

chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques.

The increased discrimination that results permits

seizures to be compared more effectively to

determine whether the same adhesive tapes were

used in the wrapping of two different drug

packages, and if so, for stronger links to be drawn

between two or more cases. Although similar to

drug profiling, analysis of the packaging materials

has additional potential in comparing shipments of

different drugs, which is useful in the detection of

importation networks that traffic more than one

prohibited substance.

Future directions in this area lie in finding new

ways to exploit the information available in

adhesive tapes, and creating protocols by which

other wrapping materials can also be methodically

analysed to extract drug intelligence information.

Developing, integrating and maintaining a

computer database, that allows storage and

exploration of the resulting data, is also of high

priority, particularly once a large number of

seizures have been analysed.

• Juuso Huttunen, University of Technology, Sydney

Move-in day at the AFP’s Forensic Services Centre at Weston, ACT.

Canberra-based Forensic Services Team members moved into the new purpose-built facility in January 2000. The official opening took placeon August 14, 2000. Surrounding Dr Robertson (centre front) are some of the scientists and technicians who make up the team.

Bruce Nelson, member of the Joint Drug Intelligence Team, examines the logoon a drug wrap from Operation Linnet.

Drug intelligence from

packaging materials