Forests & Watersheds:Management & other Influences

Our daily water – 100+ gallons per person

Only about 5 percent of this

water is used for drinking

and food preparation

Commercial Bottled Water

Source: tap water from Clackamas River Utility

Most of Oregon’s major municipal water systems rely heavily on surface water supplies that originate on forest lands

Albany & Millersburg

water supply issue

Upper Pony Cr. Dam Project

Coos Bay-North Bend Water Board

Spillway raised 21 ft. for approx. 3x

storage increase (1.9 billion gallons)

P.W. Adams

Drift Creek Prime supply for area from

Lincoln City to Depoe Bay Prime habitat for wild salmon

The mind’s eye image: Clean, cool, abundant, easy-flowing water

from a pristine forest

OSU photo

An “ecosystem service”

But – both undisturbed and managed watershedshave important, and not always positive, influences

on water quality and quantity

P.W. Adams

Role of 10-15 year

climate cycles

Role of long-term

climate changes?

Fox Cr. (Bull Run)

Willamette NF (HJ

Umpqua NF (CC)

0 200 400 600 800

Pounds Per Acre

AVERAGE ANNUAL EROSION - UNDISTURBED FORESTSDissolved + Suspended + Bedload Sources

adapted from

Fredriksen & Harr 1979

P.W. Adams

Average Annual Erosion*

Undisturbed Forest Watersheds

*includes dissolved

+ suspended

+ bedload sedimentWillamette NF,Lane County

Umpqua NF, Douglas County

Bull Run, Clackamas CountyLocal Geology & Climate Matter!

> 500 ppm

No Roads, No Logging

Stream Suspended SedimentUndisturbed Coast Range (Lincoln County) Watershed

P.W. Adams

LANDSLIDES in MATURE FORESTS

Western Oregon

STUDY Slides per 1000 Acres

Swanson & others 1977 32

Ketcheson & Froehlich 1978 59

OR Dept. of Forestry 1997 18

Landslides happen!

P.W. Adams

Sediment Losses after Wildfire

(Helvey 1980)

1.875 tons per acre

Entiat Forest Washington

1971 + 1972

High Meadow Burn, 2000

Denver Municipal Watershed

Timbered Rock Burn

SW Oregon 2002

P.W. Adams

Biscuit Fire - Burn Severity

Low + Very Low +

Unburned

High + Moderate

www.biscuitfire.com/baer_photo.htm

BAER photo

Upper Chetco

Mod to high

severity burn:

71 sq miles

(24% of total)

Entire Biscuit

Mod to high

severity burn:

302 sq miles

Fire & Soil

Hydrophobicity

(water repellency)adapted from McNabb & others 1989

(light-mod. broadcast burn, SW Oregon)

burned*

unburned

*lowest rate observed

BAER photo (www.biscuitfire.com)

5 to 50% of soils tested in

the Biscuit Fire area had

moderate to strong water

repellency in the surface

mineral soilBiscuit Post-Fire Assessment (USDA For Ser, January 2003)

Wildfire Effects: Stream Nitrate Levels

adapted from 3

studies cited in

Tiedemann &

others, 1979

BAER photo (www.biscuitfire.com/baer_photo.htm)

BAER photo

biscuitfire.com

Stream

Length

Max Temp

Above

Max Temp

Below

6350 ft 58.3 F 70.0 F

Stream shading & maximum water temperature

following intense wildfire in headwater streams

in SW Oregon. Amaranthus et al., 1989.

Temperature increases were related

to post-fire shade levels.

Stream Shade Loss

Biscuit Fire:

• nearly 32,000 acres impacted

• up to 55% shade loss in 13 basins

• 6 basins had > 25% shade lossBiscuit Post-Fire Assessment

(USDA For Ser, Jan. 2003)

*Seaside Municipal Watershed

10 25 30 30 30 40 50 70

Water Color (Pt-Co units)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Dis

solv

ed O

xyge

n (p

pm)

WATER QUALITY IN ISOLATED POOL

South Fork Necanicum RiverSept. 9 to Nov. 4, 1981

Alder Leaf Fall & Low Streamflows

*

A natural influence (leaf fall) can impact water quality

adapted from Taylor & Adams 1986

Water Quality AnalysisUndisturbed, old-growth forest, W. OR

P.W. Adams

Ingredients:

purified water,

magnesium sulfate,

potassium chloride, salt

(sodium chloride)

Tasters can't tell difference between tap, bottled waterBy Susan Palmer, The Register-Guard, April 14, 2006

Funny thing about water. It tastes like ... water.

That was the consensus of 40 people who tried a

taste test pitting tap water against bottled water

Thursday at the University of Oregon. Thomas Brundage gets blindfolded before the taste test. KEVIN CLARK THE REGISTER-GUARD

Constituent Ave. concentration(mg/l or ppm)

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 3.7

Calcium (Ca) 2.8

Sodium (Na) 2.0

Magnesium (Mg) 0.8

Potassium (K) 0.3

Phosphate (PO4) 0.02

Ammonium (NH4) 0.003

Nitrate (NO3) 0.003

DEQ Temperature Standard (16o C) exceeded in

undisturbed forest watershed (Flynn Cr.)

Hale 2007

Paustian & Beschta 1979

What’s “natural” (good?)

water quality?

When & how many

samples needed to

determine this?

Brown 1985

Similar flows,

very different

sediment loads

Sediment loads in

this undisturbed

watershed varied

from 0 – 2000 ppm

What’s “good?” – What’s “normal?”Water quality varies by location, year, season, storm, etc.

Single storm

Several years

Falling

flows

Rising

flows

Total water loss due to forest cover, western Oregon:

About 18-20 inches, or about 20-50% of annual precip.

Annual

Interception

Losses:

6 - 15% of Total

Precipitation

The “cost” of relatively high quality water from forest lands: Water Loss

Annual Transpiration

Losses:

15 - 35% of Total

Precipitation

Planted forests and water in perspectiveForest Ecology and Management, Vol. 251 (2007): 1-9.

Afforestation is increasingly considered as a land use

activity that threatens water resources security. At the

same time, it is advocated for a wide range of other

water-related benefits… Current evidence suggests that

afforestation will typically reduce local average water

yield as well as low flows… …afforestation may increase

groundwater recharge and low flows due to improved

infiltration… Afforestation is not likely to reduce major

large-scale flooding or deep-seated landslides, but may

reduce shallow landslides and local ‘flash’ floods.

Journal of Soil and Water ConservationJuly-Aug. 1987: 274-276

Carbon sequestration programs… are gaining attention globally & will alter many ecosystem processes, including water yield... …results clearly demonstrate that reductions in runoff can be expected following afforestation of grasslands and shrublands and may be most severe in drier regions… The possibility that afforestation could cause or intensify water shortages in many locations is a tradeoff that should be explicitly addressed in carbon sequestration programs.

International concerns about effects of tree planting on water supplies

How can forest management practices

affect watersheds & water resources?

Insignificant

Neutral

Positive

Negative

Complex

Also important: Duration of Effects

"Simplicity cannot be willed upon the forest hydrologic system” - R.D. Harr, Forest Hydrologist, 1987

Needle Branch Watershed: Logged & Broadcast Burned 1966

Research that helped shape policy

OSU photo

Policy. (1) Forests make a vital contribution to Oregon by providing… social &

economic benefits, by helping to maintain… water resources & …habitat for…

aquatic life.

Therefore, it is...public policy of the State...to encourage economically

efficient forest practices that ensure the continuous growing & harvesting of

forest tree species… consistent with sound management of soil, air, water, fish

& wildlife resources… Oregon Revised Statutes 527.630

Oregon's

Forest Practices Act

The Forest Practices Act is used to meet water quality standards on

forest lands in Oregon. Under the Clean Water Act, forestry is a

nonpoint pollution source, thus allowing a “BMP” policy approach.

However, a recent (Aug. 2010) federal court ruling on a western

Oregon case said that forest roads did not fit this approach.

P.W. Adams

Policy that preceded research: Stream cleanup

Photos courtesy of Starker Forests

40 Years Later: Few or No Differences in Water Quality & Quantity

(Hale 2007)

P.W. Adams

National Forests & BLM Lands

Organic Act (1897)

“…for the purpose of securing favorable conditions

of water flows, & …a continuous supply of timber”

Federal Land Policy & Mgmt. Act (1976)

“…a combination of balanced & diverse resource

uses… including… timber, …watershed, … & fish”

“…in regions of heavy rainfall… [National] Forests… are created & maintained

to protect the timber &… to prevent the water from running off suddenly in

destructive floods.”

-Gifford Pinchot, The Use of the National Forests (1907)

O&C and Coos Bay Wagon Road Lands Act (1936)

“…providing a permanent source of timber supply,

protecting watersheds, regulating stream flow, &

…the economic stability of local communities”

A closer look at how management practices can affect water from forest lands

Timber Harvest

Forest Roads

Other

P.W. Adams

• Wide range of site conditions & harvest prescriptions

• Wide array of harvest systems, machines & operators

Expected Soil & Water Effects & Concerns:

Highly Operations- & Site-Specific!

Tires, tracks, suspensions, & reach Tree sizes, density & values

pressure & vibration

traction & control

pieces & efficiency

traffic patterns

slash

Photos, P.W. Adams

Pacific Coast RegionNeed to remove > 25% of forest cover within the entire watershedto detect a change in annual water yields (Stednick 1996)

Flow increases were proportional to the reductions in forest cover (b.a.) Largest flow increases occurred in late fall & winter

Coyote Creek Watershed - Douglas County (Harr & others 1979)

30% of watershed

Cut 50% basal area

Streamflow Patterns:

Rain vs. Snow

Water storage facilities may be critical in meeting peak

summer demands

Rothacher 1971

P.W. Adams

Soil Moisture in New* Clearcut & Adjacent Forest36-inch soil depth, SW Oregon – Hallin 1960

SO

IL M

OIS

TU

RE

(%

of

ove

nd

ry w

eig

ht)

Dry season: the clearcut had higher soil moistureWet season: the forest had higher soil moisture

*little plant cover & related soil water loss

Dry Season

Wet Season

Forest Revegetation & Soil Moisture – Oregon Cascades(Adams & others 1991)

•A strong, negative relationship between plant cover & soil moisture

(0-120 cm depth, linear regression statistical analysis)

•A burned clearcut had lower soil moisture than an adjacent mature

forest when its total plant cover exceeded about 35-40%

Less soil moisture than forest

More soil moisture

Rainfall reaching ground

under old-growth forest

after interception losses

Nov.-March, OR Cascades

(Rothacher 1963)

96%

8 to 16 inches

Soil water storage capacity

during wet weather

Upper 4 ft, 8 soil types, OR Cascades

(Rothacher et al. 1967)

Big Storms (over 8”)

Net result:Very high streamflows!

Water losses from forest & other

plant cover is greatest when:

• Evaporation is high • Soil moisture is high

Stream Temperatures - Coyote Cr. WatershedUmpqua National Forest (Adams & Stack 1989)

Patch Clearcut

Clearcut, No Buffer

Unlogged Control

Shelterwood Cut

Roads & Logging

1971-72

Shade recovery

Streamside shading matters,

but so do other local conditions

Duration of Effects

Patch Cut

Clearcut

• Revegetation

• Stabilization

• Shade

Road-related

landslide

Careful analysis is needed to help identify cost-effective solutions to watershed problems

sedimentsource?

Agricultural & urban/suburban areas are now major

sediment sources in important watersheds.

Some key findings:

During the 1996 flood,

natural erosion,

unique clays & non-

forest activities were

the primary cause of

turbidity problems in

Salem's water supply.

High-tech, geologic “fingerprinting” now helps identify sediment sources

Oregon water quality status based on Water Quality Index,by land use, Water Years 1990-1999 (Cude, undated)

New watershed studies

now underway are

evaluating the effects

of contemporary forest

practices on water

quality, quantity &

aquatic resources:

Photos & graphics courtesy of A.E. Skaugset

Hinkle Creek Paired Watershed Study, Douglas County

Initial entries, Aug. 05-Apr. 06• 5.5 mi new & reconstructed

roads, 17,325 yd3 rock • 12.2 MMbf harvested from

380 ac., 3,281 loads of logs

Max. Daily Stream Temperature

Hinkle Creek Paired Watershed Study, Douglas County

Slide courtesyof A.E. Skaugset

Streamflow Sediment Yield

Hinkle Creek Paired Watershed Study, Douglas County

Slide courtesyof A.E. Skaugset

Some local effects observed, primarily in first post-treatment wet season

Growth (mm/mm/day) for PIT Tagged CutthroatNorth & South Fork Hinkle 2002-07

0 1 2 3 4 5

Rela

tive

gro

wth

(m

m/m

m/d

)

0.0000

0.0005

0.0010

0.0015

0.0020

NF NF

SF SFn=64

n=102n=140 n=140

Mean -------

Median

Pre-

treatment

Post-

treatmen

Post-

treatmen

Pre-

treatment

Hinkle Creek Paired Watershed Study, Douglas County

Slide courtesyof A.E. Skaugset

Also, no apparent effectsof upstream logging on:• benthic invertebrates• amphibians

ODF RipStream Temperature Study(Summary presented at 9/8/10 Board of Forestry meeting)

Q1) Do forest streams meet the DEQ temperature standards after harvest?

Q2) What site characteristics are closely related to temperature changes?

A1) Some higher temps., but no strong

indication DEQ standards were exceeded

A2) Max. temps. are closely related to

post-harvest shade; length & gradient of

treatment area also are important

33 sites (18 pvt., 15 State), W. OR

Med. & Small Type F Streams

You can find an individual study

to support almost any opinion or

management preference

Seek relevant expertise for accurate interpretation

Look at wide range of both research & experience

Interpret for local conditions & current practices

Carefully evaluate facts & values in issues & info

To protect the watershed…

Management practices that maintain or help restore favorable soil conditions (especially high infiltration) are most important for good water quality & flow

...protect the soil

Beyond Regulation: Evolving PracticesOld timber, tractors, & disturbance

vs. New harvests, layouts, machines, etc.

OSU photoOSU photo

Some unique watershed concernswith fuel reduction treatments:

Soil compaction/disturbance (if more machine traffic)

Soil exposure (if high removal)

Truck traffic (if high utilization)

P.W. Adams

Potential for runoff & erosion from increases in:

Harvest System & Machine Selection

Compaction &

Disturbance

Tractors & Skidders

- / + Variable performance & use

Harvester/Processor & Forwarder

+ Log swinging reduces traffic

+ Slash can be added to trails

Feller Buncher & Grapple Skidder

- Traffic to each tree & stem

Rubber-tire skidder 10-30%

Crawler tractor 20-40%

Feller-buncher 25-50%

Harvester 35-50%

Forwarder 10-30%

Slope Limits*

*Approx. slope ranges due to differences in

design, payload, local soil conditions, etc.

P.W. Adams

Practices During Operations:

Awareness

Knowledge

Experience

Ability

Skill

Operator Selection & Supervision

Beyond Regulation: Evolving Practices II• Road design & location

• Drainage & stream crossings

P.W. Adams

OSU photoP.W. Adams

OSU photo

Legal Requirements for Forest Roads:Oregon’s Forest Practices Act & Rules

•Keep roads away from streams & other water*

•Provide for good surface drainage

•Prevent stream sedimentation & turbidity

•Provide for fish passage at crossing structures*

•Design structures to pass 50-year storm flow*

•Prevent road-related landslides

•Maintain all roads; stabilize closed roads

*primarily apply to new construction or major upgrades/repairs

(1) The purpose… is to reduce delivery of

fine sediment to streams caused by

the use of forest roads during wet

periods that may adversely affect

downstream water quality in Type F or

Type D streams.

(2) Operators shall use durable

surfacing or other effective

measures that resist deep rutting or

development of a layer of mud on top

of the road surface on road

segments that drain directly to

streams on active roads… used for

log hauling during wet periods.

(3) Operators shall cease active road

use where the surface is deeply

rutted or covered by a layer of mud

& where runoff from that road

segment is causing a visible

increase in the turbidity of Type F

or Type D streams as measured

above & below the effects of the road.

Wet Weather Road Use(ORS 629-625-0700)

P.W. Adams

Oregon Forest Practice Rules

Stream Crossing Structures(OAR 629-625-0320)

Minimize excavation of side slopes near the channel

Minimize volume of...the fill

Fills over 15 ft [require]... a written plan

Prevent erosion of...fill & channel

Pass a peak flow...50-yr return...adequate to [avoid] ponding

Allow migration of adult & juvenile fish upstream & downstream”

"Operators shall design & construct… structures to:

• Peak flows

• Stream power

• Culvert sizing

• Potential to clog

• Potential for scour

Erosion Potential at

Stream Crossings

Flow Capacity Circular Culverts

Diameter (in) Capacity (cfs) 24 5 - 11

36 21 - 31

48 47 - 64

60 88 - 113

72 145 - 178

Example: 75 cfs/mi2 x 4.9 miles = 368 cfs

Oregon's Forest Practice Rules

Required RMA widths: 20 - 100 feet

USDA Forest Service

State & Private Forestry Publication NA-TP-06-98

Slope of Land Between Road

and Stream (percent)

Recommended Buffer Width,

slope distance (feet)

0 - 10 50

11 - 20 51 - 70

21 - 40 71 - 110

41 - 70 111 - 150

Buffers for Roads

Consider wider buffers for erodible soils & slopes

82% of the surveyed segments with actual

or possible sediment delivery to streams

were over 150 feet in length

Sediment production was related to the

length & slope of road segments

Sediment Production from Forest Roads in Western ORLuce & Black 1999

Road Sediment & Drainage Monitoring

in Western OR - Skaugset & Allen 1998

AvoidLong,

SlopedSegments!

Road Inventory & AssessmentRMP Road Inventory Data Form OSU Ver. 11/15/02

Road

CondCondType

Stream

Crossings

Type

Ditch Relief Culverts

Road

Width CondSizeCondTypeCond% Notes

Ditch

Cond

Surface

Drainage

Corner

Condition

Clearing

Height

Clearing

Width

Grade

Surface

Material

Surface

Shape

Loc-

ationStation

Landowner: ___________________________________________________________________________________ Date:___________________

Road Name: _________________________________________________________________________________ Season/Type of Use: ___________________________

Page: ____ of ____

Luce & Black 1999

Sediment Production from Forest Roads in Western OregonLuce & Black 1999

Local soils & geology matter:

Sediment from rocked roads was about 9

times higher where constructed on silty clay

loam than on gravelly loam soils

Maintenance can be “overdone:”

Road segments where vegetation was

cleared from the cutslope & ditch produced

about 7 times more sediment than where

vegetation was retained

Watershed restoration projects vary widely

For information & assistance about riparian & stream habitat enhancement projects, contact your local Watershed Council or the Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board (OWEB)

http://www.oweb.state.or.us/

Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board

Both printed & web-based info. & assistance available