FOUR PHASES OF THE DESIGN REVOLUTION ... PHASES OF THE DESIGN REVOLUTION: EXPANDING THE DESIGN DOMAIN AND DEVELOPING DESIGN THEORY Dong-Sung Cho ABSTRACT Building on a proposed four-phase

FOUR PHASES OF THE DESIGN

REVOLUTION: EXPANDING

THE DESIGN DOMAIN AND

DEVELOPING DESIGN THEORY

Dong-Sung Cho

ABSTRACT

Building on a proposed four-phase model of the design revolution,

I outline an expanded domain to which design ideas may be applied, and

offer a design theory that has general application to the expanded design

domain. Numerous disciplines within the domain of design, which have

been separately developed, are converging through digital devices and

software such as computer-aided design programs. I refer to this

‘‘Connection’’ as the first phase of the design revolution. In the second

‘‘Expansion’’ phase of the design revolution, I expect that the domain

where principles of design are applied will be expanded beyond the visual

to include all five human senses. The design theory that I propose is a

logical application of design principles to various disciplines in the second

phase of the revolution. In the third ‘‘Application’’ phase of the design

revolution, the design theory will be applied not only to conventional

objects of design such as products and services, but also to institutions and

Designing Information and Organizations with a Positive Lens

Advances in Appreciative Inquiry, Volume 2, 97–127

r 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

ISSN: 1475-9152/doi:10.1016/S1475-9152(07)00206-2

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dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1475-9152(07)00206-2.3d

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systems such as governments, firms, and households. Finally, in the fourth

‘‘Integration’’ phase of the revolution, various parts of the world will be

integrated into a holistic system under a single design theory.

UNDERSTANDING THE DESIGN REVOLUTION

WITH A POSITIVE LENS

We live in an era of rapid change. Every institutional framework to whichwe are bound is certain to change at some point, since change is now aninevitable part of human life. There are two kinds of change, evolution andrevolution, which can be distinguished by speed and direction. Evolution isslow, gradual, and continuous, with a clear and predictable direction.Revolution is quick, swift, and intermittent, without clear and predictabledirection until the change is completed (Cho, 2004). Design experts claimthat they can predict the future of the design market through trend analysis.In fashion design, for example, trend watchers propose a series of colors,shapes, and types that will become popular 6 months later, a year later,3 years later, etc. As such, they believe design changes are slow, gradual,continuous, and most importantly, predictable. Yet, there are other kinds ofchange in design that are taking place at a breathtaking speed without anyobvious directions foreseen by contemporaries. We may collectively callthese speedy and unpredictable changes the ‘‘design revolution.’’

Revolutions in general may, or may not, improve the average quality ofhuman lives. History has witnessed many revolutions, which threw innocentpeople into unwanted ways of life. The design revolution, on the other hand,takes place to help people reach the quality of life that they desire. In orderto satisfy this imperative of the design revolution, we may need to take apositive stance toward our capacity for design that will enable us to use ourunderstanding of the design revolution to build better organizations andsystems. A positive lens approach to the design revolution will help us openour eyes and see design aspects of the world that have been largelyoverlooked.

In this chapter, I attempt to understand the content and process of thedesign revolution with a positive lens. I have divided the design revolutioninto four phases and established a basic foundation for a design theory.Based on these undertakings, we will be able to predict emerging outcomesof design revolution and make them contribute to creating a better world forall of us to live in.

Four Phases of the Design Revolution 99

THEORETIC SALIENCE OF EXISTING STUDIES

Meaning and Definition of Design

By exploring the root origins of the word ‘‘design,’’ one can see that thegeneral meaning of design lies in ‘‘planning or laying out’’ something(Cho & Lee, 1996). As in the case of ‘‘semiconductor chip design,’’ engineerscommonly adopt the word design to mean ‘‘laying something out.’’ Cityplanners and landscape architects use the word to describe ‘‘planning’’ whileautomakers use it to mean ‘‘styling’’ (Jung, 1998).

The boundaries of design have generally been limited to the domain ofvisual art. More specifically, the word ‘‘design’’ has been used in fieldsdealing with tangible substance or form. In a narrower sense, design refersto an industrial or manufacturing process of planning and layouts to addconsumer value such as beauty and usefulness to a given product. Designhas been regarded as a function that straddles art and commerce whileproviding mainly visual and superficial values. However, applying thecreative and systematic process of design to other fields, constitutes genuinechange. In the following, we will explore the concept of design with anemphasis on its instrumental definitions and roles rather than on its literalmeaning.

The exchange of information, which we call ‘‘communication,’’ underliesall human actions and activities. Warren W. Weaver defined communica-tions to include ‘‘all of the methods through which one mind affectsanother’’ (Takahashi & Kim, 1999). According to this definition, commu-nications include not only words or language, but also all human behaviorsand means aimed at exchanging ideas with others. A broader interpretationof communications includes even unintended expressions of feelings withinthe scope of communications. For example, when a person screams out infear, he or she is appealing to others for help, and this action may be seen asan act of communication (Takahashi & Kim, 1999). Fine art such as music,painting, sculpture, and dance can also be included in a broad definition ofcommunications. Most human actions can be divided into two groups: onewhose goal is communication and another whose goal is not necessarilycommunication but which somehow carries such an effect.

Design in the visual sphere can perform as a very effective and efficienttool in conveying an intended message, value, or emotion to others. Theeffectiveness of design as a communications tool derives from its ability toexpress complex concepts or hard-to-explain values in a simple and clearmanner. Moreover, when design is broadly defined to mean ‘‘planning’’ or

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‘‘laying out,’’ it may be interpreted as all actions regarding the laying outof contents to be delivered through communications. Accordingly, design ispart of the message being delivered through the communication process.

Studies on the Scope of the Design Industry and its Classification

In today’s rapidly changing environment, consumers of goods and servicesshow significantly different patterns from those of the past. Today’sconsumers are much more interested in how a purchased good or servicewill satisfy their needs, and less interested in the physical traits of the goodsand services themselves. The Standard Industrial Classification Code basedsimply on the production process and physical traits must be adjustedaccordingly to fit this changing environment. An official industrialclassification system can have a direct effect on the value-creating activitiesof entities belonging to industrial sectors, by setting the scope and method ofpolicy support.

Although the Standard Industrial Classification Code is generallyaccepted worldwide, each nation has its modified version to fit to thenation’s specific circumstance. In Korea, for example, the NationalStatistical Office (NSO) revised the Korean Standard Industrial Classifica-tion (KSIC) in January 2000. The pre-2000 KSIC had not recognizedthe design industry, except for a few fragmented sectors such as advertisingand architectural design (Cho, 1998). It clearly showed Korea’s failureto recognize the design industry as an independently important sector. In1996, Cho and Lee (1998) introduced a new categorization of the sectoraccording to the value chain, a classifying method generally employed inbusiness studies. The value chain model helps to single out value-creatingfactors by sorting business activities into primary versus supportingactivities. According to the analytical framework of the value chain, theprimary activities of the design industry are: (1) consumer research,(2) product design, (3) product manufacturing, (4) product packaging, and(5) advertising.

This new categorization resulted in a new classification system of thedesign industry by organically linking conventional industrial classificationwith primary activities of the design industry. In the new model, the designindustry was expanded to include fashion, crafts, and environmental design.The new categorization also highlights structural differences betweenproduct design in the early phase of the value chain and visual design inthe late phase. The value chain-based classification of the design industry


adopts the economic value of various industrial activities as its maincriterion, and allows identification of the source and scope of values createdby the design industry.

The digital revolution has reshaped industrial structure in two ways. First,new types of industries have emerged, moving away from analog-orientedproduction toward an IT-oriented digital economy. Second, conventionalindustries are also experiencing a digital transformation. The applicationof digital technologies is expanding the R&D capabilities of conventionalbusinesses, and the digitization of existing products is enabling brick-and-mortars to manufacture high value-added products. Globally, the digitalcontent market is experiencing explosive growth, and the digital economy isbecoming more significant by the day.

In a partially revised version by the author of what was proposed byCho and Lee in 1996, the categorization is different on two counts. First,in its classification system the new model successfully reflects changesbrought about by the digital revolution, by specifically placing the domainof new media design within the category of design. Second, the newmodel embraces packaging design as a link in the value chain. Landscapingwas newly added to the design-related sector and professional designwas classified as a lower category, with product design and visual designbeneath it.

MODELING THE DESIGN REVOLUTION

The First Phase of the Design Revolution: Connection Existing

Design Industries

So far, I have examined changes associated with the digital revolution thatmarked the end of the 20th century: the emergence of a new breed ofindustries and the enhanced importance of design in emerging industries aswell as in existing industries. With the advent of advanced IT technologies,industries–old and new alike–are witnessing ever fiercer competition on aglobal scale. Industries tend to diversify while concentrating on core com-petencies; and value-creating activities previously locked inside a businessare now being outsourced when found to be uncompetitive. In other words,the digital revolution has brought about fundamental changes to industry aswell as the value chain of businesses.

The connection among industries and businesses is likely to becomestronger as specialized businesses and industries link together and function

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as a single organic system. In such a linked system, even a small change cansend ripples across the entire network with growing intensity. Consequently,in order to maintain a symbiotic relationship, all entities belonging to anetwork should strengthen the connection among themselves. In sum, oneof the society-wide implications of the digital revolution is the strengthenedconnection among industries.

Design is not immune to such changes. Triggered by the digitalrevolution, design sectors that had not even existed before, such as digitalcontents design,1 were newly included in industrial categorization whilemultilateral relations among specialized and diversified domains of designbecame more solid as the first phase of design revolution continued.Packaging design is crucial in improving the quality of digital products.However, the design of digital contents, software, and interface–allnecessary for operating manufactured goods–is just as important. There-fore, businesses should maintain close relations with one another so that themost competitive designers or businesses in each domain can marshal theircapabilities and produce the best goods together.

Since the first phase of the design revolution, different design sectors havestarted to strengthen their ties with one another, and to establish connectionwith previously extraneous sectors in design. This process in the revolutioncan be summed up in Fig. 1.

Diversification of the design industryLack of integrated classification system

Design industry’s pre-revolution stage DigitalRevolution

- Visual, product, space, apparel design...- Visual, product, space, apparel design...- Two- and three-dimensional, space- Two- and three-dimensional, space (expressional space) (expressional space)- Two-, three-, four-dimensional- Two-, three-, four-dimensional- Architecture, engineering, commerce- Architecture, engineering, commerce (SIC code) (SIC code)- Communications, products, environment- Communications, products, environment- Visual, craft, industries- Visual, craft, industries- Visual, products, environment- Visual, products, environment

Newindustries

Integratedclassification

Strengthened connection

The first revolution

Connection of existingindustries

Product designVisual designCraft worksInteriorArchitectureApparelDigital contents design

Fig. 1. The First Phase of the Design Revolution.


The Second Phase of the Design Revolution: Expansion of the Design

Domain to the Five Senses and Development of the Design Theory

The second phase of the design revolution involves moving beyond thedesign domain whose reach has been limited to the visual,2 and applying theprinciples of design to all five human senses. Design across all disciplinesmust follow a single set of rules if we are to create a product that as a wholecan communicate through all five senses. Sensory organs have frequentlybeen tapped to raise the value of products. In conventional industries,design has mainly been related to the visual domain, i.e. appearance orpackaging, while the tactual senses were only partially taken into account,in fashion design.

In the 70’s ‘‘usability’’ was first recognized as one of the most importantvariables in evaluating product design. Consumer aesthetics were used toevaluate the quality of a product’s design on the basis of its functionalityand the economic and symbolic values derived from possessing the product.This tendency, however, started to change as consumers began to recognizethe value of products in a self-oriented way (Kwon, 1995). In this newparadigm of product evaluation, design had to move the consumer’s mindby tapping into all five human senses. Under this consumer-orientedparadigm, products send a new message to customers by stimulating theirsenses through design, demanding that customers clearly get and rememberthe message. Table 1 compares the characteristics of two design paradigms:producer-centered design and customer-centered design.

No industry will remain competitive if it considers only the visual aspectsof product design. There is a growing demand to specifically include allfive senses in design objects and execute design according to a unified setof principles. The second phase of the design revolution will be complete

Table 1. Changes in Design-Related Paradigm.

Design Paradigm Producer-Centered Design Customer-Centered Design

Power sources Industrial revolution Digital revolution

Philosophy Machinery aesthetics Aesthetics of diversity based on

the information revolution

Evaluation factors Functionality Usability recognized by

consumers

Economic, symbolic value

from ownership

Product–consumer interaction

The first phase ofthe design revolution

Input of five senses

Integration ofdesign fields

Development ofintegratedprinciples

Connection amongconventional design industries

Industrial designVisual designCraft worksInteriorArchitectureApparel designDigital contents design

Design through sightDesign through hearingDesign through tasteDesign through smellDesign through touchDesign through senses

The second phase ofthe design revolution

Expansion of design fields

�

�

Fig. 2. The Second Phase of Design Revolution.

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only when such principles are established and applied to every discipline.The ongoing changes mentioned above are a part of the revolutionaryprocess. Consequently, if principles are successfully identified and establi-shed, a design theory can be utilized as a competitiveness-enhancing tool foreach industry in our rapidly changing current environment.

The second phase of design revolution is summed up in Fig. 2.

The Third Phase of the Design Revolution: Applying Design

Theory to Social Systems

The digital revolution and associated technological advances are the factorsdriving the revolution in design. Furthermore, the digital revolution hashad so great an impact that it has generated a completely new culture andinstitutions. E-mail has replaced letters, and one can now easily shop in thecomfort of one’s living room. Cyber crimes that did not exist at all in thepast are on the rise, calling for proper institutional regulation. Technolo-gical change initiates a cycle: changes in technologies influence socialinstitutions, which in turn create an environment that can spawn furthertechnological change.


The third phase moves beyond the industrial sphere and applies designtheory to neighboring studies and other social domains. The applicationtakes design from mere art or operations to an entirely different level inwhich design assumes a broader meaning. We have witnessed many caseswhere synergy was generated from an integration of various elements andareas in industry and between disciplines. One may very well expect to findsynergy wherever knowledge and principles from various sectors cometogether and are extended to other domains.

However, it is not always possible to extend and apply theories andprinciples developed in one professional discipline to another. In some cases,a new theoretical framework needs to be properly modified or improved tosuit the changing environment. The third phase of the revolution begins withthe task of borrowing from other domains principles that are applicable todesign. For example, Fig. 3 shows how principles may be borrowed frommanagement and integrated into design and then applied back to the field ofmanagement.

Prior to applying design principles to new domains, however, the basicprinciples of each domain within design need to be integrated into theuniversal design theory. The design theory created in the second phase canthen be applied to creative processes or problem-solving processes in otherdisciplines. This process is what the third phase of design revolution is allabout.

Expansion of design-related domains means more than simply borrowingthe word design; rather, it means that the established principles and theoriesof design are being extended and applied to other domains. The design

Design

Design

AppliedAreas

Management

Application of designprinciples in design

Application of designprinciples in management

AppliedPrinciples Management

Application of managementprinciples in design

Application of managementprinciples in management

Fig. 3. Mutual Application of Principles in Design and Management.

The 2nd phase ofthe design revolution

Expansion ofdesign fields

The design theory

Theories inneighboring

fields

The 3rd phase of the design revolution

Application of the designtheory to new fields


Application to politicsApplication to economicsApplication to managementApplication to social systemApplication to value system

Fig. 4. The Third Phase of Design Revolution.

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theory can be applied to every social institution including academia,politics, economics and management. Every social system that weembrace–government, enterprise, tax schemes, etc.–is the fruit of ourancestors’ work and creativity. The principles that apply to this creativeprocess are none other than what we call the design theory. The third phasecan be complete only when design revolution reaches maturity and thecreative processes to which the design principles are applied penetrate intoevery sector of society. The third phase of design revolution is summarizedin Fig. 4.

The Fourth Phase of the Design Revolution: Integration

of Design-Applied Domains

I have so far investigated the first three phases of design revolution: thestrengthened connection among design industries (Phase One); the expan-sion of design-related domains (Phase Two); and the application of designprinciples to other new domains (Phase Three). However, even though thedesign revolution is phased, the order in which the three phases occur canbe mixed and does not necessarily follow a time-sequential order. In fact,all phases can progress simultaneously with the results of one phase of therevolution affecting another.

The 1st phase of theDesign Industry

Interconnection AmongConventional DesignIndustries

Visual designCraft worksInteriorArchitectureApparel designDigital contents design

The 3rd phase of theDesign Industry

Application of DesignPrinciples in New Fields

Application in PoliticsApplication in EconomicsApplication in SocialSystemApplication in Value System

The 2nd phase of the Design Industry


Expansion of Design Fields

The 4th phase of theThe 4th phase of theDesign IndustryDesign Industry

Integration of multiple design ideas

Integration of the1st & 2ndphases of the DesignRevolution Integration of the 1st & 3rd phases Integration of the 2nd & 3rd phasesIntegration of the1st, 2nd & 3rd phases

Fig. 5. The Fourth Phase of Design Revolution.


In the fourth phase of the revolution, all phases progress concurrently,with the first, second, and third phases proceeding in an integrated mannerthrough their interaction. It is a process in which industrial barriers are torndown and design revolution becomes complete. The entire model from thefirst to the fourth phase can be summarized as in Fig. 5.

Current Status and Upcoming Challenges

The first phase of the design revolution has yet to be completed, but hasnonetheless made much headway when examined in the context of the entirerevolution process. Therefore, any study of Phase One merely serves as adescription of the past or present. However, research on Phase Two is aboutforecasting the future, and thus carries greater significance as we seek todevelop theories that will become the basis for the ongoing design revolutionprocess. As a means of ensuring that all studies in each phase explain thepresent and predict the future–two attributes required of any theory–no partof the studies should be overlooked.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A DESIGN THEORY

The Principles of Visual Design

Beauty is formed through a harmonization of all media or through thecreation of a unified form. A principle of design is a structural plan withinwhich parts are organically integrated to create substance. A linkageprinciple or composition plan determines how factors of design should beintegrated to achieve a certain effect. Through such principles, the elementscan establish meaningful relationships (Min, 1995). In the following,I will apply the six design principles of visual objects proposed from aformative perspective to other domains in order to find a universal principleand enhance understanding of the hierarchy that exists among theseprinciples.

Harmony

Harmony concerns striking an overall balance within an object. Harmonyoccurs when two or more factors achieve a highly sensory effect as a unifiedwhole, without repelling each other. It is also an internal value assessment ofthe relationship of these factors.

Perfect harmony is generally achieved when similarity coexists withdifference. When the difference is prominent, these factors stand in contrastwith one another. Therefore, harmony is produced through appropriateunity and balance among differing factors (Min, 1995).

Unity

Unity is achieved when the factors constituting a visual object are diverseyet ordered as a whole and form subdued beauty. When we say that natureor art is aesthetic, unity is one of its fundamental formative principles.

Balance

Balance is a sense of stability achieved through an appropriate distributionof visual forces or weight among two or more factors. It is also a factor thatbrings about change and harmony between symmetrical and contrastingfactors. Proportion is also an important factor. Balance is therefore notthe opposite of contrast but something that at times breaks up symmetry oradds asymmetry through form, texture, hue, location and direction tocapture a dynamic center of the artwork (Cho & Kim, 1999).


Emphasis

Emphasis means the causing of change through visual stimuli, breaking upsimplicity and capturing attention through intentional impact, moving awayfrom the existing hue, arrangement and order. However, careless emphasiswill break up unity and balance and cause disorder. Therefore, emphasis ofa harmonious form as part of a whole is necessary.

Rhythm

Rhythm involves a series of movements that changes through time. Rhythmas a principle of design is based on a regular or irregular repetition of eachfactor and element. Various types of rhythm are created, based on the typeof order applied (Lauer & Lee, 1996).

Proportion

Proportion in general shows the relationship of two or more quantitativefactors such as width, length, height and depth. Today, however, it alsoincludes other relationships that are not quantitative, such as the relation-ship among the parts or between the parts and the whole (Min, 1995).

Contrast

Contrast means a feeling of tension or a dramatic effect produced bycontrasting the opposite natures of the various factors. Contrast is one ofthe factors that constitute harmony (Cho & Kim, 1999).

Symmetry

Symmetry means unity and stability achieved by arranging similar formsacross points, lines or surfaces. Symmetry is the most common form ofbalance and is considered the ultimate state of balance (Min, 1995).

The Principles of Acoustic Design

This section extends the eight principles of visual design presented aboveto the acoustic domain, and investigates the possibility of applying theseprinciples to acoustic design. Although music does not represent the entireacoustic domain, one can find similar factors of design such as planning,design, and creative process in musical theories. It is therefore possible tosystematically compare the theory in musical composition with theprinciples of visual design.3

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The biggest difference between sight and sound is time; visual andacoustic effects are similar in that both occur within a certain space.However, space in the former is a distance-space whereas in the latter, it isa topological space formed through a relationship between the passing oftime and elements (Seo, 2000). The elements are differentiated by the pitchof sound, which is achieved in the continuity of time.4 According to atopological explanation of music, space is formed through a relationshipbetween sounds with different pitches, lengths, and timbres over time. Theserelationships form a hierarchy in the topological space to create a melody orstructure. In distance-space, one just climbs up and down as on a staircaseand recognizes the relations between notes such as differing pitches throughthe changes in hierarchy. In the following, I will examine the principles thatform structures within a topological space by comparing them with theprinciples of visual design.

Harmony

Just as unity and balance in the principles of visual design can harmonize,harmony in the theory of musical composition is the result of thecombination of various principles of design (Choi, 1999). Harmony isthe progression of chords according to a musical principle. A chord is thetemporal unit of harmony that has been combined based on a musicalprinciple for establishing a system with unity and balance based on onesingle motif. Thus, if chords are compared to words, the progression ofharmony can be compared to the process of forming a sentence based onunity and balance.

Each note constituting a chord contains a root. Therefore, the relation-ships among notes are based on the relationships between the roots. Whenwe look at the structure of a triad, which is the most basic relationshipwithin a chord, it is composed of c, g, and e with the c note as the root.These notes are piled up twice by 3 degrees around a natural harmonicovertone5 and arranged vertically until the 6th harmonic overtone. In atriad, all dissonant chords are included within the 6 harmonic overtones(complete 1, 4, 5, 8, and long, short 3, 6 degrees). A triad based on harmonicovertones produces the most ideal consonant chord when its vibration ratiois 4:5:6. In this case, proportion serves as a key principle in composing idealmelodies.

Chords are also divided into consonant and dissonant. In a consonantchord, the relationships of notes making up the chord are all formed withconsonant intervals whereas in a dissonant chord, there are one or moredissonant intervals.6 A dissonant chord is formed by using opposing


elements such as consonant intervals and dissonant intervals, showing howcontrast can be applied to musical theory.

Through the continuous alternate use of the secondary7 and majortriads, the melodious factor increases through the diversity and changethat comes from the different tones. The principle of contrast is evident inthis case.

Rhythm

According to the principles of music, rhythm consists of meter, pace ortempo, accent, and patterns. A change in any one of these factors will affectthe rhythm. Also, in musical principles, rhythm assumes meanings broaderthan mere patterns of ‘‘regular or irregular repetition,’’ which is the conceptof rhythm as a visual design principle (Creston, 1990).

A meter is the number of beats in a bar/measure. For example, in a3/4 bar, a meter is composed of three beats with a length of a quarter note(crotchet). Rhythm being an orderly movement is divided into five kinds ofstructures, namely, regular division, irregular division, repetition, repetitionof regular division, and repetition of irregular division. Regular divisionmeans the composition of a measure with beats of the same length. Ninetypercent of rhythms that we are familiar with are based on regular division.The weight of a beat is equally distributed over all the measures, notconcentrated on just some, demonstrating the principle of balance–borrowed from design–at work. In this context, beat means proportionand division, which is the principle of creating beats–and this representscontrast. Again, regular division signifies symmetry while irregular divisionmeans asymmetry. Tempo that exists in the flow of time represents force,or an emphasis of space, whereas accent just assumes the literal meaningof emphasis.

The only remaining principle of visual design to be found in rhythm issymmetry. In visual design, symmetry means achieving a sense of unity andstability by arranging the same forms around a center. In music, one oftensees rhythm created in a piece of music through the repetition of measurescontaining the same pattern. Unlike visual design, which can be expressedinstantaneously without temporal constraint, acoustic design is restricted bytime and repetition, its only way of expressing contrast.

So far, I have sought factors in existing theories of musical compositionthat are comparable to visual design principles, as shown in Table 2. Basedon the comparison, I propose that practically all the principles of visualdesign can be applied to acoustic design.

Table 2. Application of Principles of Visual Design to Acoustic Design.

Principles in Acoustic Design Principles in Visual Design

HARMONY Harmony

mProgression of chords to form principles of harmony Unity, Balance

mCombination of chords to compose melody Proportion

mAlternating consonant chords and dissonant chords Contrast

RHYTHM

Meter Proportion

Division Contrast

Regular division Symmetry

Irregular division Asymmetry

Tempo Emphasis

Accent Emphasis

Pattern (Repetition) Rhythm, Symmetry

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Principles of Gustatory, Olfactory, and Tactual Design

Unlike the visual and acoustic domains, no systematic and explicit theory ofgustatory, olfactory, and tactual design exists in the corresponding domains,but this does not mean that design in these domains is carried out withoutany principle. I will search for principles that are used in each of thesedomains through case studies and compare them with the principles ofvisual and acoustic design, thus developing principles in each correspondingdomain.

CASE STUDIES ON GUSTATORY, OLFACTORY,

AND TACTUAL DESIGN

This section focuses on the integration and expansion that occurs in PhaseTwo of the Design Revolution. Case studies that demonstrate suchexpansion and integration generally break off into one of two directions,A and B, which I will discuss separately. In some instances, the principles ofvisual design are expanded in direction A and applied to the domain of thefive senses as part of an effort to develop a universal design theory, which is


ultimately applicable to all five senses. In other instances, direction B isfollowed, and innovative products are designed that perform functions in allfive senses, integrating old domains with new in their design, to create value.Through a discussion of these two types of cases, I will investigate the needfor an expansion and integration of the design domain as well as the validityof a universal design theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).

I will now attempt to examine – through case studies – the common senseand logic that exist, albeit unnoticed, in the gustatory, olfactory, and tactualdomains, where no systematic principles currently exist. By doing so, I willassess the purpose or rationale behind the processes leading to outcomes inthe sensory domains. In this section, I will examine the design revolutionin products by investigating various cases in which two or more sensorydomains were considered in production. This will support the rationale forthe development of integrated principles of design that consider all fivesenses. The following case studies serve to expand the principles of visualdesign.

The Principles of Gustatory Design in Food

As peoples’ lives become more prosperous, food is no longer merely a sourceof energy, but something through which people enjoy taste and style, and iswithout doubt the object of design. Although a systematic set of principlesdoes not exist in cooking, they may be found through the interpretation ofthe common sense that peppers recipes and cooking, or the know-how thatculinary masters have accumulated through long experience, and display inthe creation of new dishes–from a perspective of the aforementioned designprinciples (Song, 2000).

Harmony

Fish is commonly eaten with white wine and meat with red, because thesourness of white wine goes well with the taste of fish whereas the tannins inred wine assuage the strong and fatty taste of meat. This is the principle of‘‘harmony’’ of design at work, two or more factors forming a unified wholewithout canceling each other out (Song, 2000).

Unity

A high-quality meal is composed of diverse tastes, but yet does not loseits sense of unity among the tastes, to produce a sense of harmony andstability.

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Balance

Japanese foods balance all five tastes, whereas the emphasis on spiciness andsaltiness in Korean foods is interpreted by some as the principle of balance.Rice and noodles, the staple food for Koreans, have a weak taste and needsomething with a stronger taste and smell to trigger the appetite (Song,2000).

Emphasis

In a French meal, charcuterie or sorbet is served before the main dish towhet the appetite. It is used to wipe away the taste of the previous dish andto emphasize the taste of the next.

Rhythm

Rhythm, or an order of dishes being served, is important in French cuisine.Each dish has a role to play within the entire meal. The intensity of tasteincreases with each dish until it reaches the top with the main course, thengradually decreases. On the other hand, the order of Chinese dishes has adifferent effect on the intensity of taste. Fig. 6 compares the effects ofrhythm found in French and Chinese cuisine on the intensity of taste. Food

Chinese Food

French FoodInte

nsity

of

Tas

te

Time

Fig. 6. Rhythm Found in French and Chinese Cuisine through Intensity of Taste.


in each country has its own unique rhythm, in that it adjusts the intensity oftaste through order and change.

Proportion

It goes without saying that a different proportion of ingredients resultsin different tastes in food. For example, cocktails can have differenttastes depending on the proportion of alcohol, flavors and drinks added tothe mix.

Contrast8

There are a significant number of cooking tips that when utilized, bringabout subtle differences in the taste of food. For example, strawberriestaste sweeter when they are washed in salt water; adding salt to boiling redbean soup makes it taste sweeter; and adding salt to a broth will make ittaste thicker. Although sweetness and saltiness are not opposite flavors,we can find contrast in the two, in that combining differing tastes creates asynergistic effect.

Another example of contrast is the French baguette, whose hard exteriorand soft inside create perfect harmony. The same principle can be found inwarm apple pie and cool ice cream, combined to create a refreshing feelingon the palette.

Others

In the cases above, we saw that seven factors in the principles of visualdesign–harmony, unity, balance, emphasis, rhythm, proportion andcontrast–can be included in the list of the principles of gustatory design.Although it is uncertain as to whether symmetry can be applied to food,we cannot completely eliminate the possibility just because a case has yet tobe found.

The Principles of Olfactory Design in Perfume

Perfume is perhaps the best example to demonstrate our sense of smell.‘‘Perfume marketing,’’ which uses perfumes that suit the image of a productor service to trigger the consumer’s desire, has already become a fixture intextbooks on management (Yi, 1989). Designing a scent is not limited to theblending of natural or synthetic fragrances. A person creating his/her ownscent or style by using perfumes or cosmetics is also engaging in design.

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I will proceed to analyze products in order to identify principles of designthat are applicable to smell.

Harmony9

Most cosmetics contain slight fragrances so that one can create a scent ofhis/her own by layering and harmonizing the scents of the products he/shewears. The outcome may be basic in some instances while nearly perfume-like in others. One can also achieve harmony by coordinating one’s perfumewith his/her outfit for the day. Formal clothes go well with fougere types10

of perfume; fresh floral or citrus perfumes are suitable for the office orclassroom.

Unity11

A floral perfume smells like a bouquet of flowers and is created by unifyingdiverse fragrances into one. The perfume allows a person to achieve unity ofimage and scent.

Balance

The area of the body on which one sprays perfume determines the durabilityof a scent, not only its amount. Normally one sprays the perfume on areaswith a pulse, such as the neck or wrist, because the pulsation gives off abalanced diffusion of the perfume.

Emphasis

A person’s scent or body odor plays an important role in the way othersremember that person. For example, if a person has a fragrant scent, onewill have a fragrant memory of that person.

Rhythm

The scent of a perfume changes with time. Perfume starts undergoing subtlerhythmic changes from the moment it is sprayed on. Perfume designtypically goes through three periods.

� Top note: What your sense of smell first experiences with a whiff of thebottle.

� Middle note: The bouquet at the heart of the perfume.� Base note: The final expression of a perfume; its reverberations lastaround 3 hours.

The role of the perfumer is to strike an appropriate harmony of theperfume notes. Yohji, created by the famous Japanese designer Yohji


Yamamoto, has green fragrance in the top note, natural vanilla and musk inthe middle note, and a special fragrance called Azilla absolute in the last.12

Proportion

A perfume cannot be used by itself. It must be diluted to enhance itsvolatility. Perfume can be divided into types depending on the ratio ofperfume to alcohol. Around 50–100 kinds of perfume oils are used tocompose just one scent. The design principle of proportion can be found inthe process of adjusting the concentration and blend.

Contrast

Fragrances can be categorized according to the method of manufacturinginto natural fragrances, synthetic fragrances, and compound fragrances.Most animal components such as musk and ambergris have an unpleasantodor, but they are always included in the process of making perfume as theyrender the perfume softer and richer. From this, we may understandcontrast as one of the principles of olfactory design since an appropriatecontrast between pleasant and unpleasant smells generates a synergic effect.

Others

In the above cases, we saw that seven elements visual design principles–harmony, unity, balance, emphasis, rhythm, proportion, and contrast–canbe applied to olfactory design. It is doubtful whether symmetry can beapplied to designing perfume. As in the principles of gustatory design,symmetry, unlike other principles of visual design, does not seem to beapplied to all five human senses.

The Principles of Tactual Design in Manufactured Products

Touch is the most primitive of all senses and is developed before any othersensory organs. ‘‘The skin feels the external stimulus through a combinationof force, vibration, pressure, temperature and humidity. These stimuli,together with past experiences and cultural or social factors create a feelingthat we call texture’’ (Kwon, 1998). Recently, sensory products have beengaining popularity in various domains such as fashion, textiles, homeappliances, office equipment and sundries. Touch is indeed a domain ofdesign. In the following, we will look at the principles of visual design thatcan be applied to the domain of touch in various manufactured products.

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Harmony

From the office equipment field, Apple, which first drew keen attention bydeveloping unique designs such as transparent hardware, achieved unity inits G3 model by balancing visual and tactual aspects and moving away fromthe sharp image of hardware to emphasize a new roundness and softness.

Unity

Toybank’s Touch Ball is designed to help children develop their senses.Diverse materials are used on the ball but the feeling the child experienceson his/her hand is the same.

Balance and Proportion

Textile design has two meanings: one is to produce textile itself, while theother is designing by using the textile (Lee, 1999). Synthetic fiber is mixedwith natural fiber or other types of synthetic fiber to create textiles that bringout the best of all the materials used. Cases in which textiles with newproperties and textures are created through an appropriate mixture of fibersallow us to see that proportion and balance from the principles of visualdesign are applied to the principles of tactual design. Proportion acts as thesub-factor of balance in that an appropriate blending of two or more factorscreates a new textile with balanced texture and properties.

Emphasis

One example of emphasis is a plastic toy for children with patches of leatherto help children learn different textures, and patches of softer material foremphasis.

Rhythm

Leather may feel hard and cold at first touch but its surface slowly becomessofter when the leather reacts with the body’s temperature and causes thetemperature of the leather to change.

Contrast13

The French company, Rexon, designed a computer mouse that was apopular touch product made of cold smooth metal except for its click buttonwhich was made of rubber and was soft and warm to the touch. In theRexon mouse, we can see the visual design principle of contrast at work. Thecontrast of hardness versus softness allows the two feelings to complementeach other and cause a synergistic effect.


Symmetry

The superficial unevenness of embossed toilet paper achieved completesymmetry through regular repetition of equal swells and dents. Embossedtoilet paper is a case of the use of symmetry to achieve not only sensible buttechnical effects.

DEVELOPMENT OF A DESIGN THEORY THROUGH

THE INTEGRATION OF ALL FIVE DOMAINS

Up to the second section, we have looked at the principles of visual designthat can be expanded and used in all five sensory domains. We will nowinvestigate cases in which diverse sensory domains are considered in thecreation of a product. Through innovations that are applied to all five sensorydomains, companies are employing visual and other sensorial factors increating products with new designs in order to meet rising consumer demandsand ensure competitiveness. The question ‘‘Which sensory function shallI add?’’ can become a good early phase example of design through theintegration of the five senses. In the future, adding such functions will becomecommon and many products will have the functions of all five senses.Ultimately, the integration of the five sensory domains will be complete whenthese factors become the determinants of a product’s competitiveness.

Case Studies: Development of Products that Integrate

Various Sensory Functions

Sensible Technologies

The Touchy-Feely Mouse. A PHANTOM mouse14 enables the user to feelphysically the shape or quality of a virtual object just as one would see theimage on a monitor or hear sound through a speaker. Such touch-basedtechnology has already penetrated deep into the real world. Using wheelsand sensory joysticks for computer games gives players the sense thatthey are actually operating a space shuttle or driving a racing car. Similartactual interfaces are now being used in diverse domains such as medicine,communications, film, and design.

Mazda: Model MX-5. In automobile design, to emphasize its sportyimage, Mazda’s MX-5 model was deliberately designed to create sounds ofheavy friction much like those of British sports cars, to appear more vibrant.

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The sound appeals more to the consumers than the actual shape of the car.Its oatmeal leather car seats and sense of weight are other design factorsconsidered in the creation of a unified image as a sports car. In this way,visual, tactual and acoustic factors are considered in the design of aconventional product.

Philips: Musical T-Shirts. A musical T-shirt by Philips15 enables thewearer to listen to his favorite music through earphones attached to theT-shirt. Electric devices are woven into the cloth to make them invisible.Many functions using minimized parts are attached to the body of thewearer to feel like a second skin. A chip-shirt plays chips on which thewearer’s favorite music has been stored.

Sony: Entertainment Robot AIBO. Sony’s entertainment robot AIBO is anintelligent robot that can walk on all four legs. The technological featuresapplied to AIBO are as follows:

� Eyes: LED shines in its eye lamps to express feelings. The eyes shine greenwhen AIBO is happy and red when it is angry.

� Head: AIBO has a touch sensor and when a person lightly pats its headfor around 2 seconds, it interprets this as praise, or a scolding when aperson suddenly and strongly presses down on its head.

� Ears: Stereo microphones are installed inside the ears and recognize themelody and direction of noise.

� Nose: A color camera and distance sensor is built inside the nose enablingAIBO to seek out its favorite color or avoid obstacles together with theinfrared sensor in its head. It also recognizes forms and movements.

� Mouth: It fetches and expresses feelings. A speaker attached to the mouthemits melodies and sound effects.

� Tail: Expresses feelings by wagging up and down and side to side.

French Cuisine. There are probably no other products that require all fivesenses as does food. Other products are characteristically unable to appealto the sense of taste, but it would be more reasonable to say that food, as acomposite art, requires all five senses by necessity (Song, 2000). Chinese andFrench foods are generally considered the best tasting, and rightfully sowhen food is evaluated with just the sense of taste. However, if one wereto choose food that is culturally the most developed, the Chinese losedecisively to the French. This is explained by examining how many of thefive senses are applied in the cuisines of each country.


Chinese food has excellent tastes but lacks harmony and balance in termsof an overall visual effect. Chinese food also does not pay much attention tosmell or sound. On the other hand, French food pays special attention notonly to taste but also to the visual elements. Equal attention is given tosound. Crystal glasses are used to achieve the clear sound of clinking wineglasses. In touch, French food emphasizes the texture and feel of vegetablesinside the mouth and the fleshy texture of chewing meat. In smell, Frenchfood uses various spices to boost taste.

When we assess the foods of each country on the basis of how the five tastesare designed into the food and presentation, second place would go toJapanese cuisine. Japanese foods also use five colors, five tastes, five methodsof cooking, and apply all visual, acoustic, tactual, and olfactory factors.Applying such principles to Korean food would upgrade it to a much highercultural level. Korean food is next to none in taste but has room forimprovement in the visual and olfactory domains. Therefore, if the five senseswere applied to the design of Korean food, it could position itself as a high-quality product that is on a par with French and Japanese foods. The samelogic can be applied to other ethnic foods such as Mexican and Thai foods foroverall improvement in value and better satisfaction to the gourmet.

Other Case Studies. Cases that enhance the value of a product by addingfunctions that appeal to other senses can be easily found all around us.However, the market domination achieved by these differentiated productswill not last unless a complete technological entrance barrier is erected. Tomaintain a competitive edge over laggards with similar functions, one mustattempt to differentiate design in all functions of the five senses. This mayseem innovative at present but will become commonplace in the near future.In addition, a design that integrates the five sensory functions into a wholewill achieve a more dramatic effect than separate designs. A small changecan bring about an enormous increase in added value. Design is used as atool to achieve effectively such small but meaningful changes.

CONCLUSION

Design Theory Based on the Integrated Principles of the Five Senses

Based upon the case studies presented above, the principles of visual designthat can be applied to each of the five sensory domains may be summarizedin Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of Case Studies Results.

Principles of Design Senses (5)

Visual Acoustic Gustatory Olfactory Tactual

Harmony � � � � �

Unity � � � � �

Balance � � � � �

Emphasis � � � � �

Rhythm � � � � �

Proportion � � � � �

Contrast � � � � �

Symmetry � � ? ? �

‘‘�’’ denotes that we identified cases to which the particular principle of design has been applied;

and ‘‘?’’denotes that we could not.

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As seen in Table 3, there are many cases in which most of the eightprinciples of visual design were applied to the five senses. However, we couldnot find cases where symmetry was applied to the gustatory and olfactorysenses. If we were to divide the five senses according to whether theycorrespond to the principles of design or not, then the visual, tactual, andacoustic domains could be grouped into one category and gustatory andolfactory into another. A visual object does not disappear upon being seen,and similarly with tactual objects. On the other hand, gustatory andolfactory objects disappear the moment they are experienced. If we were totake the categorization further and divide the objects according to whetherthey disappear or not after their usage or recognition, another principle ofdesign could be established. However, as aforementioned, just because sucha case could not be found does not mean that the possibility of finding onecan be ruled out completely.

Through the findings of the case studies above, we will look for principlesthat can be applied commonly to the five sensory domains and propose thedesign theory that integrates the five senses by arranging the principlesinto a hierarchy. To do so, I start with the following propositions. First, theprinciples that can be commonly applied to all five senses are the top-mostprinciples in the hierarchy. Second, when a certain principle, A, is applied toachieve the effect of another, B, principle A is considered to be the cause ofprinciple B.

When we divide the principles according to the first hypothesis, harmony,unity, and emphasis are on a higher level than rhythm, proportion, contrast,and symmetry. Symmetry is a special form of contrast and contrast is a means


of achieving rhythm and proportion. Unity can become tangible throughapproximation, repetition and continuity; and balance, through emphasis.

We will now examine the hierarchy of harmony, unity, and emphasisaccording to the second hypothesis. We should note that this has not beenproven through case studies, and that it is a categorization based on theconceptual definition of each principle. Emphasis achieved through rhythmand proportion, if appropriately adjusted, produces unity and balanceamong the factors, and achieves harmony in which the factors becomewhole through unity and balance. We can also search for types of harmonyand disharmony through unity and its opposite–dispersion–and throughbalance and its opposite–imbalance.

Type 1 in Fig. 7 shows traditional harmony with unity and balance.However, when as in types 2, 3, or 4, one of the two factors is unbalanced,they are disharmonious in themselves as they exist with dispersion andimbalance; but another harmony can be achieved as dispersion andimbalance exist simultaneously. Generally, unity and balance are consideredto be harmonious, and dispersion and imbalance disharmonious, but this isnot always so. Instead of calling Types 2, 3, and 4 disharmonious, let us call

Balance

Imbalance

UnityHarmony

Discord

Dispersion

Fig. 7. Four Types of Harmony.

EmEmphasis

HarmonyHarmony

(Order)(Order)

OullimOullim

(Chaos)(Chaos)

DisharmonyDisharmony

RhythmRhythm

ProportionProportion

ContrastContrast SymmetrySymmetry AsymmetryAsymmetry

Unity Unity (Tool: approximation, repetition, continuity)(Tool: approximation, repetition, continuity)

Balance Balance (Tool: change, omission, contrast) (Tool: change, omission, contrast)

DispersionDispersion

ImbalanceImbalance

ChaosChaos

Fig. 8. Hierarchy of the Integrated Principles of Design.

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them three alternative types of harmony in addition to Type 1, the originaltype of harmony.

The integrated principles of design and their hierarchy, formed throughthe above propositions, are illustrated in Fig. 8. The highest level of designmay be called ‘‘Oullim,’’ the Korean equivalent of ‘‘coordination.’’ Thisconcept is based on the Oriental philosophy of combining ‘‘Yin’’ and‘‘Yang’’ to embrace both harmony and disharmony. ‘‘Yin’’ and ‘‘Yang’’refer to negative and positive, female and male, shade and light, and the sunand the moon.

By the integrated principles of design, harmony and disharmony areproduced through unity and balance, and unity and balance are completedthrough emphasis. Emphasis is formed through the factors such as rhythmand proportion; rhythm and proportion through contrast; and contrastthrough symmetry, a special form of contrast.

When we summarize these relationships, we can come up with Fig. 9that shows the hierarchy existing between the design theory and eightprinciples that can be commonly applied to the five senses. This is the modelfor the design theory that may be established in Phase Two of DesignRevolution.

Oullim

Oullim Oullim

Oullim

Disharmony DisharmonyHarmony

Harmony

Dispersion

Chaos

Imbalance

AsymmetrySymmetryContrast

Balance

Emphasis

Unity

ProportionRhythm

Fig. 9. The Design Theory.


The Rationale and Feasibility of Expansion in the Domain of Design

The values of many innovative products have been enhanced by addingfunctions that come from diverse sensory domains. Unconstrained bytechnological limitations, we can make whatever we imagine, happen.Although we can satisfy simple functional demands perfectly well withexisting goods, we need change and innovation to satisfy the needs of thosealways in search of something newer and better. Design is a process ofcreation and it should no longer be limited to the visual domain. Thedevelopment of technology helps us overcome limitations while openingmore opportunities for the expansion of the domain of design, which leadsus to enhance the quality of human life, as this study attempts to achievewith a positive lens.

Rationale and Feasibility of Developing the Design Theory

We need principles that are integrated systematically and which take eachdomain into consideration while forming a unified whole that uses all fivesenses. Looking for a common ground between the respective principlesand establishing a hierarchy among them, we can see the possibility of

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integrating the principles of design that exist in the five sensory domains intoone unified design theory.

Challenges

Design is achieved through the creativity, experience, or know-how of anindividual rather than through a set form of principles. However, eventhrough such creative processes of change, order still exists. And that order isbased on the existing order embodied in the creator. In this sense, even a neworder can be explained within the existing principles. The implications of thischapter lie in the attempt to discover the principles that are most basic toexplaining a new order. However, the study has its limitation as a trans-cendental study in that it stops at merely proposing the rationale for andpossibility of establishing such a theory, without going so far as to actuallyestablish the unified and generalized theory that is ultimately being sought.

NOTES

1. There are disagreements over the proper name for newly emerging designdomains, but in this study all domains that emerged with the advent of digitaltechnologies are referred to as digital contents design. They include digital animation,cyber characters, web pages, games, CD-ROM titles, and e-publication designs.2. The expression ‘‘the visual domain’’ elicits disagreements. Five human senses

can be seen as elements or objects of design. However, in this study, they are referredto as the domain of design.3. Among those who compare visuals and music, many argue against the

similarities between, or even juxtaposition of, their theories. Take for example, FredCollopy, who made a three-by-three matrix composed of three parameters of color(hue–saturation–value) and three parameters of music (pitch–amplitude–overtones)and concluded as follows: ‘‘It seems fair to conclude that no simple mapping willserve to effectively relate the music and image. – It suggests that a variety ofrelationships will likely work. Indeed the hope that a simple one-to-one mappingmight be discovered or contrived seems in retrospect to have been quite naive.’’(See http://rhythmiclight.com/archives/ideas/correspondences.html)4. For example, in order to produce Do, the sound must continue for some time.5. Harmonic overtone: An overtone that has vibrations that are an integer

multiple for the vibrations of fundamental tones. With the fundamental tone as 1, themultiples are called 1st harmonic overtone, 2nd harmonic overtone, 3rd harmonicovertone, nth harmonic overtone.6. All intervals excluding complete 1, 4, 5, and 8 degrees intervals (consonant

interval) and long and short 3, 6 degrees intervals (dissonant interval)–mainlyoccurring after the 7th harmonic overtone.


7. This means chord II, III, IV, and VII among the seven types of triad excludingmajor triad. Can replace major triad and is supplementary in nature.8. http://food.chosun.com9. http://home.hanmir.com/~song1052/10. There are two types of scents with compound fragrance: ‘‘Basic types’’ such as

floral, citrus, green, woody, fougere, Oriental, etc.; ‘‘Other types’’ are fruity,aldehydic, animalic, marine, aromatic, leathery, minty, etc.11. http://home.hanmir.com/~song1052/12. http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~yuki2/13. Touch Products Causing a Frenzy – Chosun Daily; 1999. 5. 12. (http://

www.finance.co.kr)14. http://www.hani.co.kr/h21/15. http://www.philips.com

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Documents

FOUR PHASES OF THE DESIGN REVOLUTION ... PHASES OF THE DESIGN REVOLUTION: EXPANDING THE DESIGN DOMAIN AND DEVELOPING DESIGN THEORY Dong-Sung Cho ABSTRACT Building on a proposed four-phase