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Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 51, Number 2, July 2011
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning: Internationalising the
business curriculum
Joanna CrossmanUniversity of South Australia
Sarbari BordiaAustralian National University
Graduates need to be prepared for working in global organisations that increasingly rely on virtual, culturally diverse teams. This paper reports on a qualitative research study concerned with the perceptions of university business students who collaborated on a virtual and international project to learn about intercultural communication. The findings indicated that participants capitalised on the opportunity the project presented to find friends and to negotiate and deepen relationships. In addition, the analysis revealed that social interaction also characterised and influenced the learning experience itself and had implications for engagement. The paper concludes that the subjectivities of social interaction are powerfully embedded in the learning process and may play a part
330 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
in engagement. Second, the project was perceived as a valuable way of preparing students for workplaces where developing intercultural communication skills and online, culturally diverse team relationships are required. Keywords: Internationalisation, friendships and relationships, higher education, business education, social nexus, virtual communication
Contextualising the project
Evidencesuggeststhatstudiesininterculturalcommunicationhavegainedgreaterfocusgiventheethical,economicanddemographicimplicationsofglobalisation(Eblen,Mills&Britton2004:28).Itiswithinthisbroadcontextthatthispaperispresentedsinceitsharesthefindingsofaresearchstudyaboutanintercultural,onlinelearningprojectinvolvingstudentsenrolledinanAustralianuniversity.
Therationalefortheprojectwasmulti-faceted.First,Australianstudentswereenrolledinafirstyearbusinesscommunicationcourseandthedecisiontoincorporatetheprojectatthattimerespondedtoevidencethatpositiveandearlyexperiencesoflearninginculturallymixedgroupswouldinfluencestudentwillingnesstoengageinculturallymixeduniversitygroupworklaterintheiracademiccareers(Summers&Volet2008:368).Second,virtualgroupsworkingonsharedgoalsacrosscultures,space,timeandorganisations(Kirkmanetal.2002:67–77)haveakeyroleinthesuccessfulperformanceofcontemporaryorganisationsaswellasinuniversitylearning.Thefindingsofanumberofstudiesthatmulticulturalgroupshavethepotentialtoperformbetterthanhomogenousonesfurthersupportsthevalueofuniversitiesdevelopingstudentswiththeskillsandunderstandingstoworkinthisway(Summers&Volet2008:358).Giventhatsocialandculturalconflictsoftengiverisetoproject
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 331
failureratherthantechnologyinonlinecontexts,reflectionupontheapparentimpactoftheseinfluencesisimportantinpreparingbusinessgraduates(Chang2006:372,Cho&Lee2008:548).
Preparinggraduatesforculturallydiverseworkplacesisoneofthemajorgoalsofinternationalisation(Eblen,Mills&Britton2004:28,Volet&Ang1998:5)anditisofinteresttonotethatrecentcycletworeportsfromtheAustralianUniversitiesQualityAgencysuggestthattheissueofsocialandculturalinclusivityinsomeuniversitiesbetweendomesticandinternationalstudentsisamatterattractingsomeattention(AUQA2010),thoughJiang(2008:351)hassuggestedthatthesocialandculturalrationalesforinternationalisationseemtohavetakenabackseattopoliticalandeconomicdrivers.
Designingtheteachingandlearningnecessarytoaccommodatetheneedsfortheinternationalisationofbusiness,wheremanagersareincreasinglyleadingculturallyandgeographicallydiversevirtualgroups,isnotasimpletask(Blasco2009:174,Sidle2009:19).Theprocessisnotmadeeasierbytheapparentpaucityofempiricalresearchstudiesthatexaminetheinfluenceofinterculturalandsocialfactorsincomputer-mediatedcollaboration(Cho&Lee2008:549)andthelimitedstudiesexploringwaysthatcomputertechnologycanbeusedwithininterculturalcommunicationpedagogy(Eblen,Mills&Britton2004:28).
Awikisitewasconstructedwhereparticipantsinboth‘local’(physicallylocatedinAustralia)and‘international’(physicallylocatedineitherAustraliaortheNetherlands)groupscouldcommunicate.Asa‘participatorysocialnetworkingsoftware’,wikienabledgroupstoco-constructknowledgebyeditingtextinonlinedocuments(Caverly&Ward2008:36).Ourstudyaimedtodiscovermoreabouthowonlinelearningisexperiencedfromtheperspectiveofstudents,atopicthathasreportedlybeenneglecteddespitetwodecadesofongoingresearchintocomputermediatedcommunicationand
332 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
learninginuniversities(Ellis,Ginns&Piggot2009:303).Ramsden(2003)too,hasalsomoregenerallyexpressedconcernthatstudentperspectiveshavebeensubjugatedineducationalliterature.
Finally,anotherrationalefortheprojectwastointensifystudentengagementbytakinganexperientialapproachtothelearningandencouragingstudentstoconsidertheimplicationsofinterculturalcommunicationtheoryforthecasestudyandalsotheirownculturalperspectives,experiences,knowledgeandbackgroundsinwaysthatlegitimisedthosethingstheyalready‘knew’.Inthisrespect,theprojectresembledsomeofthecharacteristicsofChang’s‘wisdombank’,aconceptthatrespectfullyacknowledgedpersonalculturalheritageandexperiencesamongststudentsinwaysthatencouragedactivelearningandmotivatedstudentstolearnaboutculturesotherthantheirown(Chang2006:372).However,Chang’sassumptionthattheinherentculturaldiversityofclassroomsincontemporaryuniversitiesmakesanyeffortstoengineerlearningaboutculturaldiversityredundant,wouldseemtobesomewhatoptimistic.AsVoletandAng(1998:20–21)haveindicated,interculturallearningbetweenlocalandinternationalstudentsrequires‘carefulplanningandmonitoring’andwouldnotoccurspontaneouslyintheclassroom,butratherneedtobeembeddedaspartofafocusedapproachtointernationalisationinhighereducationattheinstitutionallevel.
Inbringingpersonalknowledge,experiencesandperspectivestothelearning,Changarguesthattheexperiencebecomesinternalisedinwaysthatdigdeepintoindividualconceptionsofidentity(Chang2006:375–376).Thesepersonalandsocialformsofengagedlearningthusprovideanauthenticandmeaningfulclimatewhererelationshipsandfriendshiparenotsimplyapositivebutunplannedoutcome.Theyare,infact,aninherentpartofthelearningexperienceandarationaleforengaginginitfromthestudent’sperspective.
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 333
Intercultural learning and student relationships
Researchconcernedwithsubjectiveandsocialaspectsoflearninginhighereducationappearstohaveattractedgreaterattentionwithinthelastdecade(Montgomery&McDowell2009:455,Summers&Volet2008,Volet&Ang1998,Volet&Wosnitza2004).Researchersareexploringthewaysinwhichemotions(Cartney&Rouse2006,Crossman2007,Huyton2009,McQueen&Webber2009:244),spirituality(Crossman2008,Tisdell2001)andfriendshipsandrelationships(Gareis2000,Zhouetal.2008:63)playapartinlearningandassessment.Morespecifically,theexpansionofinternationaleducationhasalsogivenrisetodiscussionabouthowsomeofthesesubjective,psychologicalandsocio-culturalissuesrelatetothelearningexperiencesofinternationalstudentsinculturallydiverseuniversitycontexts(seeChang2006,Sawiretal.2008,Zhouetal.2008:63).EarlierstudiessuchasthosebyBochner,McLeodandLin(1977)inHawaiiandFurnhamandAlibhai(1985)intheUKwereconcernedwithexploringhowculturalprofilesinfluencedchoicesaboutfriendshipsandrelationships.Morerecently,theChoandLee(2008)study,concernedwithcollaborationinvirtualgroupsinvolvinganAmericanandtwoSingaporeanuniversitiesusingsocialnetworkanalysis,alsoconcludedthatsocialfactorswereimportantelementsinthelearningprocess.
Inaddition,thereisevidencetosuggestthatdespitethebestintentionsofthoseinvolvedintheintensificationofinternationalisationinouruniversities,lonelinessandisolationaretoooftenthehallmarksofa‘relationaldeficit’experiencedbyinternationalstudents(Sawiretal.2008:148–149).ThesefindingsmaybeconnectedtoAustralianresearchconductedoverthelastdecadethatreportsa‘disturbing’lackofmeaningfulinteractionbetweenlocalandinternationaluniversitystudents(e.g.Summers&Volet2008:357,Volet&Ang1998:5).Similarly,intheUKitwouldseemthatstudiesfromthemid-eightieshaveindicatedthat
334 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
fewinternationalstudentscouldlayclaimtoenjoyingfriendshipswiththeirBritishpeers(Furnham&Alibhai1985).Suchastateofaffairs,particularlyinthefirstyearofuniversity,presentsaparticularchallengeforinternationalstudentsexperiencingculturaltransitionandseparationfromtheirfamilieswhileatthesametimeseekingtoestablishsupportiverelationshipsaswellasasenseoftheirownidentity(Cartney&Rouse2006:84).Theneedforresearchtoguideuniversitiesindecision-makingaboutsocialaswellaseducationalobjectivesassociatedwithinternationalisationandmulticulturalgroupshasclearlybeenidentified(Summers&Volet2008:357,Volet&Ang1998:6).
Ifindeedculturalandsocialdiversitygiverisetoconflict(Foldy,Rivard&Buckley2009:28)and‘militateagainstintegration’(Cartney&Rouse2006:79)inwaysthatcouldleadtofeelingsofisolation,thenplanningforlearninginculturallydiverseclassroomsrepresentssomethingofachallenge.Althoughtheneedtodevelopclosepersonalrelationshipsamongststudentsapparentlyvariesfromculturetoculture,thecreationof‘friendlyclassrooms’wouldseemtobeanobviousstartingpointfornurturingfriendshipandmeaningfulpersonalrelationships(Sawiretal.2008:154–170).
Theuniversityclassroomneedstobeaplacewherevariedperspectivesarewelcomeandwherepersonal,racialidentitynotonlyholdsnoriskbutisalsonotdownplayedasacherishedandcentralpartofwhoindividualsare(Foldy,Rivard&Buckley2009:26–36).Withoutthefosteringofappropriatemeta-skills,reflectionandthechallengingofexistingculturalassumptions,manystudentsmaywellfeelanythingbutsecurecomparedwiththosewhoaremembersofhomogenousgroups(Foldy,Rivard&Buckley2009:36).Inaddition,theliteraturesuggeststhevalueoflinkingassessmenttolearningaboutculturebycapitalisingonstudentdiversity(Summers&Volet2008:358)andthisadvicewasindeedincorporatedintoourownproject.
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 335
Withinanorganisationalcontext,anumberofstudieshaveconsideredthedevelopmentofrelationshipsandfriendshipsincomputer-mediated,groupcontexts(e.g.Irmer,Chang&Bordia2000,Kayworth&Leidner2001:7,Stefanone&Gay2008,Yoo&Alavi2001:371).Itnowseemsclearthatstronginterpersonalrelationshipscandevelopincomputer-mediatedenvironmentsastheyareinface-to-facesettings(Kahai&Cooper2003:263,Whitty&Gavin2001:623),andthesameassumptionsmightbemadewithregardtoonlinelearningcontextsinuniversitybusinessandmanagementprograms.
Wikismayprovideonewaytorespondtotheneedforsocialinteractionandinclusionamonguniversitystudents.GenerationYstudentsbornafterabout1980areapparentlywell-disposedtoidentifywiththisformoftechnologythatrepresentsadeparturefromtransmissivelearningcontextsandhasthepotentialtobeconducivetoengaging,inclusiveandcollaborativeenvironmentsthatinvolvesocialinteraction(Johnston,Duff&Quinn2009:27–28,Workman2008:23).However,despitetheundoubtedpotentialforenhancinginternationalisationviaonlinelearning,fewstudiesappeartohaveexploredtheareainanydepth.NotedexceptionsincludeVoletandWosnitza’s(2004)workinvolvingGermanandAustralianstudentsandGareis’(2000)qualitativecasestudyresearchfocusingonculturalandlinguisticvariationsinhowindividualsinterpretfriendshipamongGermaninternationalstudentsstudyingintheUSA.Unfortunately,Gareis’(2000)literaturereviewoninterculturalstudentfriendshipslargelyreliesonsourcespublishedbetweenthe1950sand1980sandmayasaresultfailtocapturethechanginglandscapeofuniversitylife,especiallyinbusinessprograms.Moregenerally,theintensificationofglobalisationsincethatperiodwillalmostcertainlyhavealteredhowmuchexposureuniversitystudentsfromvariedcultureshavetooneanother,howtheyinteractandtheunderstandingsindividualsbringtothoseinterculturalrelationships.
336 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
Methodology
Thebroadaimofthisrich,qualitative,interpretiveresearchstudywastodiscoverhowstudentsasparticipantsexperiencedanonline,experientialformoflearningconcernedwithinterculturalcommunication.Groundedtheory,firstconceivedinthe1967seminaltext,The discovery of grounded theorybyGlaserandStraussandnowarguablythe‘mostcommonlyusedqualitativeresearchmethod’(Morse2008:13),wasselectedasanappropriatemethodtoachievetheresearchaim.Groundedtheorywaschosensinceitenablestheresearchertoprobetheintentionsandresponsesofparticipantsinrelationtothecircumstancespresentedbytheonline,interculturalprojectandexplorethemeaningstheybringstothatexperience(Glesne&Peshkin1992).Inotherwords,groundedtheoryhasthecapacitytoexplorethe‘behaviours,emotionsandfeelings’ofparticipants,aswellasthe‘socialmomentsandculturalphenomena’(Strauss&Corbin1998:10).Aconstructionistperspectiveongroundedtheorywasadoptedinthisstudy.Simplyput,constructionistgroundedtheoristspositthatconceptsandtheoriesareconstructedbyparticipantsandresearchersratherthanemergingfromthedatathatisconstruedassomesortofobjectivetruthwaitingtobediscovered(Casselletal.2009:516,Charmaz2008b:401).
Asiscommoningroundedtheory,purposivesamplingwaschosenbecausethesetting,theparticipants,eventsandpurposesoftheresearchwerealignedwiththekeyareasofinterestinthestudy(Johnson&Christensen2000,Punch2000).Specifically,weasresearcherswereinterestedintheperceptionsofstudentsenrolledinanundergraduate,businesscommunicationcourseinanAustralianuniversity.Studentswhoparticipatedwereorganisedintostudygroupsaspartofaninterculturalonlinelearningprojectthatinvolvedcollaboratingontheanalysisofacasestudy.Althoughthecasestudywasarequiredassessmentforallstudentsonthecourse,participating
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 337
intheonline,collaborativelearningprojectandtheresearchstudywasentirelyvoluntary.
WhilestudentsfromauniversityintheNetherlandsalsoparticipatedintheonlineproject,thedatadiscussedinthispaperweregatheredfromstudentsenrolledintheAustralianuniversityonly.Atotalof27studentsinAustraliaparticipatedintheproject.Participatingstudentsweredividedintotwostudygroups.Group1,referredtointhispaperasthe‘internationalgroup’(n=19),collaboratedonlinewithstudentsfromtheNetherlands.Group2,referredtointhispaperasthe‘local’group(n=8),comprisedculturallydiverseindividualswhowereeitherAustraliancitizensorinternationalstudentsfromBotswana,China,Korea,India,MalaysiaandSingapore.Therationaleforsplittingthetwogroupswasthatsome‘local’studentsexpressedaninterestintheprojecttoolatetobeincludedinthe‘international’groupbutneverthelesssawthevalueofinterculturalcollaborationamongculturallydiversestudentsintheuniversity.Theyalsohadtheadditionalopportunitytoarrangeface-to-faceinteractioniftheywished.
Boththe‘local’andthe‘international’groupscollaboratedonthecasestudyaboutinterculturalcommunicationbetweenanAustralianfranchisorandtwofranchiseesbasedintheNetherlandsandHongKongrespectively.Thecasestudyrequiredstudentstointerpretandcriticallyapplyinterculturalcommunicationresearchtothepracticalcontextofthecasestudy,buttheywerealsoencouragedtodrawupontheirownculturalandheritageexperienceindiscussingthecasestudyonlinewithotherstudents.Participantswereprovidedwithongoinginformationandsupportbyaresearchassistantwithregardtotheresearchprocess,theinterculturalcasestudyprojectandthetechnologicalfeaturesofthewiki.
Theethicalmanagementoftheresearchwasapprovedbytheappropriateuniversitycommittee.Studentswerealertedtothefactthatparticipationwasentirelyvoluntaryandthatiftheydecided
338 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
nottobeinvolvedintheresearchstudytherewouldbenonegativeimplicationsintermsoftheircoursegrades.Sincetheresearcherswerealsoco-ordinatorsinthecourseinwhichtheprojectwasembeddedandwouldhavearoleinstudentassessment,aresearchassistantcollectedthedataandcoordinatedtheresearchstudy.Theresearchersdidnotreceivethedatauntilafterthefinalgradesforthecoursehadbeenreleasedasafurtherprotectionagainstanybiasintrudingontheassessmentprocess.Participatingstudentsweremadeawareofthisfeatureinthedesignoftheresearch.
Datawerecollectedfromquestionnairesandinterviews.Open-ended,longitudinalquestionnaireswereadministeredatthreepoints;thebeginning,middleandendoftheonline,collaborativeproject.Open-endedquestionnaireswereusedbecauseinkeepingwithaninterpretivetradition,theyweremorelikelytoreflectparticipantviewsratherthanbeingundulyinfluencedbytheresearcher(Foddy1999).Anonymitywaspreservedbyusingasix-digit,participant-generatedcode.Theprimaryobjectiveofquestionnaires1and2wastoascertainwhatparticipantsexpectedtogainfromtheirinvolvementintheproject,theirrationaleforparticipatingandwhattheyexpectedtoachievebytheendofit.Questionnaire3exploredtheonlineinterculturallearningexperiencefromtheparticipant’sperspectiveandhowtheprojectinfluencedtheirunderstandingofinterculturalcommunication.
Semi-structuredinterviewswereconductedattheendoftheprojectinordertoprovideparticipantsafurtheropportunitytoexpresstheirthoughtsabouttheprojectthathadnototherwisebeencapturedinthesurveyquestions.Somesamplequestionsaredetailedbelow.Thequestionaskingabouthowthegroupinteractedwasnotinitiallyincludedbut,consistentwiththeoreticalsamplingingroundedtheory(Suddaby2006),wasaddedwhenanalysisofinitialdatasuggestedthatinterpersonalrelationshipswereanimportantaspectoftheexperience.
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 339
• Pleasedescribeyourexperienceoftheproject.
• Pleasegiveabriefaccountofhowyouthinkthemembersofthegroupsworkedtogethertolearninpreparationfortheassessment.
• Pleasegiveabriefaccountofhowyouthinkthemembersofthegroupinteractedinterpersonally.
• Whatdoyoubelievechallengedcommunicationinthegroupsandwhatworkedwell?
• Pleaseindicatehowrelevanttheprojecthasbeenintermsofpreparingyoufortheworkplace.
• Pleasesuggestanywaysinwhichyoufeeltheprojectcouldbeimproved.
Constantcomparativeanalysis,asagroundedtheorytechnique,wasusedtoanalysethedataandoccurredsimultaneouslywithdatacollection.Datawereinitiallyopencodedbycomparingunits of meaning(expressedorcouchedinsentences,phrasesorparagraphs,forexample)asnewinformationwasreceived.Theprocesswasoneofcontinualrefinementwherecategoriesweremergedordismantledasnewcategories(orthemes)weregeneratedanddifferentrelationshipsdiscovered(Maykut&Morehouse1994).Asthisprocesscontinued,corecategorieswereidentifiedthatseemedtoresonatedeeplywiththedataindefiningways.Thesecorecategoriesformthebasisofsubheadingsinthediscussionoffindingssectionthatfollowsandgiverisetothetheorythatsocialrelationshipsarepowerfullyembeddedinvirtualandinterculturalcollaborativeprojectsinmanagementlearning.
Discussion of findings
Analysisofdatacollectedfromboththequestionnairesandinterviewsaswellasfromthe‘local’and‘international’participantgroupshasbeenpresentedcollectivelygivenahighlevelofconsistencyinthefindingsacrossthesedatasources.Invivodatahavebeenusedto
340 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
illustratefindingsinordertokeeptheconcernsoftheparticipantstotheforeandattractgreaterconfidenceinthefindingsthemselves(Strauss&Corbin1994).
Insummary,participantsperceivedtheneedtocreateafriendlyatmospherethatwouldfacilitatelearning.Doingsowasnotalwayseasy,asresponsesindicatedthatattainingalevelandmanneroffriendlinessthatwasculturallyappropriateappearedtobelargelyamatteroftrialanderror.Mostparticipantsstatedtheirrationaleforjoiningtheprojectwastogetmoreexperiencewithinterculturalcommunication.However,limitedexperienceofinterculturalcommunicationmayhavegivenrisetoatendencytostereotypeinsomecases.Participantsalsoexpressedfrustrationwhenothersdidnotseemtobeparticipatinginacommittedfashionanddevelopedstrategiesforstimulatingengagementamongteammembers.Thus,thekeyfindingsofthestudywerethatparticipatingstudentscapitalisedupontheopportunitytheprojectpresentedtofindfriendsandtonegotiateanddeepenrelationships.Also,theanalysisrevealedthatsocialinteractionalsocharacterisedthelearningexperienceitselfandhadimplicationsforengagement.
Friendships and relationships are an important aspect of learning
Dataanalysedfrombothlocalandinternationalgroupssuggestedthatmaking‘new’,‘more’or‘different’friendsand‘gettingtoknoweachother’wascentraltorationalesforparticipationintheproject.Inotherwords,learningwasperceivedasbeingsociallyconstituted.
Fledglinglearningrelationshipsandfriendships,however,werenotentirelyperceivedasauthenticexperiences.Forexample,whenonestudentcommented,‘Sheisverynice,likefriends’,thereistheimplicationthatbeinglikeafriendisnotquitethesamethingasactuallybeingafriend.Giventhecontextsinwhichassociationsanddistinctionsweremade,friendshipappearedtobeviewedasastateofarrivalandfriendlinessandbeingfriendlyaspleasant,indicativeof
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 341
friendshipandindeedsimulatingfriendshipbutnotquitefriendshipitself.
Certainly,ifparticipantsdidnotmakedeepfriendships,friendliness wasneverthelessimportantanddetermineddecision-makingabouthowpeoplewouldproceedintheirsocialnetworksonline.Referencestoanindividualbeingfriendlyornot,oftenprecededaccountsandrationalesforpursuingsomerelationshipsandwithdrawingfromothers.Oneparticipantcommented,‘Ididn’treallylikeX;shewasnotreallyfriendlyatall.SoIcontactedonefriendlyperson...’.Thus,individualswereconsideredexpendableandcouldbeeasilyabandonedforotherswhowereperceivedas‘nice’or‘friendly’teammembersevenintermsoftheemoticonstheyused.
Friendlinesswasalsoawayofoperatingwiththosewhowereyetunknown,toovercomeinitialuncertaintiesinemergingrelationshipsandcultivateaclimatewhereindividualscouldfeelcomfortable.Theliteraturesuggeststhatinterculturalfriendshipsandrelationshipsaremoredifficulttoinitiatethanmono-culturalones(Gareis2000:72)andcertainlymuchcareandsensitivityincultivatingtheserelationshipswasevident.Forexample,oneparticipantfeltthatshe‘always’had‘tobefriendly’sothatpeoplewouldfeel‘easyasmuchaspossible’.Suchcarewasalsoevidentincraftingemailmessagestoavoidpotential‘misunderstandings’,‘confusion’orappearinginadvertently‘rude’.Ithasbeenarguedthatgoodinterpersonalskillsinvirtualteamsareatleastasimportantastheyareonaface-to-facebasis(Kirkmanetal.2002:69,74)andanalysisofdatainthisstudywouldappeartobesupportive.
Developinganappropriategenreforcollaborativecommunicationinlearningandestablishinglevelsoffriendlinesswiththosewhoarelargelyunknownwasnotalwayseasyforparticipants.Oneparticipant,forexample,discoveredthatshehadannoyedgroupmembersbysendingemailsthatwere‘veryfriendly’,usinggreetingssuchas‘heybaby’andfindingthather‘moreopencommunication’
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andnon‘work-orientedstyle’seemedtogiveriserathermoretoirritabilitythanintimacyamongstprojectmembers.Gauginghowfriendlytobewasdifficultinotherways,asoneparticipantinthelocalprojectimplied,‘...whenIorganisedthemeetingwithXonFridayinitially,Iwantedtotellhertomeeteachotheratmyhome.ButIwasembarrassedbecauseIdidn’tknowhowshewouldreacttome’.Thisparticulardescriptioncanbeunderstoodbetterwheninformedbyresearchfindingsthataninvitationtoastudent’shomewillbeassociatedwithvariedassumptionsabouttheimplicationsfordevelopingintimacy,dependingonthecultureofthoseextendingorreceivingsuchinvitations(Gareis2000:71).
Formalityincommunicationwasassociatedwiththeneed‘togetsomethingdone’andbeingtask-orientatedandinformalitywithdevelopingfriendshipand‘soft’skills.Distinctionsbetweenformalityandinformalitywereevidentindecision-makingaboutwhethertoconductthecommunicationusingauniversityorapersonalemailaddress,forexample,orgaugingwhetheritwasappropriatetouseMSN,consideredamoreintimatewayofcommunicating.NotingthatoneoftheparticipantsfromtheNetherlandsdidnotgiveheranMSNaddress,oneparticipantcommented,‘Ineverpushedit,sheonlycommunicate[d]withmethroughe-mail.Ineverpush[ed]it,aslongasshecommunicate[d]withme’.Relationshipsconductedonlineintheprojectthatsubsequentlyledtoface-to-facemeetingsinvolvedsomeadjustmentsbeingmadetoinitialimpressions.Someonewhoseemed‘organised’and‘goal-directed’onlineappearedmoredependentface-to-face.Thusinterpersonalrelationshipsrequiredconstantre-adjustmentasswitchingchannelsofcommunicationallowedforadditionalperspectivesofanindividual’sidentitytocometothefore.
Consistentwithotherresearchfindings,humourwasassociatedinthedatawithsocial,culturalandemotionalconnectednessinthelearning(Garrison,Anderson&Archer2000:100,Volet&Ang1998:10).As
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 343
astrategy,humourwasusedincultivatingaclimateofinformalityinordertopromotecloserrelationshipsandcollaboration.Oneparticipantwrote,‘Itriedtousehumouralot...That’s…howwegottotalk’.Theremark,‘Shecanjoke’,wasclearlypositiveinthecontextofdescribingastudentfromtheNetherlandsandtherelationshipenjoyedbetweenthem.Humourwasalsoadoptedasastrategyforrepairingrelationshipsundersomestrain,forexample,‘Shewasupsetwithme.Isaid,“[Y]oucanslapme!”.Afterthat,shewashappytohelpme’.
Clearly,findingwaystobecomemoreexperiencedinterculturalcommunicatorsanddevelopingfriendshipsintheprocesswasattractivetomany,andmaysuggestthatnotallparticipantneedsweremetinthisregard,asinternationalstudentsinAustralia.Certainly,oneinternationalstudent,alludingtoherface-to-facetutorialsinAustralia,commentedsomewhatwistfully,‘Ididn’tknowotherpeople,Iwouldloveto’andanotherreflectedthatshecommunicatedlargelywithAsianinternationalstudentsratherthan‘Australians’.
Although‘local’groupshadanopportunitytomeetfacetofacewhereas‘international’groupsdidnot,fewlocalparticipantsappearedtotakeadvantageofthefact.Thisfindingisparticularlycuriousgiventhatface-to-facecommunicationwasviewedpositivelybyparticipantsasa‘secure’meansofcommunicationthathadimplicationsfordevelopingtrustandintimacy,whereasInternetwasperceivedbysomeas‘veryscary’.Onefemaleparticipantcommented,‘[y]ouneverknowwhathappens.ItmightbedifferentwhenyouactuallymeetthepersonwhoyoucontactovertheInternet’.Inface-to-facesituations,oneparticipantdeclaredhe‘wouldbemorefriendly’andtakerelationships‘tothenextlevel’,becausehefeltmoresecurethanwhenheinteractedwithothersusingtheInternet.
However,whilesomeweremorecautiousintermsofdevelopingonlinerelationships,othersviewedthemediumasliberating,
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describingthemselvesas‘moretalkative’and‘morefriendly’,wheretheyfelt‘morefreetotalk’.Correspondingly,face-to-facemeetingsdidnotresultinautomatictrust,asismadeclearinthestatement,‘shedidn’trealisethatIdon’twanttotelleverythingthatIhavedonetoher.Sheexpectedtowriteeverythingatthemeeting…butshecan’tdothat’.Inotherwords,trustbuildingwasalsoassociatedwithafairtradeofinformationandeffort.
Intercultural communication
‘Meeting’,‘making’,‘interacting’,‘studyingwith’‘newfriendsfromdifferentcountries’and‘cultures’‘aroundtheworld’inordertoknowmoreaboutthosecultureswasacommonrationale.Thisdesirewasparticularlyimportantforsomeinternationalstudentsincaseswherefewopportunitiesexistedintheirhomelandtointeractwithpeoplefromculturesotherthantheirown.Thetaken-for-grantednessofmulticulturalAustraliaandothercountries,wherethereisatleastthepotentialforforminginterpersonalandinterculturalrelationshipsmaymeanthatacademicsoverlooktheunfamiliarityofculturallydiverselearninggroupsforsomeindividuals.
Intheprocessofidentifyingtheinfluenceofcultureoncommunication,therewasatendencyforstereotypingtooccur.AccordingtoEblen,MillsandBritton(2004:29),theliteraturesuggeststhatstereotypingmaybemorecommonincomputer-mediatedcommunicationthaninface-to-facesituationsbecausethesekindsofmessagesareshorterandprovidelessinterpersonalinformation,resultingintheimportanceofanyinformationreceivedbecominginflated.Dutchprojectparticipantswerecastas‘strict’,‘efficient’,‘organised’,‘goal-orientated’,‘verydriven’,‘strongwilled’,‘hardworkers’whowere‘moreinterestedingettingthejobdone...thanmakingfriends’.Theywereperceivedaspeoplewhowanted‘tofinisheverythingontime’,approachthings‘stepbystep’andprovide‘instruction’ontasks.
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 345
ParticipantscommentedthattheirpeersintheNetherlandsdidnot‘communicatepersonalbackgrounds’.OnestudentinAustralianoted,‘Wedidn’treallytalkaboutpersonalthing[s].[We]talkedabouttheproject’.TheseobservationsandotherslikethemappearedtoindicateaparticipantperceptionthatstudentsfromtheNetherlandstendedtobegoal-focusedratherthanfriendship-focused.AstudybyEblen,MillsandBritton(2004:43),concernedwithonlineinterculturallearningbetweenstudentsintheUSandNewZealand,suggestedthatpersonalrelationshipstendedtobedevelopedfollowingcommunicationaboutthetaskinhand.Itispossiblethatthestudentsinourstudy,manyofwhomwereinternationalAsianstudentsinAustralia,wouldhaveexpectedthedevelopmentofpersonalrelationshipstoprecedediscussionsaboutthetask,giventheemphasisuponrelationshipbuildinginthatregion.
Participantsalsoconceptualisedbehaviourintermsofpolitenessandrudeness.DespitesomereferencestostudentsfromtheNetherlandsbeing‘morepolite’,‘positive’,‘fantastic’and‘quitenicepeople’,forexample,tensionsclearlyarosefrominterculturalandinterpersonalcommunication.OneAsianstudentintheAustraliangroupremarkedthatin:
‘Asianculture’peoplehave‘tobepolite’tooneanother.Wedon’tgetusedtoit[Westernculture].Asianstudentshavetolearnaboutthis.However,Istronglyrecommend,Asianstudentsshouldkeepourtraditionalculture,beingpolite.
Oneparticipantstruggledwithassumptionsaboutfranknessandrudeness,andsoughthelpfromatutorinordertomakesenseoftheexperience.Despiteeffortstoexploreethnocentricassumptions,theparticipantremainedsomewhataffronted:
Shesaid,‘Ifyoudon’thelpme,youcanleavethegroup’.Iwastakenabackabit.Shewasveryfrank…Mytutortoldmetoday,‘PeopleinTheNetherlandsaremorefrankandstraightforward.Youshouldnotbeoffended.That’sjustculture’.
346 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
Thus,asTing-ToomeyandOetzel(2001)argued,whileeffectivemanagementofculturalconflictcanpromotegrowthwithinindividualsandintheirrelationshipswithothers,mismanagedexpectationscanleadtobiasedintergroupperceptions,emotionalfrustrationsandethnocentrismwherethewaysinwhichanin-groupdothingsisconsideredsuperiorandthewaysinwhichanout-groupconducttheiraffairsisconsideredbackward.
Participationontheprojectalsogaverisetootherpainfulandsensitivememoriesinforminginterculturalrelationshipsthatinvolvedfeelingsaboutidentity,assimilation,intenseandrepressedemotions,racism,andagain,politenessandrudeness:
YouneedtobesameorsimilarwithAustralianpeople.WhenIwenttothehighschool,Itriedtolearnmoreaboutdifferentthings.Althoughthey[Australianstudents]arerude,theydidn’tmeanthat.Don’tbesensitive[shethoughttoherself].Initially,Ithought,‘theydon’tlikeAsians’...itisjustaremark,letitgo.TheytendtothinkthatAsianstudentscan’tspeakEnglish.Theymadenegativeremarks.Justwalkaway[shethoughttoherself].Otherwise,youwillbeveryangry’.
Therewasaclearindicationinthedatathatstudentslearnedtovaluethevariedperspectivesthatinterculturalcommunicationinteamscouldofferinthelearningexperience.Participantsfrequentlyexpressedappreciationinlearningto‘understanddifferencesand...toaccept[other]viewspeople[held]inthisproject’or‘gainingabetterunderstandingoftheissuesinthereportthrough[other]perspectives’,andbecomingawareofhow‘differentopinions’helpedwiththe‘experience’.Oneparticipantcommented,‘peoplelookedatitwithdifferentperspectivesandthatishowthisprojecthasassistedme’.Anotherfoundthat‘otherpeoplehavecuriosities...otherstudentshavedifferentexperiences,insightsandopinionsthanIdo’.Thus,theselearningrelationshipsfacilitatedalooking out and looking inwardsinameaning-makingprocessofconstructing
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 347
understandingsaboutinterculturalcommunicationandtheinterpersonalimplications.
Issues concerned with engagement
Thedatayieldedmanypositivereferencestothehighlevelofsupportparticipantsreceivedfrombothpeersandacademicstaff.However,inpursuingnegativecases,someevidencerevealedincidencesofpoorengagementintheprojectthathadconsequencesfordevelopingrelationships,friendshipsand,indeed,ultimatelylearning.
Apersistentscenariowouldbewhereanindividualinitiatedcommunicationonlineandreceivednoresponse,whichgaverisetofeelingsof‘frustration’,‘disappointment’and‘confusion’aboutapparentlackofcommitment.Oneparticipantcommented,‘Idon’treallyunderstand.Peoplewantedtodothisprojectatthebeginning,signingon...Afterthat,theydidn’twanttoparticipate’.Despondencyandirritationintensifiedwhenindividualsfailedtomeetworkloadexpectationsorwherethereweremismatchesinthedegreeofsocialinteractionsought—afindingdiscussedelsewhereintheliterature(seeKirkmanetal.2002:73).Eblen,MillsandBritton(2004)havealsoindicatedthat,whenstudentsdelayinrespondingtoemails,inanonlineinterculturalprojecttheresultisdiscouragementandsetbacksinmotivationthatplacedtheprojectatrisk.
Participantsontheprojectadoptedvariousstrategiestoencourageengagementamongotherteammembersandtheformationofrelationships.Suchstrategiesincludedpersistence,personalisation,threatsandswitchingcommunicationchannels.Personalisationwouldbeachievedbysendingindividualemailstogroupmembersandathreatmightcome,forexample,intheformofseekingchangesingroupmembership(inotherwords,expulsionofagroupmember).Threatsofthisnaturecouldproveeffective.Oneparticipantrespondedbyapologisingandadding,‘IamenjoyingthisandIamback’.Finally,participantsswitchedcommunicationchannelsfrom
348 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
thewikitoemail,forexample,althoughparticipantsnotedthatemailmadeit‘easynottorespond’,sinceindividualscouldsimplydeletemessagesiftheywere‘toohardtoreply’.
Participantsconjecturedthatsomeindividualsatleast‘didn’tcare’aboutignoringemailsbecauseonlyfacetofacemadetherelationship‘real’andthereforeemail-basedrelationshipswouldnotattractthesamelevelofcommitment.Illustrativedataincluded:
Ifweseeeachother,peopledon’twanttobeimpolite...theywillcareaboutthatperson.Idon’tfeel[any]connection...[to]sendemail.IfImetonepersonevenjustonce,Iwouldhavemoresenseofmyresponsibilityethicallyandrelativelytothatperson.AlthoughIamverybusy,Iwouldthinkaboutthat.
Thus,whenapersonbecomes‘real’asopposedtomerelyvirtual(andbyextension,hypothetical),expectations,obligationsandcommitmentsinherentinthoserelationshipsbecomemorepressing.Researchindicatingthatitisvitalforindividualstoprojectthemselvesas‘realpeople’andtoestablishasocialpresenceonline(seeGarrison,Anderson&Archer2000:89)wouldappeartobeconsistentwiththisanalysis.
Someparticipantsfeltthey‘didn’thaveenoughtimetogettoknoweachother’muchbeyondthesuperficialitiesofintroductionsuntiltheveryendoftheproject,whenassessmentwasimminentandtheybegantogiveitgreaterattentionamongcompetingassessmentresponsibilities.Givenstudiesfindingthatdevelopingdeeperculturalunderstandingsarelesslikelywhenstudentshavenothadachancetodeveloptheirrelationships(Volet&Ang1998:10),andthatstudentsworkinginculturallymixedgroupsneedlongerperiodsoftimetoovercomeinitialsocialchallengesanddeveloppositivefeelingsabouttheinteractionandlearning(Summers&Volet2008:359),encouragingengagementandinteractionfromthebeginningofaprojectlikethisiscrucial.
Friendship and relationships in virtual and intercultural learning 349
Conclusion
Thisstudyhashighlightedtheimportanceofthepotentialforfriendshipinattractingstudentstointerculturallearningprojects.Althoughfriendlinesswasmoreoftenperceivedasanadequatesubstituteforfriendshipitself,expressingfriendlinessinappropriatewaysinterculturallypresentedsomethingofachallengeandwasinfluencedbywhetheraparticipantwasperceivedasmoretask/goal-focusedorrelationship-focused.Onoccasions,suchculturalorientationscouldgiverisetosomelevelofconflictwhenperceivedbreachesof‘polite’behaviouroccurredbasedonethnocentricevaluations.Someparticipantsattemptedtomanagethepoorengagementofteammembersbyadoptingparticularstrategies,includingthreats.Onlinecommunicationmayhavecompoundedbothengagementinthelearningaswellasthedevelopmentoffriendshipsinthatapartymaybeperceivedasless‘real’,morevirtualandthus,ultimately,hypothetical.Thesuccessfulestablishmentofbothfriendshipandstudentengagementwasalsoclearlyassociatedwiththetimespentonthetask,aswellasthedurationoftheproject.
Thefindingsofthestudy,therefore,appeartosupporttheliteraturesuggestingthatacademicsneedtoattendtoemotionalandsocialfactorsinvolvedinlearningaswellastothelearningtasksper se(Cartney&Rouse2006:80–85).Thatstudentsappeartoviewsomekindsoflearningasameanstoforgefriendshipsandbroadentheirsocialnetworkssuggeststhatdesigningthesekindsofactivitieshaspotentialfordeepeningacademic,socialandculturalengagement.Providingstudentswiththeopportunitytoreflectuponthewaythatculturemayimpactuponinterculturalcommunicationandonlinegrouprelationshipswhileworkingontasks,mayalsoprovetobeusefulinpreparinggraduatesforworkinginglobalised,culturallydiverseworkforcecontexts.However,whiletheprojectdesignmightaspiretopreparinggraduatestothisend,wehavenoevidencetosupportsuchaclaim.Furtherstudiesinvolvingemployedgraduates
350 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
andemployers,forexample,couldwellexploretheimplicationsofprojectslikethisoneintermsoftheirperceivedimpactuponemployabilityandperformanceinculturallydiverseworkforces.
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354 Joanna Crossman and Sarbari Bordia
About the authors
Dr Joanna Crossman is a senior lecturer in the School of Management at the University of South Australia. Her research interests include international education in business contexts, intercultural communication and spiritual leadership in secular organisations and higher education. She is a co-editor of the Journal of International Education in Business, published by Emerald. Joanna teaches conflict, negotiation and communication at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels and supervises a number of Management PhD candidates in areas related to her research interests. She has worked in academic and management positions in Australia, the UK, Malaysia, Norway and the UAE.
Dr Sarbari Bordia is a senior lecturer at the Australian National University. She conducts research on internationalisation of management education, linguistic issues in corporate communication and the management of psychological contracts. She is the co-editor of the Journal of International Education in Business. She teaches cross-cultural management in undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
Contact details
Joanna Crossman, EM4–32, Campus West, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000Tel: +61 8 8302 9114 Fax: +61 8 8302 0512Email: [email protected]
Sarbari Bordia, School of Management, Marketing and International Business, Australian National University, LF Crisp Building 26, Canberra, ACT 0200Tel: 02 6125 7338 Fax: 02 6125 8796