North Central University

From Sheol to Hell: The Development of Eternal Punishment in Judeo-Christian Thinking

Submitted to: Prof. Philip Mayo, Ph.D. In partial fulfillment of the Senior Seminar Project

Nyenatee S. Davis

4/17/2015

Davis 1

ContentsIntroduction.................................................................................................................................................2

Part I: The Afterlife in the Ancient World....................................................................................................6

The Afterlife in Ancient Paganism............................................................................................................6

The Afterlife in Ancient Judaism..........................................................................................................7

A Critical Look at Sheol in the Old Testament......................................................................................9

The Origin of Sheol............................................................................................................................10

The Description of Sheol........................................................................................................................11

Sheol in the Law (A Destiny for the godly and ungodly)....................................................................12

Sheol in the Prophets (A destiny for the Ungodly).............................................................................14

Sheol in the Writings (A destiny for All).............................................................................................14

Part II: The Development of Hell: What happened to Sheol?....................................................................16

The Rise of Apocalyptic Literature during Second Temple period.........................................................16

Apocalyptic and its Relevance to the New Testament.......................................................................18

The Maccabean Period: Severe Crisis for the Jews............................................................................21

Rewards and Punishment in the Afterlife..........................................................................................22

Definition of the terms: Hell, Hades, Gehenna and Tartarus.................................................................26

The Translation of Sheol as Hades.....................................................................................................30

Compartments in Hell/ Hades?..........................................................................................................31

The Belief in the Resurrection...........................................................................................................33

Part III: Is Hell Real? The Case for Eternal Punishment..............................................................................37

Synopsis of the Four Dominant Views of Hell........................................................................................37

What Jesus Actually Said about Hell..................................................................................................39

Matthew 25:31-46.............................................................................................................................40

Luke 16:19-31....................................................................................................................................46

What did the Apostles teach concerning Hell?......................................................................................48

Acts 17:22-34.....................................................................................................................................48

God’s Retribution: 2 Thess. 1:5-10.....................................................................................................49

Revelation 14: 9-11............................................................................................................................50

Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................52

Davis 2

IntroductionThe history of Christianity indicates that there has always been different ways of

approaching the Bible. And at particular times, throughout history, the church from its beginning

has faced a series of doctrinal issues that have led to numerous council meetings. Usually, two

aspects have led to this problem. First, it was the problem of heresy from within the church and

second, the outside pressure of secular cultural beliefs reinterpreting the church’s doctrines. It

never surprises me that history always seemed to repeat itself. And as such, this heretical

deviation has reemerged an old theological argument: The debate about hell. The study of hell

has always been of great interest to me. My conversion to Christianity was only possible after

hearing the “good news” of hell. What was good about hell was that the preacher, after

describing the horrors of hell, presented it as an alternative because of the salvific death of Jesus.

Besides being converted, where a person spends eternity after this life is a very serious

matter. The issue of eternity (particularly hell) is a subject that needs to be addressed and not

shun away as most Christians do. Preachers nowadays just avoid it or when asked, they shun

from it. In fact, the silence on hell has made the British evangelist John Blanchard to ask “What

happened to hell?”1 It used to be one of the hottest topics but it has vanished. Nevertheless, the

popular questions people ask of hell are: What is hell? Who goes there? Where is it? Is it a literal

place of fire and brimstone? Annihilation? Separation into outer darkness? Purification? Well,

modern scholarships have presented four popular views of hell: 1. The Literal View 2. The

Metaphorical View 3.The Purgatorial View and 4. The Conditional View.

1 Edward William Fudge, The Fire that Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment (3d ed.; Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011), 1.

Davis 3

First, the Literal view is very similar to the Traditional View of Hell. It is the oldest and

most widely held among Christians. Hell is viewed as a real place of eternal severe punishment

for the wicked. The fire, brimstone, outer darkness, conscious endless pain, weeping, and

gnashing of teeth are all descriptions that allude to unimaginable physical torment that even these

descriptions are yet still inadequate to express the severity of hell. There are many proponents of

this view, but here are a few: Tertullian, St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, and

John Calvin. They all taught that the torments of hell appear to be physical to the souls of the

wicked after they die in this life. St. Augustine argues from Mt. 25:41 stating that “unrepentant

sinners will psychologically suffer everlasting condemnation.”2 This view also argues that there

will be no escape from eternal punishment once a person goes to hell because it is not a

temporary period of purgation. The duration of punishment here is forever and has no end. Its

eternal torment is irreversible and irremediable.

Second, the Metaphorical view which is, nonliteral argues against the nature of the

punishment of hell but agrees that hell in the NT is a place of endless conscious punishment.

However, the fire, intense heat, outer darkness, or physical pain, are not literal but all figurative

expressions that were intended to project to the wicked the seriousness of hell. Advocates of this

view argue that in Jude 13 hell is depicted as outer darkness when in verse 7, prior to verse 13,

he described hell as full of eternal fire. How can hell be eternally fire and yet described as

blackest darkness? Besides, in Matt. 3:10, 12; 25:41; 8:12; 22:13, the author employed the same

opposite images in speaking of hell. Just as no one can adequately describe heaven in earthy

terms, the same is also true for hell. The writers of the New Testament were not concerned so

much with the exact nature of hell as they were with the seriousness of the coming judgment.3

2 Robert A. Peterson, Hell on Trial: The Case for Eternal Punishment (New Jersey: Phillipsburg, 1995), 107.

3 William Crockett, ed., Four Views on Hell (Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1996), 29.

Davis 4

Third, the Purgatory view of hell is that of the Roman Catholic Church. It is not

commonly known among protestant Christians as it is among Roman Catholic congregants.

Simply put, Purgatory is a process of purifying suffering for those who have died in guilt or with

a fault. This purification process goes through an interim period, beginning immediately after

death, and up to the final judgment. However, this purgation process happens by fire, a symbol

for purification and it is only for the dead that need it. Not everyone that goes to hell will

experience purgation. There will be some that will perpetually remain in eternal damnation.

What qualifies the dead for this purification is mostly in part due to prayers and charitable

donations given to the Roman Catholic Church by relatives or love ones. Contemporary biblical

scholarship would question the scriptural basis for this view. In any case, as Hayes would say,

“Whether the doctrine of purgatory can be defended as having any basis in Scripture will depend

on how one approaches the Bible and understands revelation.”4

The fourth is the Conditional view of hell. It argues on both the nature and duration of

eternal punishment against the Literal view of hell. Rather than an everlasting conscious torment

for the damned, hell is destruction where the damned will eventually be consumed by fire, thus

causing them to cease to exist. This view is also called Conditional Immortality or

Annahilationism. Supporters of this view find a contradiction between God endlessly tormenting

the damned and his endless love and grace towards them. They disagree on the idea that God is

the one sending millions of sinners to hell especially when he could have predestined them to be

saved. Pinnock, in defense of this view said this:

“Hell is the possibility that human beings may choose in their freedom and thus break relations with God. God loves these persons and does not choose death for them, but nevertheless hell is a possibility arising out of their sin and obduracy.”5

4 Ibid., 101. 5 Ibid., 137.

Davis 5

Those favoring annihilation quote Psalm 37:1-2, 9-10, 20,38; Malachi 4:1-2, Mt. 3:10-12; Rev.

20:14-156 and interpreting the imagery as denoting destruction.

Everyone, it appears, has a strong position on hell but what does the Bible teach about

hell? No correct answer is possible unless we fully investigate the historical, cultural and literary

background to the passages we want to consider. This means we must start with ancient Judaism

and their understanding of the afterlife, how that developed during the second temple period into

more complex ideas like judgment, reward and punishment of the wicked, hades,

compartmentalization of the abode of the dead, and then the views of Jesus’ day, the NT and the

early church. The development of eternal punishment in Judeo-Christian thinking is the subject

of this research paper. The arguments proposed in this paper are laid out in three parts: Part I will

examine the concept of the afterlife in Judaism, the origin and meaning of Sheol in the OT, and

how it is described when it is used as the ultimate fate for the righteous and the wicked. Part II

will address the rise of apocalyptic literature during the second temple period, explaining how

Sheol became hell, judgment, rewards and retribution in the afterlife, hades, gehenna, and

Tartarus. Part III will seek to investigate the views of hell in Jesus’ day, NT teachings, Jesus

teachings on hell, and the early church. In the end, this paper will advance an exegetical rationale

in favor of the literal view of hell. Historical evidences proved that the early Christians, as

confirmed in Jesus’ teaching, and later NT documents, taught eternal punishment of the wicked

in a literal place variously known as gehenna, the lake of fire, or hell.

6 Cf. also see Matthew 3:10, 12; 5:30; 13:30, 40, 42, 49-50; 1 Thess. 1:9; 1Cor. 3:17; Phil. 1:28.

Davis 6

Part I: The Afterlife in the Ancient WorldThe Afterlife in Ancient Paganism

What did the ancient world believe about life after death? The knowledge of the afterlife

came from various beliefs about death, soul, and judgment long existing in the Mediterranean

world. Ghosts, spirits, dreams, hallucinations were common knowledge to everyone. This was

the world in which ancient Judaism lived. It was a multicultural world with Jews, and pagans.

Therefore, for better understanding of the Jewish view of the afterlife, it is essential to begin with

life after death in the ancient pagan world. Wright said “as far as the ancient pagan world was

concerned, the road to the underworld ran only one way. Death was that way and it was all

powerful; one could neither escape it.”7 Ancient paganism had several opinions about death.

Among many, neutral death and moral death were the two most dominant views. Neutral death

as the name suggest believes in neither reward nor punishment after death. The dead survived en

masse in a pallid half-life without either reward or punishment, later informed classical antiquity

through Persia.8 In the middle of the second millennium, the Coffin Texts of Egypt’s Middle

Kingdom articulated the second concept, “moral” death.9 In this concept, the dead were rewarded

based upon what values they lived. In the famous Book of the Dead (New Kingdom, c. 1580-

1090), in chapters 30 and 125 judgment of the dead is affirmed. Apart from judgment,

segregation of the dead is mentioned in it and other Babylonian myths. The dead were divided in

the underworld according to what they did while alive. Other ancient epics like The Descent of

Ishtar, Nergal, Ereshkigal, and the Epic of Gilgamesh shared similar ideas of the afterlife.

7 N. T. Wright, Surprised By Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2008), 35.

8 Alan E. Bernstein, The Formation of Hell: Death and Retribution in the Ancient and Early Christian Worlds (New York: Cornell University Press, 1993), 3.

9 Ibid., 3.

Davis 7

For example, a summary of the Epic of Gilgamesh depicts a King of Uruk named

Gilgamesh who journeyed to the land of the dead in order to seek Utnapishim, the Babylonian

Noah for a cure to his mortality. Utnapishim was the only righteous person who had survived the

flood because the god Ea had favored him making him immortal. Since he alone survived when

everyone died, he became the hero in the land of the dead. He must have known some secrets

about mortality thought Gilgamesh. Therefore he faced difficulties traveling through mountains

and valleys, the land of darkness and the sea of death. In the end he finds Utnapishim who told

him a plant at the bottom of the sea gives new life. Gilgamesh gets the plant but it was stolen

from him and later he dies. This poem shows how people in early second and third millennium

thought of a great divide between the living the dead. It also portrays that a person’s righteous

deeds could grant him the gift of life and favor with the gods. The punishment by death (the

flood) is given to those who ignored the warnings of the gods. Besides, ancient pagan never

believe the Jews view of the resurrection. To the Jews, “resurrection” was used to denote new

bodily life after whatever sort of life after death there might be.”10 Resurrection meant bodies

and not in the popular misleading sense of life after death. With this in mind pagans denied that

there will ever be a resurrection. The ancient pagan’s concepts of the afterlife would potentially

post a threat as to how ancient Judaism thought of life beyond the grave.

The Afterlife in Ancient Judaism

So then, what did ancient Judaism understand about life beyond the grave? The idea of

the afterlife in ancient Judaism was not a straight line of development. At the beginning of the

Second Temple period, many Jews believed that the dead existed as ‘shades’ in the underworld

known as Sheol. To them, the dead were simply shadowy ghosts. We know that this shady

existing of the dead was not termed as eternal life (as we would say today), nor resurrection, but

10 Wright, Surprised By Hope, 36.

Davis 8

some kind of a life. Some scholars assert that Daniel 12:2-3 is the only reference to life after

death in the Hebrew Bible.11 Later, evidence will show that by the end of the Second Temple

period, a great number of Jews believed in life after death. On the other hand, Jews like the

Sadducees denied any kind of future life or resurrection. For those who believe, it was that in the

last days God will restore to the righteous new bodies. This understanding of the resurrection is

seen in John 11:24 with Jesus’ interaction with Martha. She assumed that Jesus was talking about

future resurrection of Lazarus, when in fact; he was referring to Lazarus being resurrected at the

moment. The belief that dead spirits live in Judaism goes as far back as to the time of Moses. In

Leviticus 19:3112 God warned against consulting the dead; Lev. 20:6 God threatens death upon

any who turns to spiritists; Deut. 18:11 God seriously prohibits the indulgence of divination.

Archaeological evidence includes the remains of sacrifices made to propitiate the spirits of dead

family members and vessels placed in tombs, presumably to supply their needs.13 As Carmichael

would say:

“The lawgivers of the Pentateuch formulated biblical laws in relation to biblical narratives. They went through the historical traditions of Israel and formulated rules in response to events or issues that arose in these traditions, rather than in response to problems in the lawgivers' own time. This explains the archaizing presentation of biblical laws in the Pentateuch, that is, their attribution to the legendary figure of Moses who judged matters past, present, and future.”14

Laws against Jewish practices in seeking consultation from dead spirits would make no sense

unless it was true that they consistently did them. Later, dramatic scenes in the account of I

Sam.28:1-15 will be the catalyst that will for centuries lead to the common belief of the afterlife.

11 This is an assertion I believed to be unqualified. Perhaps, we could quality the statement by saying that it is the clearest of OT passages that speak of immortality. Other OT passages (as I will prove in the next sentences of this sub-topic) alluded to similar idea although not as clear as the Dan. 12:2-3.

12 Cf. see Lev 19:26; Exo 22:18; Deut 18:10-14; 1Sa 28:3,7-9; 2Ki 17:17; 2Ki 21:6; 1Ch 10:13; 2Ch 33:6; Isa 8:19; Isa 29:4; Isa 47:13

13 Bernstein, The Formation of Hell, 137. 14 Calum M. Carmichael "Laws of Leviticus 19." Harvard Theological Review 87.3 (1994): 239-

256.

Davis 9

In 1 Sam.28:1-15, Samuel who was dead comes up from the “earth below” because King Saul is

greatly distressed and needed some answers. Samuel answered him with a prophecy saying

“tomorrow you and your sons will be with me.”15 Bernstein concluded that:

“Beyond its glimpse of the world of the dead, the story of Samuel suggests yet other considerations. If the late king is referred to as one of the “elohim,” a term also used to name the divinity, then there was uncertainty about a range of minor gods, supernatural spirits, ghosts, who could be considered competition for the one God. Any veneration of the dead, whether recently deceased immediate family members or revered ancestors, could constitution a throwback to something akin to polytheism, or at least a distraction from the more focused, centralized, urban, Jerusalem-based institutions of monarchy and Temple. The centralizing efforts of the regime would clearly be enhanced if these clan-based elohim could be moved from the burial places of prominent families into a collective grave inhabited by all and ruled by the one God preached from Jerusalem. Thus the kings and governing elite around them came to assert the claims of ‘Sheol’ to all Israel’s dead. It fit the unifying tendency of the monarchy to have an underworld where, as they had been subject in life to one king, the dead would be subject to one God.”16

The story ended that rebellious Saul and his sons will join Samuel in Sheol (the earth below). It

is here that “Sheol” became the place of the righteous and the wicked dead. It should be clear

that this is not the first time the term “Sheol” is used in Israel’s canonical literature. It is only in I

Sam. 28:1-15 that it is used in reference to a place of the dead for both the wicked and the

righteous. As we will see, the earliest reference of Sheol is seen in the Pentateuch and then the

historical books and wisdom literature. Thus, the next session will explore the realm of Sheol.

A Critical Look at Sheol in the Old Testament

Sheol or the afterlife is a very minor theme in the OT. In fact, some scholars say that the

OT says nothing of the future life. But McNaspy said “today, it is true, that many rationalists

have swung about face, holding that the Jews were so obsessed with the life after death that in

fact their early religion was largely ancestor worship.”17 In the OT, Sheol is used about sixty-five

times. Thirty-one times the KJV translated it as “hell,” thirty times as “the grave,” and three

15 I Sam. 28:19. 16 Bernstein, The Formation of Hell, 141-42. 17 Clement J. McNaspy, “Sheol in the Old Testament,” CBQ 6.3 (1944): 326-333.

Davis 10

times as “the Pit.” Following their own order of translation, the KJV translators have contributed

much confusion about what Sheol really is. Often, when Sheol is mentioned, people usually

equal it to just mean “the grave”. To strongly affirm this understanding, the British scholar

Richard Bauckham defined Sheol as a mystical version of the tomb, a place of darkness and

silence, from which no one returns.18 But as we will see, Sheol means far more than just a tomb,

or some 6 foot deep pit dug in the earth. The grave is the destination of the body, but Sheol is the

destination of the departed souls as in the OT. This supports Froom, who distinguishes Sheol

from the material grave but suggests “gravedom” as a suitable translation.19 Sheol is the abode of

both the righteous and unrighteous dead. In the Hebrew concept, it was the place where the dead

congregated. It was consider being the opposite of heaven, a place deep below the earth. Because

the KJV translated Sheol as hell, this has misleadingly made some people to associate it as a

place of torment. But the mainline Interpreter’s Dictionary flatly states: “Nowhere in the OT is

the abode of the dead regarded as a place of punishment or torment.”20 However, what is clear in

the OT is that Sheol is a “real place” where the dead assemble and not some material grave.

The Origin of Sheol

The etymology of “Sheol” is ambiguous but it has many interpretations. Some scholars

trace one of its Hebrew roots (y-r-d) to mean “to decent” or “to dig.” Perhaps, this is another

reason that Sheol is usually thought of as the grave. It is often used in direct opposite to heaven

(Job11:8; Ps. 139:8; Is. 7:11; Ezek. 32:18-32; Amos 9:2). Another root (s-’-l) of Sheol means to

“ask.” Indeed, there was a widespread belief in ancient times that the dead knew the future and

could advise on proper actions.21 This is the reason why God warned the Israelites in Lev.19:26,

18 Richard Bauckham, The Jewish World Around the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Baker Academic, 2008), 245.

19 Fudge, The Fire that Consumes, 45.20 Ibid., 44. 21 Aron Pinker, “Sheol” JBQ 23.3 (1995): 168-179.

Davis 11

31; Exd. 22:18; Deut. 18:10-14; 1Sa 28:3, 7-9 against “asking” or “enquiring” from the dead.

Some scholars have suggested that maybe the “u’rim and the “thum’mim” of the high priest

breastplate were designed to provide answers that the Israelites sought to inquire from the dead.

But as a suggestion, it has not met with unanimous consensus. Today, people view heaven when

referring to the saints as the final destination of the dead. But in ancient times, the final

destination was the underworld or Sheol.

The Description of Sheol

Sheol was believed to be the opposite of heaven, somewhere below the earth (Deut.

32:22; 1 Sam 28:11-15; Job 26:5; Psalm 86:13; Is. 7:11). The inhabitants of Sheol dwell in the

“land of forgetfulness” where they are said to remember neither praise nor thanks (Ps. 6:6; Is.

38:18; Jonah 2:5). Its characteristics are devoid of love and wisdom (Eccl. 9:6, 10). It is a place

that lies open before God (Job 26:5; Prov. 15:11) and no one can return from it (Ps. 139:8; Amos

9:2). It is like a prison with gates (Is. 38:13) and bars (Jonah 2:6).There is no light but darkness

(Job 10:21-22; 17:13; Ps. 88:6; 143:3; Sirach 22:11) or sound (Psalm 94:17; 115:17) and the

dead exist as weak dim shades with no interaction with God (Job 26:5; Ps. 88:10-12; Is. 14:9-

10). The idea of no sound in Sheol seems to contradict Jonah when he writes "I called out of my

distress to the Lord, and He answered me. I cried for help from the depth of Sheol; you heard my

voice” (Jonah 2:2 NASB). How is Jonah calling and crying if Sheol lacks the possibility of sound

waves? Or could it be that because God is omnipotent, he still hears even if the call or cry is of

the heart and not voiced? Whichever is the case, some scholars take Sheol in these biblical texts

as hyperbolic superlative, not meant literally.22

22 Philip S. Johnson, Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament (Illinois: Downers Grove, 2002), 75.

Davis 12

Sheol in the Law (A Destiny for the godly and ungodly)

The first occurrence of the term “Sheol” is in Gen. 37:35. The Law of First Mentioned in

biblical interpretation stresses that this message merits particular attention. This law states that in

order to get the fundamental inherent meaning of a doctrine that develops over time, (example

like Sheol), it is importance to study the passage it was first mentioned. The passage states

“Then all his sons and all his daughters arose to comfort him, but he refused to be comforted. And he said, ‘Surely I will go down to Sheol in mourning for my son.’ So his father wept for him” (Gen. 37:35, NASB).

Out of Jacob’s deep grief, the earliest conception of the word “Sheol” arose. What could Jacob

really mean that “surely I will go down to Sheol in mourning for my son?” A noted German

theologian and biblical scholar, H.F.W. Gesenius comments that “It is a subterranean place, full

of thick darkness (job.10:21, 22), in which the shades of the dead are gathered together.23 Sheol

is a place beyond the grave and not the grave. It was not the grave or some 6ft in the earth

because we know that his son Joseph was not buried into a grave but was believed to have been

devoured by a ferocious beast.

More importantly, they had a well- known word for the grave where the body of the

deceased was buried (see Gen. 23:9; Isa. 14:19). But instead, Jacob chose to use Sheol. Sheol is

mentioned as “somewhere”, “an unknown state”, a “place” where Jacob believes for “sure” that

his son was in a “conscious state of awareness.” Bodies are unconscious in the grave, but those

in Sheol are conscious.24 It is also clear that he still spoke of Joseph (although dead) as a

personality, someone who is in the state of being and he will reunite with him. Besides, Jacob

believes that even after Joseph’s death, he still retains his relationship as a father and his son’s

identity when he reunites with his son. Knowing his son was torn into pieces by a wild beast he

23 H. F. W. Gesenius, Gesenius’ Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (trans. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, 1979), 798.

24 Cf. See Isaiah 14:4-7, 44:23; Ezek. 31:16, 32:21; LK. 16:19.

Davis 13

still believes that his son was in Sheol. This means that unlike the grave, Sheol is not localized,

but it is accessible at death no matter where the death takes place. In other words, no grave is

necessary to go to Sheol. A person could own, sell, or purchase a grave as in Gen. 23:4-20, but

nowhere is Sheol ever owned, sold or purchased.

Besides, from the narrative, Joseph who is presumed to be righteous is thought of by his

father as residing in Sheol. His father Jacob also envisaged descent to Sheol to reunite with him.

Sheol is depicted as a destiny for the righteous as in Gen. 37:35; 42:38; 44:29, 31.25 Another

mentioned of “Sheol” in the Law is Numbers 16:30. It states

“But if the Lord brings about an entirely new thing and the ground opens its mouth and swallows them up with all that is theirs, and they descend alive into Sheol, then you will understand that these men have spurned the Lord."

Idiomatically, Sheol is geocentrically viewed as a place below the earth where people descend.

The Hebrew text speaks of a creature (bria) that the Lord will create (yivra), and this creature

would have a mouth that could swallow.26Sheol is being personified as a creature devouring all.

For the first time, Sheol is also depicted as a place where the ungodly go and it is associated with

punishment. What is also clear is that “the emphasis on going "alive into Sheol” must have

implied horrific suffering, not unlike the slow suffocation of those buried alive.27

Sheol in the Prophets (A destiny for the Ungodly)

The prophet Isaiah in Isa. 5:1428 pick up the same motif of Sheol in speaking of Israel. It

reads “Therefore Sheol has enlarged its throat and opened its mouth without measure; And

Jerusalem's splendor, her multitude, her din of revelry and the jubilant within her, descend into it

(NASB). Here, we see a similar pattern as in Num.16:30. Sheol is again personified as a giant

25 Cf. See also Ps. 88:3; Is. 38:10. 26 Pinker, “Sheol” JBQ 23.3 (1995): 168-179. 27 Ibid., 168-179.28 Cf. See also1Sam. 2:6; 2 Sam. 22:6; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Job 21:13; Ezek.31:15-17; Amos 9:2.

Davis 14

creature with throat and mouth ready to swallow Jerusalem’s splendor, her multitude and the

jubilant within her. The passage is a woe oracle and Sheol is associated with it. A Woe Oracle is

a prophetic announcement used to criticize particular actions or attitude of the people, and to

announce punishment. Duhm further adds that this reference is to nothing more than a coming

judgment, and that the Israelites’ debauchery has blinded them to this reality.29 Another passage

in Is. 14:9 reads

“Sheol from beneath is excited over you to meet you when you come; It arouses for you the spirits of the dead, all the leaders of the earth; It raises all the kings of the nations from their thrones.” Again, the idea of judgment is depicted upon the pagan kings of the earth. Sheol awaits them all.

The grave in 14:11 should be Sheol (just as in 14:9), for it is not the cemetery that is in view but

the home of the departed in the next world. Sheol is the end alike of pride (see 13:11) and

pleasure (see 5:12), self-importance and self-indulgence.30 The evidences show that Sheol is the

destiny for the ungodly but how is it depicted in the Writings?

Sheol in the Writings (A destiny for All)

In Job: 7:9, Sheol is depicted as a place of no return. Some scholars suggest that “a place

of no return” is usually a reference to death and that Sheol is used in this sense. But, the

evidences proved that the author selectively chose to use Sheol to convey confinement rather

than death. There are other words in the Hebrew for death but the author intentionally used

Sheol. Next, Job 24:19 will read “Drought and heat consume the snow waters, so does Sheol

those who have sinned.” Until now, nothing is said concerning the nature of punishment leading

to Sheol or associated with Sheol. As far as we know nothing speaks of Sheol as a place of

punishment, only that it is associated with divine judgments and mentioned where punishment is 29 John N. Oswalt, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Isaiah

Chapters 1-39 (Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1986), 160.30 J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction and Commentary, (Illinois: Downers

Grove, 1993), 144.

Davis 15

imminent. Sheol is compared to heat and drought. As a “heat” consumes a material object and a

“drought” consumes crops, Sheol “consumes” those who sinned. Immediately, one would think

that the term “consume” means complete destruction, supporting the theory of annihilation as

some have claimed. But this is not the case. The Hebrew word that translated “consume” is

“gazal” (גזל). Gazal carries the sense of taking something by force (2Sam.32:21; Job 24:9; Mic.

3:2) and may refer to kidnapping (Gen. 31:31), the theft of flocks (job 24:2), or loss of property

(20:19).31

Besides, David in Psalm 89:48 stated that “What man can live and not see death? Can he

deliver his soul from the power of Sheol? Selah. All men (godly and ungodly) died and their

souls cannot escape Sheol. There is a connection here: “man” with “death” and the “soul” with

“Sheol” Another reason that Sheol is not the grave, but a place where the departed souls of all in

the OT reside. So far we have seen in the Law, the Prophets and the Writings that Sheol is a real

place, somewhere idiomatically considered being deep below the earth. It is where the souls of

the departed are spoken of being in a conscious state of awareness or being. Although the general

consensus viewed Sheol as a destiny for all, but twenty-fives (25x) out of the sixty-five (65) total

references, it is used in reference to the ungodly. We do not see anywhere that Sheol is said to be

an actual place of punishment, but it is clear that it is only used (even in reference to the

righteous) when they are faced with some unhappy situation, which they interpret as divine

judgment. Furthermore, a slight change occurred in how Sheol is presented in the prophets.

There, it is often associated with prophetic judgments, punishment and suffering for the wicked.

As the OT closes and we move to the NT, the term Sheol disappears, and a new term “Hell” is

introduced. What had happened to Sheol will be the focus of the next section.

31 W. R. Domeris “gzl” (גזל) NIDOTTE 1:844-45.

Davis 16

Part II: The Development of Hell: What happened to Sheol? The Rise of Apocalyptic Literature during Second Temple period

Apocalyptic, from the Greek word apokalupsis meaning “revelation” or disclosure is an

adjective that has been used to describe both a certain type of literature and a special feature of

religions in late antiquity.32 Thus, apocalyptic literature is a broad theological perspective that

deals with visions of the future as they relate to Israel and the sovereignty of God. How those

visions translate into terms of plain history, real politics and human instrumentality are elements

Bauckham argued apocalyptic lacks.33 Apocalyptic literatures are writings that bear certain

characteristics from the last two centuries and the first century A.D. The origin of apocalyptic

literature can is debatable. Some argued that it began with the men from Qumran since

archeological evident from Qumran34 showed the discovery of some apocalyptic scrolls. On the

other hand, the post Exilic Period of Second Isaiah and also Zechariah 9-14 has gained many

scholarly acceptances as the beginning of apocalyptic literature. It is no doubt that there is a wide

range of ancient Jewish apocalyptic materials35, but this paper will focus on just the development

of apocalyptic literature during the intertestamental period or the Second Temple period.

During this time, apocalyptic arose due to the circumstances of the day. Three main

factors led to its development. First, it was the emergence of a minority group known as the 32

James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature & Testament. Vol. 1 (New York: Doubleday; London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1983), 3.

33 Bauckham, The Jewish World Around the New Testament, 41. 34 The discoveries of some scrolls that have apocalyptic features are: The Commentaries on

Isaiah, Hosea, Micah, Zephaniah, Psalm 37, the Zadokite Document, the Manual of Discipline, A Scroll of Benedictions, The Testimonies Scroll, The Book of Mysteries, The Midrash on the Last Days, The Angelic Liturgy and A Genesis Apocryphon.

35 On category of ancient Jewish apocalyptic material was written before 200 AD (1 & 2 Enoch, 2 & 3 Baruch, Ladder of Jacob, Sib. Or. 3-5, Apocryphon of Ezekiel, Apocalypse of Zephaniah, Apocalypse of Elijah fragments, 4 Ezra, and Apocalypse of Abraham). Besides these, The Shepherd of Hermas (NT Apocalypse) was also written before 200 AD. The second category is the Christian Apocalypses like the Methodius. Third, will be the Hebrew Apocalypses: The Book of Zerubbabel, Hebrew Apocalypse of Elijah, and the Secrets of Rabbi Simon ben Yohai. And the Hebrew Merkabah texts from 300 AD are considered another category.

Davis 17

“Righteous Remnant.” They were faithful servants of Yahweh who sought to be the medium

through which Yahweh would fulfill his prophecies. Ladd cites the Chasidim, the Pharisees, and

the men of Qumran as examples of groups who at one time or another saw themselves in this

role.36 By then, there were troubling times for the Jews for almost two centuries. The Syrian

tyrant, Antiochus IV (175-164 BC) outlawed the observance of the Sabbath, circumcision, and

food laws. He threatened death as a punishment for any Jew who violates his decrees. Even

worst, he built an altar to Zeus in the temple at Jerusalem. The Jews were convinced that

Antiochus’s actions were the “abomination that makes desolate” as spoken of in Dan.11:31.

Because of this ultimate blasphemy, they were convicted that the end of age was at hand. These

circumstances contributed to the rise of an apocalyptic literature.

Second, the problem of evil spawned the rise of apocalyptic literature. The Jews were

suffering much affliction and could no longer bear it. In 167 BC, a rebellion started by a rural

Jewish priest named Mattathias who led a guerrilla warfare that later continued under his son

Judas, known as Maccabeus. The Maccabees forces destroyed pagan altars, outlawed all decrees

against Jewish practices and gained notoriety among the Seleucid army. When they had finally

gained victory, Judas dedicated the temple to the worship of God on 25 Chislev 165 BC. As

Fudge would say “Such times reveal apostates and make martyrs. They spawned a special type

of literature known today as ‘apocalyptic’. This literature located the believer in a minority

community and gave his life meaning by relating it to the end, soon to come, that would reverse

his present status.”37

The third factor was the cessation of prophecy.38 After the last OT prophet Malachi,

centuries had passed and there was no prophetic voice. This silence created a vacuum that the

36 Leon Morris, Apocalyptic (Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1972), 23.37 Fudge, The Fire that Consumes, 87. 38 Morris, Apocalyptic, 24.

Davis 18

apocalyptists filled as they spoke for God. They were responding to the need of the time and

their words generated the response of faith which the nation was called upon to make. Leon

Morris added that “This combination of circumstances brought about a situation in which a new

type of writing could flourish. It was directed mainly to a people in trouble, a people who saw

themselves as God’s own, but who were puzzled by the plight in which they found

themselves.”39

Apocalyptic and its Relevance to the New Testament

As Richard Bauckham asked “Can an intertestamental development40 be seen as

providing theological continuity between the Testaments?”41 This question still remains a matter

of debate. Some scholars like Kasemann, sees Apocalyptic as the origin of Christian theology.

Bauckham later answers his question by saying “first hand work on Jewish material should now

be virtually a prerequisite for the competent historical research in the New Testament studies.”42

If this is the case, then apocalyptic studies are necessary if we are to understand and interpret the

NT. Even for some scholars (one example is Fudge) who oppose this view and see the

intertestamental literature as non-canonical, and not the “actual source of the NT doctrine would

still agree that they provide valuable studies for the NT studies. William A. Beardslee points to

this when he says “Many of the central New Testament symbols for interpreting God’s coming

to man, including the resurrection, the kingdom of God, and the Messiah or Christ are

apocalyptic symbols.43 One example is Mark 13. It bears fragments of Jewish Apocalypse. Many

scholars refer to his as the “Little Apocalypse.” In it, we see apocalyptic features of “woes”, “the 39 Ibid., 25. 40 The entire collections of literatures (the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea

Scrolls) are widely considered as Intertestamental Literature. Scholars prefer to say “Second Temple Jewish Literature”. These Jewish literatures developed over the period of approximately 515 BC to AD 70.

41Bauckham, The Jewish World Around the New Testament, 39. 42 Ibid., 209.43 Morris, Apocalyptic, 10.

Davis 19

abomination of desolation in the holy place,” “severe famine and wars, “the Son of Man riding

on clouds,” and “increase in horrific events.” These are purely depictions of Jewish apocalypse.

Above all else, the book of Revelation is the climax of Jewish apocalypse. It is filled with scenes

of angels, warnings, mouth pouring out fire, death, horses, unimaginable beasts arising up from

the sea, swords, new heaven descending to earth, sorrows, gnashing of teeth, demons, hell,

tribulation, and many more.

As clearly seen, the lack of apocalyptic understanding of the NT will lead many to

eisegesis instead of proper NT exegesis. We see this in the widespread misunderstanding of the

book of Revelation. Its apocalyptic nature has caused most Christians to avoid it and for the few

the read it, they usually misinterpret it. Apocalyptic ideas were widely held and consistent even

up to the time of Jesus. In fact, as we will see (in part II), that Jesus even endorsed some

elements of the Jewish apocalypse by using apocalyptic expressions. Although Fudge would

argue that just because “a word or idea appears in the Pseudepigrapha and appears in the New

Testament does not necessarily mean that the New Testament author either learned it in the

Pseudepigrapha or borrowed it from that source.”44 Fudge’s assertion could be true provided if a

word or idea had just appeared once. Instead, the evidence showed consistent usage of

apocalyptic terms in the NT, and sometimes even direct quotes borrowed from the Apocrypha or

Pseudepigrapha.

Even with this, there are some who will still question “Why hasn’t the NT writers cited

more from the Apocrypha or the Pseudepigraph?” First, there is a good deal of apocalyptic in the

NT. Apart from Mk 13 and the books of Revelation, I Corinthians 15 and II Thessalonian 2 have

apocalyptic features. Second, the answer lies in the issue of emphasis. The primary focus of the

NT writers was the cross. In other words, the incarnation of God, the God-Man Jesus who died

44 Fudge, The Fire that Consumes, 100.

Davis 20

for our salvation was the heart of their message. Essentially, this was the good news that faith in

Jesus Christ would provide salvation for the wicked or even the worst sinner. On the other hand,

the apocalyptic material focuses on judgement in the end. It deals with how God will ultimately

overcome evil and as well, bring evil doers to justice. It is all about giving wicked what they

deserve in the end and rewarding the righteous. Apocalyptic looks towards Christ setting up his

kingdom after he finally judge the world. The NT authors look towards if possible, salvation for

all before Christ comes as a judge. The Apocalypse hopes for the future when all things will

come to an end whereas the NT writers hopes for the present when many (especially the guilty)

will come to know Jesus. The NT writers concentrated on the forgiveness of sin whereas the

Apocalypse concentrated on the punishment of sins.

Even more, the Apocalypse divided the world into two groups: the righteous and the

wicked. The NT writer saw the world as one: for all have sinned and fallen short of God‘s glory.

There was no place for repentant sinners in the Apocalypse and thus, it was good news to only

the righteous and not the wicked. This explains why as evangelists (whose hearts cry for

sinners), the NT writers did not see the Apocalyptic literature as the ideal vehicle for soul

winning. Notwithstanding, we must always bear in mind that the NT writers did not lose sight of

the apocalyptic truth, even though it was not their thematic concern. Church history shows that

after Jesus death, the early Christians regarded the Apocrypha as fully canonical. The seventy-

two scholars who translated the Hebrew Bible into the Greek known as “Septuagint” included

the Apocrypha into the Bible. Even today, Eastern Orthodox Christians and the Roman Catholics

regarded them as canonical. Apocalyptic literatures may not represent the whole of the gospel,

but they are certainly an essential part of it. They were the background for the NT and they also

contributed a great deal to the idea of the rewards of the righteous and punishment of the wicked

Davis 21

in the life after death. This view of rewards and punishment will later be expanded even more in

Jesus’ teachings.

The Maccabean Period: Severe Crisis for the Jews

The priest Mattathias, the patriarch of the clan, along with his sons initiated the revolt for

the sake of religious liberty. King Antiochus’ blasphemous actions of erecting a statue in the

temple and forcing the Jews to worship it provoked Mattathias and his sons into starting a

rebellion. Not only were the Jews compelled to worship this statue, they were banned from their

sabbatical practices and circumcision. The Jews saw these religious prohibitions as an

abomination spoken of in Daniel’s end time prophecy. The rebellion was in several phases (167-

160; 160-143; 142-135/4) and at some point went from religious liberty to political

independence. The Jews began to advance territorially. They regained the temple in 164 BC,

ended the persecution (at least temporarily) and sought to establish a new dynasty (Macc. 2:42

and 7:13). For years, they really never stop fighting for religious freedom and independence until

the reign of John Hyrcanus in 128 BC where they experienced relative peace. Prior to Hyrcanus’

reign, many of the Jews died for the sake of faithfulness to God. They died without seeing any

reward for their faithfulness while the wicked seem to triumph. There was a common belief that

God rewards the deeds of the righteous. But since these martyrs died without any reward, the

expectation developed that God will raise the dead, giving rewards to the righteous and

punishment to the wicked. Scholars speculate on why the Syrian tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes

persecuted the Jews, but the reason still a puzzle. It was surprising to the Jews since as Shaye J.

D. Cohen mentioned that “in antiquity religious persecutions were something of a rarity. The

polytheistic and polytechnic empires of both Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean basin tolerated

religious and cultic diversity. As long as peace was maintained and the taxes were paid, the state

Davis 22

did not care much about the religious life of the citizens.”45 As a result of this first historical

struggle for religious freedom, the Jews were convinced that the end has come and this notion

would reinforce the idea that God will judge and punish the wicked in the end.

Rewards and Punishment in the Afterlife

Throughout the Old Testament, it was a common view that God punishes the wicked and

rewards the righteous. There are numerous stories of God’s divine judgment unleashed against

the wicked Pharaoh’s army, the flood story, Sodom and Gomorrah, and the enemies of Israel. On

the other hand, we see God rewarding Moses, Joshua, and Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Gideon, King

David, Solomon and many more for their right-standing with him. However, two paramount

issues suffice: First, the punishments were all in this present life and not the life after death. The

second, the punishments were usually a onetime utterly destruction. In Trito-Isaiah, the author in

speaking of punishment imagines a special kind of fire, the one that would not end (Isa. 66:24).

The Old Testament closes with this motif in a framework of a “covenant” that as long as Israel,

his chosen people walk in obedience they will be rewarded and those that oppose them will be

punished.

During the intertestamental the political, cultural, and social circumstances had changed

and the Jews had become a small and oppressed people. Foreign rulers dominated the Jews and

subjected them to abandon their sacred duties and turn to pagan practices. Because of this, three

major rebellions broke out: The Maccabees against Antiochus Epiphanes (167-164 B.C. E), the

Jews against the Romans (66-73/74 C.E), and then in 132-135C.E, and the Jews against the

Romans (115-117C.E). Many Jews died for the cause of their religious liberty. Because of the

severe persecution and desolation of the temple, the Jews believe Daniel 11:31 was been

45 Shaye J.D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (ed. Wayne A. Meeks; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987), 30.

Davis 23

fulfilled. With this in mind, Nichols added that “the Jewish apocalyptic belief developed that

God would not abandon the righteous to the netherworld. Rather the righteous individual will be

rewarded and the wicked punished by God in a resurrected life after death, as seen in the book of

Daniel (Ca. 150 BCE).”46 As since the resurrected life after death was said to be everlasting,

anything that precedes it (whether be it punishment or rewards) will have to be also be

everlasting. Thus, the doctrine of everlasting punishment developed as a widespread view among

Jews even though some Jews had opposing beliefs. One group which was the Pharisees taught

everlasting punishment because they believe in the resurrection. The others were the Sadducees

who denied everlasting punishment because they did not believe in the resurrection. Another was

the School of Hillel that believes the wicked will be punished but only for a year and then

annihilated.

The teachings of rewards and punishments in the afterlife in Jewish Apocalypse were

considered instructive and edifying. These apocalyptic literatures (I & II Enoch, II & IV Ezra, the

Book of Jubilees, the Sibylline Oracles III, IV & V, the Testament of the XII Patriarchs, the

Psalm of Solomon, the Assumption of Moses, the Martyrdom of Isaiah the Life of Adam and Eve

or the Apocalypse of Moses, the Apocalypse of Abraham, the Testament of Abraham, the Book of

Secrets of Enoch, Tobit, Sirach, I, II & III Baruch, Judith, and I & II Maccabees), were regarded

as fully canonical by the Orthodox Jews, and also the early Christians. We will examine some of

these texts on rewards and punishment after death. A few passages in 4 Ezra reads

“And recompense shall follow, and the reward shall be manifested; righteous deeds shall awake, and unrighteous deeds shall not sleep. Then the pit of torment shall appear, and opposite it shall be the place of rest; and the furnace of Hell shall be disclosed, and opposite it the paradise of delight. Then the Most High will say to the nations that have been raised from the dead, Look now, and understand whom you have denied, whom you

46 Terence Nichols, Death and Afterlife: A Theological Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2010), 19.

Davis 24

have not served, whose commandments you have despised! Look on this side and on that; here are delight and rest, and there are fire and torments!” (4 Ezra 7:35-38a)

“Now, concerning death, the teaching is: When the decisive decree has gone forth the Most High that a man shall die, as the spirit leaves the body and return to him who gave it, first of all it adores the glory of the Most High. And if it is one of those who have shown scorn and have not kept the way of the Most High, and who have despised his Law, and who have hated those who fear God, such spirits shall not enter into habitations, but shall immediately wonder about in torments ever grieving and sad” (4 Ezra 7:78-80).47

In these passages the Gentiles are raised to be condemned to severe eternal torment. Their

souls shall enter into great judgment; it shall be great judgment in all the generations of the

world. For the wicked here are guarantee no rest or peace (I Enoch 103:7-8). The same view is

expressed in Judith, an Apocrypha text where he warns “Woe to the nations that rise up against

my kindred! The Lord Almighty will take vengeance of them in the Day of Judgment, in putting

fire and worms in their flesh; and they shall feel them, and weep for ever. (Judith 16:17). Three

things are explicit in this passage: First, it shows that Judith draws from Isaiah 66:24 where he

cites the “fire” and “worms” as tormenting the flesh of the wicked and not annihilating them.

Second, the punishment is said to be after the Day of Judgment which is the final state of the

wicked and third, the duration of the punishment is forever. Even Edward W. Fudge, a strong

supporter of annihilation admitted that here the passage clearly teaches unending conscious

torment. Later, he will add “but this is the first unequivocal appearance in our literature.”48

Obviously, it is clear that Fudge’s claim is wrong. Judith 16:17 is not the only place in

the Apocrypha where everlasting conscious torment is taught. The entire book of II Baruch is

dedicated to teachings on unending conscious torment. The author is clear on this when he says

“the eternal habitation of the wicked will in the fire” (44:15). In order words, they do not cease to

exist but are sent into severe torment (51:5-6, 59:2, 64:7-10, 83:8-9). II Sibylline Oracles

47 Cf. See also 4 Ezra 4:32-35, 7:1-15, 7:75. 48 Fudge, The Fire that Consumes, 90.

Davis 25

acknowledges how God will first give everyone (righteous and unrighteous) a bodily resurrection

before distributing rewards and punishments.

Then the heavenly one will give souls and breath and voice to the dead and bones fastened with all kinds of joinings …….flesh and sinews and veins and skin about the flesh and former hairs. Bodies of human, made solid in heavenly manner, breathing and set in motion, will be raised on a single day (221-225).And then all will pass through the blazing river and the unquenchable flame. All the righteous will be saved, but the impious will then be destroyed for all ages, as many as formerly did evil or committed murders, and as many as are accomplices, lairs, and crafty thieves, and dread destroyers of houses, parasites, and adulterers, who pour out slander, terrible violent men, and lawless ones (251-255). These and the sorcerers and sorceresses in addition to them will the anger of the heavenly imperishable God also bring near to the pillar, around which an undying fiery river flows in a circle. All these at once the angel of the immortal, everlasting God will punish terribly from above with whips of flame, having bound them around with fiery chains and unbreakable bonds. Then, in the dead of night, they will be thrown into many infernal beasts in Gehenna, where there is immeasurable darkness. But when they have inflected many punishments on all who hearts were evil, then later, a fiery wheel from the great river will press them hard……….but in distress they will shout at length below dark, dank Tartarus. In places unholy they will repay threefold what evil deed they committed, burning in much fire………they will call death fair, and it will evade them. No longer will death or night give these rest (281-305).49

As we have seen so far, these intertestamental works, drawing from a few OT passages

developed the widespread belief of rewards and punishment in the afterlife. By the time Jesus

was born, the idea of unending conscious torment had become the Jewish view.50This view will

later become the common opinion of the early church. But before we explore the bowls of hell, it

is important that we define a few terms that were introduced to us from the Apocrypha and

Pseudepigrapha literatures.

Definition of the terms: Hell, Hades, Gehenna and Tartarus

The Greek term “Hades”, as it is sometimes translated “Hell” in English is often said to

be a place of torment in the NT, this creates a problem in interpretation. Hell, as in the KJV

49 For more on the Apocrypha see also James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature & Testament. Vol. 1.

50 W. G. T. Shedd, The Doctrine of Endless Punishment (Carlisle: Edinburg, 1998)?

Davis 26

translates four words that are seen in many apocalyptic literatures: The Hebrew word Sheol, the

Greek word Hades, Gehenna, and Tartarus. The KJV translates Heb. Sheol thirty-one times as

“hell,” thirty-one times as “the grave, “and three times as “the Pit.” The etymology of Sheol is

not found in any of the cognate languages. It reminds uncertain. Several proposals have been

suggested but none has proven to be universally accepted by scholars. What is commonly agreed

upon is that Sheol is somewhat this underworld where the souls of the dead exist in dim shades

with no affiliation with God. It is important to mention as Nichols noted that “the shades of the

dead are not immaterial souls. They retain their physiognomies and physical appearance and so

are recognizable.”51 Neither punishment nor reward is said to be given in Sheol. Both the dead of

the righteous and unrighteous are all dwelling in Sheol (Eccles 9:2). From the Law of First

Mentioned and other OT passages we know that is not a hole in the ground, but a place where the

dead abode.

Hades refers to the place of the dead but not necessarily to a place where the wicked are

tormented. It was also the name of the Greek god which signifies more of his realm, the

underworld, than of the name itself. Hades, the Greeks underworld of the dead was the

equivalent (at least in its earliest development) of Sheol, the underworld in the Hebrew concept.

In either one, the dead existed in a dim shady form. The Later, as early as Homer, Bauckham

pointed out that the notion existed that some individuals experienced endless punishment in

Hades and later, especially through the influence of Orphic-Pythagorean ideas, belief in

postmortem rewards and punishments became common.52 Another significant impact on the

notion of Hades was the Jewish belief in the resurrection and eternal life. By then, resurrection

will imply that those “shades” in Hades would someday take on a bodily form. This was a view

51 Nichols, Death And Afterlife, 22. See also Is. 26:19. 52 R. Bauckham, “Hades, Hell,” ABD 3:14-15.

Davis 27

that the Jews affirmed and the Greek denied it, preferring a more disembodied soul. Hades,

which was like Sheol, the destiny of the all, would now become a “temporary” abode of the

dead. It was the transit point in the afterlife where the dead waited for the final resurrection. This

new line of thought was a booster to an already existing promise in Isaiah that someday Sheol,

the earth below will give out its dead. Speaking of this vision prophet Isaiah writes “Your dead

will live; their corpses will rise. You who lie in the dust, awake and shout for joy, for your dew is

as the dew of the dawn, and the earth will give birth to the departed spirits” (Is. 26:19, NASB).

This new picture of Hades now affects the expectation of the resurrection and eternal

destiny. The fate on a person on the Day of Judgement will determine if after resurrection that

person is rewarded eternal life or eternal punishment. Here, Bauckham adds that “this distinction

between the righteous and the wicked was often held to be anticipated during the temporary

abode of the dead in Hades.”53 When the Ethiopic Apocalypse of I Enoch was written, the first

section portrays various visions of Enoch where he is shown the end, the final judgment of the

righteous and the wicked, and then taken on a tour of the heaven, the earth, and Sheol. Enoch’s

visions described Sheol as four hallow places where the dead are in transit awaiting judgement (I

Enoch 21; 22). With Enoch’s reputation from the Genesis’ narrative, the belief in the

compartmentalization of Hades developed and was widely accepted by many Jews, particularly

the Essenes, and early Christians. The book of I Enoch was used by authors of the Testament of

the Twelve Patriarch, Jubilees, the Assumption of Moses, 2 Baruch, 4 Ezra, the Epistle of

Barnabas, and the Apocalypse of Peter. In fact, the author of Jude in the NT quotes directly from

it in 1:14. Charlesworth stated that “many Church fathers, including Justin Martyr, Irenaeus,

Origen, and Clement of Alexander, either knew I Enoch or were inspired by it. Among those

53 Ibid., 14-15.

Davis 28

who were familiar with 1 Enoch, Tertullian had an exceptional regard for it.”54 Over time, (as I

will explain in the next section), the four hollow classes of the dead in Hades were reduced to

two. In 4Ezra 7: 75-101, the righteous dead are said to be resting in gladness, awaiting their

rewards while the wicked are displaced, wondering around in tormented awareness of their

doom. More intertestamental literature began to associate eternal punishment of the wicked in

Hades. The state of the wicked developed from awaiting judgment, to being in a transition, then

displaced in tormented areas that are now associated with fire (Sir 21:9-10). The imagery of

“fire” used for tormenting the wicked is not new. In the OT, the punishment usually imagined for

the wicked was that of long-lasting fire. The evil doers of Sodom and Gomorrah were burned by

fire (Gen. 19). The psalmist calls for fire to devour God’s enemies (Ps. 21:9). Malachi warns

"For behold, the day is coming, burning like a furnace; and all the arrogant and every evildoer will be chaff; and the day that is coming will set them ablaze," says the Lord of hosts, "so that it will leave them neither root nor branch” (4:1).

In a final development Hades becomes exclusively the place of punishment for the wicked,

while the righteous go at death to paradise or heaven.55

Gehenna

The name “Gehenna” respectively comes from three Hebrew expressions gehinnom, geben-

hinnom, and ge bene-hinnom. They mean “the valley of Hinnom,” “valley of the son of

Hinnom,” and “valley of the sons of Hinnom.” It represents the closest account to the developed

doctrine of hell as the place of the damned. This valley is located outside the city walls of

Jerusalem and has a long history dating far back to the reign of Judah’s wicked kings: Azah and

Manasseh (2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6). It was a sacrificial site sometimes called Tophet (by the pagans)

where gruesome infant sacrifice rituals were offer the god Molech. Bruce M. Metzger noted that

“King Josiah defiled the site during his reforms so that children no longer would be sacrificed

54 Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 8. 55 Bauckham, “Hades, Hell,” ABD 3:14-15.

Davis 29

there (2 kgs. 23:10), but the valley may have been used again after his time (Jer. 7:31-32; 19:2-6;

32:35).”56 With a prophet judgment speech, Jeremiah declared that in future the valley of

Hinnom will be a place a valley of slaughter. The horrific history the valley of Hinnom became

associated with the growing Jewish belief about the place where the wicked will suffer eternal

punishment. Most scholars suggested that such belief was probably connected to Isa. 66:24

where we see the winepress of the God’s wrath and his fiery sword of judgment promised for the

wicked in the valley of Hinnom, which was then a cemetery during Isaiah’s time.

Above all, later Jewish writings (As. Moses 10:19; 2 Esdras. 7:36; 2 Apoc. Bar. 59:10; 1 En.

27:2-3; 48:9; 54:1; 90:26-27; 103:8) depicted Gehenna as a place of eternal punishment with

darkness and burning fire. By the time of the NT, Gehenna continues to be the place of eternal

punishment. Because of the strong influence the apocalyptic literature had on the NT writers, the

synoptic gospels characterized Gehenna as a place of eternal punishment. Respectively, Mt. 5:22,

7:19; 18:9, 25:41 Mk.9:43, Lk. 3:9, 17 associated an unquenchable fire with Gehenna.

Tartarus

In Greek mythology, Tartarus was the lowest region of the underworld and a place of

punishment over against Elysium, a place known as paradise. In 2 Peter 2:4 it is used

interchangeably as hell or hades, but in classical thought Tartarus was distinct from Hades. The

name “Tartarus” means “consigning to Tartarus.” Zeus consigned the Titans there and in the NT

wicked angels are consigned there for punishment. It takes the reputation as a place of

punishment for the wicked in the NT.

The Translation of Sheol as Hades

The Hebrew term “Sheol” was translated into the Septuagint as “Hades,” which means

the “underworld” or “the grave.” Hades derived from the name of the Greek god of the

56 B. Metzger, “Hell,” EBD, 478-79.

Davis 30

underworld. The word “Septuagint” (from the Latin Septuaginta meaning 70) derives from the

story that 72 scholars translated the Hebrew Bible (technically the Pentateuch) into Greek. The

Septuagint abbreviated as LXX plays a significant role in understanding the thought of the Jews

in pre-Christian centuries. It was not a secondary text alongside with the OT, but was the Bible

of the early Christian Church. It provides the context in which many of the NT doctrinal

concepts (example like Hades/Hell, Gehenna) can best be explained. Ten times the term Hades

occurs in the NT. In the LXX, Hades corresponds to the Hebrew Sheol, the abode of all dead.

The translators of the KJV translated Hades as “hell,” which misleadingly implies something

different other than the Septuagint’s perspective. Thus, the progression went from Sheol to

Hades than to Hell, which the Revised Standard Version associates with Gehenna and Tartarus.

But the NT writer distinguished Hades from Gehenna. The Septuagint continues to equate the

same meaning for Hades and Sheol. As Melvin K. H. Peters would say the Septuagint is

important to all who wish for simplistic answers to scriptural and canonical questions, or

shortcuts around the complexity surrounding most human endeavors.57 Another facet of this

difficulty in understanding Hell’s development will be our next subtopic.

Compartments in Hell/ Hades?

The great theme of distinction in the afterlife occurs first in the Book of Ezekiel,

composed between 598 and 586, in the context of a prophetic announcement to Egypt that Persia

will destroy it like the other peoples it has conquered.58 God warns Egypt in Ezekiel 32:18-26

that she will soon join those falling nations (Assyria, Meshech, Tubal, and the people of Elam) in

Sheol. Those of Elam “bear their shame with those who go down to the pit; whose graves are set

in the remotest parts of the pit and her company is round about her grave” (32:23). For the first

57 Peters, “Septuagint” ABD 5:1093-1104.58 Bernstein, The Formation of Hell, 162.

Davis 31

time we see the author ascribed shame and location to the depths of the pit. Bernstein elaborated

how the Hebrew word for “depths of the part/remotest parts of the pit” is ‘yarch’tey bor,’ the

same place that Ezekiel assigned to Assyria (32:23)……..It is a separate area reserved for the

violent uncircumcised.”59 Later, the intertestamental literature will further expand on this the idea

of segregation in Sheol. The writer of I Enoch explains how Enoch, who we knew “walked with

God”, is seen on “a tour with God” in Sheol (I En 21; 22). There, he is shown four classes of the

dead confined as they anticipate the Day of Judgment. Three classes are categorized as the

wicked dead and one class, the righteous dead. Of the three wicked classes, one class is said to

be there undergoing punishment, another already punished for their sins in this life but awaits

judgment, and the others that were not punished in this life but will be at judgment. In later

conceptions these four classes of the dead were reduced to two: chambers or treasures of the

souls as in Ps.-Philo 32:13. This idea is also confirmed in 2 Baruch 30:1-5.

And it will happen after these things, when the time of the advent of the Messiah is fulfilled, that He shall return in glory. Then all who have fallen asleep in hope of Him shall rise again. And it shall come to pass at that time that the treasuries will be opened in which is preserved the number of the souls of the righteous, and they shall come forth, and a multitude of souls shall be seen together in one assemblage of one thought, and the first shall rejoice and the last shall not be grieved. For they know that the time has come of which it is said, that it is the consummation of the times. But the souls of the wicked, when they behold all these things, shall then waste away the more. For they shall know that their torment has come and their perdition has arrived.

Other passages (4 Ezra 4:35, 41; 7:32, 80, 85, 95, 101, 121; Ps.-Philo 15:5; 21:9) all establish the

idea of chambers and treasures of the souls. Metzger records that a number of resemblances in

thought and diction with the New Testament occur in the Ezra Apocalypse (chs.3-14).60 As in

Lk. 16:27-31, in 4 Ezra 7:75-101, a similar description of the intermediate state of the dead is

described. He envisions the souls of the dead having liberty for seven days at which point the

59 Ibid., 166. 60 Metzger, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 522.

Davis 32

righteous ones rest in quietness, with excitement to receive rewards while the wicked dead find

no rest after the seven days but continued to room in tormented circles. The belief in eternal

punishment prior to the day of judgement began to establish even more in Jewish apocalypse.

Josephus also testified of how the Pharisees believed the souls have an immortal rigor in them,

and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments, according as they have lived

virtuously or viciously in this life; and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison.61

Later in the Apocalypse of Zephaniah 2:8 (cf. I Enoch 21-25), the second vision narrates

the same motif of wicked souls in torment while the righteous in paradise awaits judgment. Here,

paradise for the first time in Apoc. Zeph. is defined as the “dwelling of the righteous in Hades”

as in the other apocrypha books. Decades after the writing of the Apoc. Zeph., the author of the

Testimony of Abraham refers to the same notion of paradise in Hades.

“Take then my friend Abraham into Paradise, where there are the tents of my righteous ones and (where) the mansions of my holy ones, Isaac and Jacob, are in is bosom, and where there is no toil, no grief, no moaning, but peace and exultation and endless life” (T. Ab. A 20:14).

In Luke 16:19-31, Jesus tells the story of Lazarus and the rich man in Hades. The rich man lifted

up his head in flames and torment and saw Lazarus in Abraham’s bosom. Both Lazarus and the

rich man are in Hades but appear to be in different compartments. This story reflects a popular

conception of the afterlife and also implies a punishment preceding the final judgment as in I En.

108: 14-15; 4 Ezra 7:36-38. In the final development, references to Hades were exclusively used

as a place of punishment for the wicked.

The Belief in the Resurrection

The author of Ecclesiastes writes that there is “a time to give birth and a time to die”

(3:2a). As we can see, there is no time given to the afterlife; death seems to be the ultimate end

61 See “Descent of the Underworld” in the Anchor Dictionary. For Bibliography.

Davis 33

here. This line of thought is the kind of general consensus portrayed in the OT. However,

because God is said to be all-powerful, the concept of the resurrection was only a “divine

potential”, something He has the power to do (Deut. 32:39; I Sam. 2:6). And since there were no

instances of God raising anyone back to life, resurrection was simply a straightforward

theological concept. Later, in Kings 17, the prophet Elijah prays over the widow’s son and the

dead boy came back to life. As one will have expected, resurrection should have now been seem

as an actuality rather than a potentiality. But the common view was still the same. James A.

Montgomery suggested that “one reason this story may not have affected the common view of

the resurrection is that death in the ancient world was ‘not certain until after a certain day.’”62

And since the boy’s resurrection happened on the same day of his death, this would suggest why

the resurrection was not the central focus of the story. A similar incident will occur with Elisha

in 2Kgs. 4, but it will this will not cause any change in resurrection being viewed as a divine

potential. Christopher M. Moreman also affirmed similar notion that the soul was thought to

hover about the body for a few days before departing to await the resurrection.63

Next, in the idea of resurrection became a metaphor used for national restoration (Hosea

6:1-2). The prophet Hosea speaks of judgement (1:4; 3:4), and exile (5:14; 13:9), but promises

that God will raise (restore) up Israel. This same idea is also seem in Ezekiel 37 where Israel is

depicted as the dry bones. The first glimpse of individual resurrection is when the prophet Isaiah

said “Your dead will live; their corpses will rise. You who lie in the dust, awake and shout for

62 Johnson, Shades of Sheol, 220. Cf. In I Enoch 21 & 27 the soul is said to room around the body of the dead for ‘three days (72 hours)’ attempting to re-enter it. And after this time, the soul departs especially when it sees the changes in the facial appearance of the dead body. At this point all hope is lost by the family members. This belief is evident in the story of Lazarus’ resurrection in John 11:8-45. Martha was convinced that her brother had died because days had passed after Jesus finally shows up. For her, it was too late, Lazarus’ soul had gone. “He will rise again in the resurrection on the last day”, she said.

63 Christopher M. Moreman, Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions (Maryland: Littlefield Publishers, 2008), 42.

Davis 34

joy, for your dew is as the dew of the dawn, and the earth will give birth to the departed spirits”

(Is. 26:19). It is not too clear even among scholars whether this passage emphasizes individual

resurrection or national restoration. Contextually, the passage is about national revival and

restoration but it also addresses the individuals, that is, “the shades of the dead’ in verses 14 and

19. Only in Daniel 12: 2, the passage is clear on personal resurrection and even the duration after

resurrection for both groups: those of everlasting life and those of everlasting shame and

damnation. For Dan. 12:2 reads “Many of those who sleep in the dust of the ground will awake,

these to everlasting life, but the others to disgrace and everlasting contempt.” Although the

passage focuses on Daniel’s people, the Jews, but the emphasis here is on two things: 1. Bodily

resurrection at the time of the end. This is not the misguided view of resurrection as the spirit of

the person being alive after death. 2. The duration for life and damnation is everlasting (no end)

for both the righteous and the wicked. The passage is clear on personal resurrection, but this

along is not enough to establish a concrete understanding of the afterlife.

Some scholars have speculated that the idea of bodily resurrection was imported from the

Zoroastrians in Persia when the Jews were exiled in Babylon (587-539BCE).64 But from the

second century on, the intertestamental literature (Apocrypha & the Pseudepigrapha) became the

catalyst that will expand on the concept of the resurrection. It is obvious in In 2 Macc. 7: 9 “You,

you fiend are making us depart from this present life, but the King of the universe will resurrect

us, who die for the sake of His laws, to a new eternal life.” Later in verse 14, the oppressive

ruler, Antiochus Epiphanes is said to have no resurrection to life, but resurrection to death.

Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are promised resurrection (T. Judah25:1). The author in the Testament

of the Twelve (Zebulon) encourages his children not to grieve of his death because he will see

them again in the resurrection (10:1-2). In the Psalms of Solomon 3:16, the resurrection is

64 Nichols, Death and the Afterlife, 25.

Davis 35

depicted as a “future hope”. This hope will lead to the belief that God will not forsake his

righteous ones in Sheol, but will raise them from the dead. Unlike in Dan. 12:2 where only the

Jews is in view, universal resurrection is promise where the wicked will go to disgrace and the

righteous to glory (T. Benjamin 10:6-8). Furthermore, this idea is implied in I Enoch 22:13 &

90:33 but it is very explicit in later Similitudes 51:1; 61:5; 62:15. Johnson also noted that in late

first century CE resurrection occurs in the Apocalypses of Baruch (42:8; 50:2; 51:3) and 2 Esdras

(7:32, 97).65 Christopher M. Moreman also added that “the Dead Sea Scrolls list resurrection

among the power of God, and broaden the scope of resurrection to include all of mankind

regardless of deed or faith.”66 Again, let us keep in mind that these writings reflect rabbinical

thinking and as such, they speak of a bodily resurrection and not the Greek thought of just the

survival of the soul but not the body.

By the time of the NT, the belief in the resurrection was common among many Jews

(Acts 23:8) who affirm it and the pagans who denied it. Like the pagans, the Sadducees denied

the resurrection (Mk. 12:8; Acts 23:8) primarily because it was not mentioned in the Torah.

Another reason was that the belief in some sort of future life after death motivated revolts against

authority and encourage martyrdom. This became a threat to the Sadducees since they had

authority in the government hierarchy. On the other hand, the Pharisee believed in the

resurrection and it later became a wide spread view among the Jews. It was ingrained in the

Jewish culture in so much that Moreman explains how “there were many who believe that at the

time of the resurrection, the individual would be raised in the same clothes they had been buried

in, encouraging many to bury their love ones in the best of clothes available.”67 Belief in the

resurrection made it impossible for the Jews to cremate their dead since it was thought as a

65 Johnson, Shades of Sheol, 229. 66 Moreman, Beyond the Threshold, 41.67 Ibid., 42.

Davis 36

hindrance to the resurrection. This would later develop into the extreme ritual care of the body of

the dead and the practice of a secondary burial (also called ossilegium). The secondary burial

was the preservation of the bones of the deceased in ossuaries. One of the leading NT scholars,

N. T. Wright explains:

Likewise, any Jew who believed in resurrection, from Daniel to the Pharisees and beyond, naturally also believed in an intermediate state in which some kind of personal identity was guarantee between physical death and the physical re-embodiment of resurrection…Unless we are to suppose that “resurrection” denoted some kind of newly embodied into which one went immediately upon death- and there is no evidence that any Jews of this period believed in such a thing –it is clear that some kind of ongoing existence is assumed.68

As we have seem, by the time of Jesus the belief in the resurrection was a popular concept and it

had also entail that the dead continue in their existence in an intermediate in the afterlife awaiting

the day of Judgement. The theme of judgment which the intertestamental literature envisioned as

the day of punishment for the wicked will now become the very motif of Jesus’ teaching on the

afterlife. Some scholars have proposed a few suggestions why Jesus taught in like manner as the

apocalyptists. Some argued that he only used the apocalyptic imagery of an unquenchable fire in

hell, pain, and torture in the afterlife to communicate to his audience because this was the general

view of the afterlife. Others have said that he did so to simply warn of the severity of life without

God, but there is no such place as hell fire that is preserved for the wicked. In the next session

we will attempt to address whether Jesus ‘description of hell (Mt. 25: 31-46; 13:47-50) was to

aid him communicate effectively to his Jewish audience, or was it an endorsement of what was

already accepted about hell as a literal place of eternal punishment for the wicked?

68 N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003), 164.

Davis 37

Part III: Is Hell Real? The Case for Eternal PunishmentSynopsis of the Four Dominant Views of Hell

Before we attempt to answer the question “Is hell real?” it is important to recap on the

four dominants views of hell. The first is the Literal view which is usually referred to as the

Traditional view because it has been held for over two thousand years dating from the early

church period to the 21st century. Simply put, it states that those who spurn God’s salvation are

held forever in continuous conscious torment. St. Augustine, Martin Luther, John Calvin and

more prominent church fathers have preached this view. However, critics of this view will ask

“how can God tell us to forgive our enemy when he is intending to punish his enemies for all

eternity?” The second view is nonliteral, and it is best known as the Metaphorical view. It argues

that the biblical accounts on the imageries of hell (fire, pain, smoke, darkness) are not to be taken

literally. These imageries were used to only emphasize the severity of hell since no one can

describe the nature of hell’s punishment. The writers of the NT were not concern so much with

the exact nature of hell as they were with the seriousness of the coming judgment. 69 The third is

the Purgatory view. It is basically a Roman Catholic doctrine. Purgatory is simply a disciplinary

action by God. His intend is to send the unsaved to hell in order to teach them a lesson. In the

end, their suffering through the fire will become the purification process leading them to their

redemption. The fourth view is annihilation. It is sometimes called conditional immortality. As

the names suggests, it states that in the end God will wipeout or totally destroyed the wicked. In

order words, they will finally cease to exist. Besides, it is interesting to note that N.T wright has

his own view on hell. He combines parts of the literal and conditional immortality views and

states:

“My suggestion is that it is possible for human beings so to continue down this road, so to refuse all whispering of good news, all glimmers of the true light, all promptings to turn 69 William Crockett, Four Views on Hell, 29.

Davis 38

and go the other way, all signposts to the love of God, that after death they become at last, by their own effective choice, beings that once were human but now are not, creatures that have cease to bear the divine image at all. With the death of that body in which they inhabited God’s good world, in which the flickering flame of goodness had not been completely snuffed out, they pass simultaneously not only beyond hope but beyond pity. There is no concentration camp in the beautiful countryside, no torture chamber in the palace of delight. Those creatures that still exist in an ex-human state, no longer reflecting their maker in any meaningful sense, can no longer excite in themselves or others the natural sympathy some feel even for the hardened criminal.”70

N.T Wright is a well-respected N. T scholar and a person I admire greatly. But his speculation

raises more questions than it solves. What is really an ex-human? And where (on earth, heaven,

hell or the universe) will those ex-humans exist? And if they do, for how long is their existence?

None of these things are clear in his suggestion and he offers no specific biblical grounds for

them. Well, rather than evaluating speculation, we should now examine what the Bible teaches

about hell beginning with Jesus’ own words.

What Jesus Actually Said about Hell

Jesus offered the strongest teaching on the doctrine of endless punishment. But as Francis

Chan and P. Sprinkle said “We need to enter Jesus’ world if we are going to figure out what He

meant when he spoke of hell.”71 Jesus grew up as a first century Jew who practiced Jewish laws

and customs. And with that, he also reinterpreted some Jewish beliefs (particularly the Law of

Moses) that were widely misunderstood and practiced by the Jews; mostly the Pharisees. He

corrected Jewish beliefs on the Sabbath (Mk. 3:1-6), on divorce (Mt. 5:32; 19:2), and on

forgiveness (Mt. 18:21-22). And usually when he does this, he will always say “You once heard

it said, but I say to you today” (Mt. 5:17-48). In order words, he meant “this is what you heard

and knew it to be, but this is now the truth of the matter.” Many of the issues Jesus reinterpreted

70 N. T. Wright, Surprised by Hope, 182-83. 71 Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle, Erasing Hell: What God says about eternity and the things

we’ve made up (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook Publisher, 2011), 49.

Davis 39

were wide spread beliefs among the Jews and especially the religious Jewish leaders. Similarly,

hell was a wide spread belief among the Jews and it was taught to be the following. First, hell is

real place of punishment after Judgment (4 Ezra 7:32-36; 7:38, 80, 82; I En. 22:10-13). Second,

hell is described in images of fire, darkness and continuous conscious torment (2 Bar. 44:15; 2

En. 10:1, 3; 40:13; 1 En. 53:3; 56:1; 62:11; 63:1; 63:1-7; 4 Macc. 12:12; T. Zeb. 10:3; I En.

100:9; L.A.B 23:6; 2 En. 10:2). Third, some Jews believe that Hell is a place of annihilation

(L.A.B 16:3; Wis. 4:14-15; 1QS 4:11-14; I En. 91:9-14).

We should bear in mind that Jesus devoted much of his teachings refuting the Pharisees’

misunderstanding of scriptures. And knowing this to be the case, if the belief of hell as a place of

literal punishment was inaccurate, Jesus would have corrected it (as he did many times with

them) or in fact, distance himself from it. But he did not, instead, he affirmed it.

Matthew 25:31-46

This is the longest and most detailed eschatological discourse on the final judgement.

"But when the Son of Man comes in His glory, and all the angels with Him, then He will sit on His glorious throne. All the nations will be gathered before Him; and He will separate them from one another, as the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats; and He will put the sheep on His right, and the goats on the left.” (vv. 31-32)

The passage deals with three issues in the end. First, it paints a picture of a court scene where the

Son of Man (Jesus) returns as the judge to judge all of humanity. Second, Jesus separates the

sleep (believers) from the goats (unbelievers) and as a King declares the verdict based upon the

evident (their attitudes of compassion) to the least of his brothers (vv.35-40). Third, Jesus

welcomed and sent out individuals to two ultimate destines: the kingdom of God and eternal

punishment. The eternal destiny of the believers is everlasting life and for the unbelievers,

everlasting punishment. Francis and Preston noted that “though the word hell (gehenna) is not

used here, the concept of hell is conveyed by the phrases “everlasting fire” (v. 41) and

Davis 40

“everlasting punishment” (v.46).72 Contrary to Rob Bell who said that “hell is not about

‘someday’, ‘somewhere else’ but about the various ‘hell on earth’ that people experience in this

life__genocide, rape, and unjust socioeconomic structures,73 the passage certainly speaks of

someday there will be judgment and somewhere in “everlasting fire and everlasting punishment

unbelievers will spend their destiny. Some scholars contend that this passage is a parable because

it contains some metaphorical elements as in 25:32b-3374 and it concludes a series of three crisis

parables.75 However, unlike other parables, this passage is clearly a prose narrative and those

metaphors do not continuously flow throughout the passage.

Besides, Universalists and some critics will say “what sort of God would create such a

place like hell fire for the very humans he created in his own image?” First, it is clear that the

eternal fire was prepared for the devil and his angels and not for humans (V. 41).

Notwithstanding, those who pledge their allegiance to the devil must share with him the same

fate. Second, according to the context, individuals are sent to their separate destinies based upon

their personal conduct and not the choice of Jesus. Even more, this passage contrasts eternal

punishment with eternal life (just as in Dan. 12:2). The phrase “eternal punishment” (the Greek

word is aionios kolasis) has caused several debates among scholars. “Aionios is used in the NT

sixty six times: fifty-one times of the happiness of the righteous, two times of the duration of

God in his glory, six other times where there is no doubt as to its meaning and seven times of the

punishment of the wicked.”76 Fudge takes on the adjective eternal (aionios) and this is what he

had to say. “The adjective eternal (aionion) in 25:41 has both qualitative (pertaining to the age to

72 Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle, Erasing Hell, 75.73 Rob Bell, Love Wins: A Book About Heaven, Hell, and the Fate of Every Person Who ever

Lived (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2011), 81. 74 David L. Turner, Matthew: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Michigan:

Baker Academic, 2008), 604. 75 Fudge, The Fire that Consumes, 135.76 William Crockett, Four Views on Hell, 23-24.

Davis 41

come) and quantitative (unending in time) meaning.”77 But when it comes to the “eternal

punishment” for the wicked in 25:46, Fudge states that it means the condemnation of shame and

everlasting contempt as in comparison to Dan. 12:2.78Drawing from Dan. 12:2 he concludes that

eternal punishment in Matt. 25:46 is annihilation (total destruction).

Fudge’s interpretation raises a suspicion and here is why. First, if Fudge agrees that the

eternal fire in 25:41 that is prepared for the devil and his angels is unending, how can the eternal

punishment in 25:46 of the wicked not be unending when they are cast into the same eternal fire

as the devil and his allies? Verse 46 reads “These will go away into eternal punishment, but the

righteous into eternal life." Why would Jesus threaten using a parallelism of infinite happiness of

the believers (sheep on the right) and not mean the same infinite punishment to unbelievers

(goats on the left hand)? Contextually, when we ask who the “these” in this verse are? The

passage tells us that they are the cursed ones who Jesus said “Depart from Me, accursed ones,

into the eternal fire which has been prepared for the devil and his angels; for I was hungry, and

you gave me nothing to eat; I was thirsty, and you gave me nothing to drink (vv. 41-42). Jesus

repeats the punishment of the wicked twice in v. 41 and then in v. 46 to leave an imprint on the

minds of his hearers the unending conscious torment of the wicked. Robert A. Peterson shares

the same perspective on this passage when he said “above all it points to verse 46, where the

order of the sleep/goat is reversed. This reversal arrests the hearers’ attention. Jesus’ words of

eternal punishment and eternal life are left ringing in their ears.79 Augustine of Hippo, the

preeminent North African scholar and father of early church also commented on Matt. 25:46 and

contends:

77 Ibid., 137. 78 Ibid., 138-39. 79 Edward W. Fudge and Robert A. Peterson, Two Views of Hell: A Biblical and Theological

Dialogue (Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 2000), 141.

Davis 42

“If both are ‘eternal’, it follows necessarily that either both are to be taken as long-lasting but finite, or both as endless and perpetual. The phrases ‘eternal punishment’ and ‘eternal life’ are parallel and it would be absurd to use them in one and the same sentence to mean: Eternal life will be infinite, while eternal punishment will have an end. Hence because eternal life of the saints will be endless, the eternal punishment also, for those condemned to it will assuredly have no end.”80

Second, although Dan. 12:2 gives a little glimpse about the afterlife, and such idea of the

afterlife is limited. It will later take centuries up to the intertestamental period and Jesus’ time for

the idea of afterlife (as in Dan. 12:2) to be developed. Moreover, the context in Dan. 12:2 speaks

the judgement of the Jewish people and not a universal judgement as in Matt. 25:31-46. As a

result, it is makes Fudge’s assertion incorrect. Not only this but some Universalists will say the

phrase “eternal punishment” (Greek is aionios kolasis) in Matt. 25:46 can mean “a period of

pruning” or “a time of trimming”, or “an intense experience of correction”.81 With this thought in

mind, Rob Bell added that “Jesus is not talking about an everlasting punishment for the wicked

here, but rather a time of correction so that those enduring punishment will ultimately be saved.

During this time, there may be endless opportunities in an endless amount of time for people to

say yes to God.”82 This claim is similar to purgatory (in terms of hell as purification) except that

all is saved in the end whereas all is not saved with the purgatory view. This is even worse than

those who teach annihilation. If we say that eternal punishment for the wicked (v. 46) means “a

period of correction,” we should also be willing to say the same for the devil and his angels.

Since both the devil, his angels and the wicked all share the same fate (v. 41), this would mean

that even Satan will have some time to reflect and say yes to God. As we can see, this makes no

sense. In the end, W. R. Inge states that “no sound Greek scholar can pretend that aionios means

anything less than eternal.”83

80Robert A. Peterson, Hell on Trial: The Case for Eternal Punishment (New Jersey: P & R Publishing Co., 1995), 107.

81 Rob Bell, Love Wins, 91. 82 Ibid., 106-107. 83 W. R. Inge, What is Hell? (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930), 6.

Davis 43

Next, Jesus described hell as a place of fire. This was a wide spread description of hell

among the Jews during his time. In Matt. 13:30 Jesus speaks about the parable of the tares and

the wheat. “Allow both to grow together until the harvest; and in the time of the harvest I will

say to the reapers, "First gather up the tares and bind them in bundles to burn them up; but gather

the wheat into my barn”(v.30). Later, explaining what this meant he said:

“So just as the tares are gathered up and burned with fire, so shall it be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will send forth His angels, and they will gather out of His kingdom all stumbling blocks, and those who commit lawlessness, and will throw them into the furnace of fire; in that place there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Then the righteous will shine forth as the sun in the kingdom of their Father. He, who has ears, let him hear” (vv.40-43; 49-50).

This time Jesus even used a stronger description (the furnace of fire)84 to convey the idea of hell.

He describes hell as a place where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth. Here is another

passage that deals with the end of the age where the angels separate the devil’s people from those

of the kingdom. The pain of the judgement is clearly described as the furnace of fire, weeping

and gnashing of teeth. Both of these allusions show how Jesus’ parabolic imagery and teaching

content are rooted in biblical apocalyptic.85 Jesus imagery of hell is the same as his Jewish

contemporaries. Again, there lies a contrast of opposite destinies between two groups: the

lawless ones versus the righteous. Many passages we see the description of fire is used. In Mt.

18:8-9 Jesus warns that “It is better for you to enter life with one eye, than to have two eyes and

be cast into the fiery hell.” Mt. 5: 22 he warns fools of the danger of the fire of hell. Later, in

verse 29 he states that better to lose an eye than to be thrown in gehenna. The next verse reads

that it is better to lose a hand than to be thrown in gehenna (5:30). Still speaking of hell, Jesus

warns “Do not fear those who kill the body but are unable to kill the soul; but rather fear Him

who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell” (Mt. 10:28). At some point he asked the

84 Cf. Matt. 3:12; 5:22; 18:8-9; Dan. 3:6; 4 Ezra 7:36 85David L. Turner, Matthew, 351.

Davis 44

Jewish religious leaders “You serpents, you brood of vipers, how will you escape the sentence of

hell?” (Mt. 23:33). The similar thought of hell is expressed by other synoptic writers (Mk. 9:43,

45, 47; Lk. 12:5).

Those who believe in the metaphorical view of hell contend that the description of fire in

hell is not meant to be taken literally. In respond to John Walvoord, William Crockett asserts that

the NT writers were not concerned so much with the exact nature of hell as they were with the

seriousness of the coming judgement.”86 He continues that “physical fire works on physical

bodies with nerve endings, not on spirit beings. We see in Mt. 25:41 that the eternal fire was

created for spirit beings like the devil and his angels.”87 First of all, the description of fire does

not explain the exact nature of hell. The literal view of hell does not claim that all about hell is

fire. But that base upon biblical grounds we know that there is some special kind of fire (eternal

fire) in hell. It is possible that there are other aspects of hell that the scriptures chose to be

silence. An example Jude calls hell the “blackest darkness” (Jude 13). But this description was

only mentioned once. What is clear is the imagery of fire in hell is frequently used. The Bible

does not define the exact nature of hell just as it did with heaven. For example in 1 Cor. 2:9 the

Apostle speaking of the new heaven (which he calls the age of our glory), alluded from Isa. 64:4;

65:17 that “No eye has seen, no ear has heard, and no mind has imagined what God has prepared

for those who love him." This passage speaks of the fullness of God’s rewards for the faithful in

the afterlife or heaven. But later in Revelation we see that one of the rewards in the afterlife that

Jesus mentioned through the angel is the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). So, at least we know in part a

glimpse of what to expect. The same is true of hell. Concerning hell, we only know in part that

86 William Crockett, Four Views on Hell, 29. 87 Ibid., 30.

Davis 45

there is a literal fire (Mt. 5:22; 18:8-9; 25:41; Mk. 9:43, 48; Lk. 16:24; Jude 7; James 3:6; Rev.

20:14-15) awaiting the wicked.

Second, although it is true that the eternal fire was created for spirit beings like the devil

and his angels (v. 41) the un-repented sinners were still cast into the eternal fire with the devil

and his angles. Crockett fails to realize that the eternal fire is God’s special kind of fire that

torments the bodies of the sinners who will also have resurrected bodies during the final

judgment. Besides, Jesus’s audience did not believe in the metaphorical view of hell. To the first

century Jews, hell was a literal place of punishment with literal fire (2 Bar. 44:15; 2 En. 10:1, 3;

40:13; 1 En. 53:3; 56:1; 62:11; 63:1; 63:1-7; 4 Macc. 12:12; T. Zeb. 10:3; I En. 100:9; L.A.B

23:6; 2 En. 10:2).88 Now, since the intertestamental evidences show that this is true, how could

Jesus’ teachings on the fire of hell be metaphorically when his audience understood it as a literal

fire? We know that this is not the case because if it were, Jesus would have confused his

audience. Third, there is a consistent use of fire with connection to hell. For example, let’s

examine this passage:

Luke 16:19-31

"Now there was a rich man, and he habitually dressed in purple and fine linen, joyously living in splendor every day. And a poor man named Lazarus was laid at his gate, covered with sores, and longing to be fed with the crumbs which were falling from the rich man's table; besides, even the dogs were coming and licking his sores. Now the poor man died and was carried away by the angels to Abraham's bosom; and the rich man also died and was buried. In Hades he lifted up his eyes, being in torment, and *saw Abraham far away and Lazarus in his bosom. And he cried out and said, 'Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus so that he may dip the tip of his finger in water and cool off my tongue, for I am in agony in this flame.' But Abraham said, 'Child, remember that during your life you received your good things, and likewise Lazarus bad things; but now he is being comforted here, and you are in agony. And besides all this, between us and you there is a great chasm fixed, so that those who wish to come over from here to you will not be able, and that none may cross over from there to us. And he said, 'Then I beg

88 Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle, Erasing Hell, 50.

Davis 46

you, father, that you send him to my father's house for I have five brothers—in order that he may warn them, so that they will not also come to this place of torment. But Abraham said, 'They have Moses and the Prophets; let them hear them.' "But he said, 'No, father Abraham, but if someone goes to them from the dead, they will repent! "But he said to him, 'If they do not listen to Moses and the Prophets, they will not be persuaded even if someone rises from the dead.'"

Unlike other passages that address the final judgment, this passage speaks of the inter-

mediate state of an unsaved person when he/she dies. However, there are still issues in it that are

critical aids for our understanding of a literal fire in hell. To imply something else other than the

literal elements of the punishment in this story, some scholars will argue that this passage is a

parable and not a story. Simply because parables are symbolic ideas expressing one main truth

and their details should not be press for literal meaning. Therefore, their two strongest reasons in

favor of a parable are the following: 1. There are details in the account which do not seem to

conform to other Scriptural teachings concerning the life after death 2. The way in which the

story is introduced “there was a [certain_ tis in Greek] rich man….”89 This account proves to be a

story and not a parable and here is why. Unlike many of Jesus parables, this story is the only

narrative where an explicit name (Lazarus) is mentioned. Robert H. Stein noted that “No other

parable gives a character a specific name!”90 And even on the flip side, Stein stresses that “Jesus’

parables are not fables! They always portray real-life situations even when they contain unusual

features.”91 What we can learn from this account is even in hades (and not just gehenna); the

unsaved experience some sort of physical torment which in this story is flames of fire.

So far, we can see Jesus did not just use the description of fire in hell because it was the

common wide view among Jews. He could care less about what was common or widespread. We

saw how he spoke differently against certain wrong wide spread beliefs like divorce, forgiveness,

89Robert H. Stein, Difficult Passages in the Gospels (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1984), 90. 90 Ibid., 89. 91 Ibid., 92.

Davis 47

the Sabbath and many more. In fact, he even corrected those beliefs. Jesus is the very

embodiment of God himself and when he spoke of the fire of hell he affirmed what was already

believed to be literal. He knew that eternal fire of hell is real and it is of a special kind, the God

kind. Therefore, he believed and taught the literal view of hell just like his contemporaries.

Jesus’ teachings alone should be enough to settle any theological dispute on hell, but for some,

they will need more evidence. With this being the case, the next section will explore the view of

hell taught by his apostles.

What did the Apostles teach concerning Hell?

Did Jesus apostles believe and teach about hell? The answer is yes! Church historians

revealed that it was often the case in ancient times for disciples to teach and reflect the values of

their master. Although not in depth as Jesus taught, but his followers did teach of hell. Some

scholars contend that Paul must not have believed in hell since he never mentioned the word

“hell” in all his letters. But like Jesus in Matthew 25:41, 46, he talked about the concept of hell

when he used terms like God’s wrath, death as the result of sin, the wicked will perish, or be

destroyed by the wrath of God. We like to think of Paul as a preacher of grace and not

judgement, but Francis and Preston pointed out that “Paul made reference to the fate of the

wicked more times in his letters than he mentioned God’s forgiveness, mercy or heaven

combined.92

Acts 17:22-34

Paul gave a strange sermon in this passage where he warns the gentiles (those with no

knowledge God and the OT) of God’s coming judgement upon them if they did not repent. Being

pagans, some may have thought that “well, we will all be dead before the God of Israel comes to

92 Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle, Erasing Hell, 98.

Davis 48

judge us.” Paul tells them that God will go to the extent of giving them resurrected bodies in

order to judge them (vv. 30-31). In Romans 2:5 Paul again warns “because of your stubbornness

and unrepentant heart you are storing up wrath for yourself in the day of wrath and revelation of

the righteous judgment of God. He introduces the revelation of God’s wrath, right after he spoke

of God’s saving righteousness in Rom. 1:16-17. Like Jesus, he warns of the Day of Judgment is

coming and sin will be exposed and punished. This day of judgment where God’s wrath will be

revealed is directly against all the wickedness and godlessness of men (Rom. 1:18). Prior to

salvation he explains how we were all by nature subject to God’s wrath (Eph.2:3), but he assures

the believers that through Jesus’ death and resurrection they will be rescued from the coming

wrath (Rom. 5:9).

God’s Retribution: 2 Thess. 1:5-10

This is a plain indication of God's righteous judgment so that you will be considered worthy of the kingdom of God, for which indeed you are suffering. For after all it is only just for God to repay with affliction those who afflict you, and to give relief to you who are afflicted and to us as well when the Lord Jesus will be revealed from heaven with His mighty angels in flaming fire, dealing out retribution to those who do not know God and to those who do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus. These will pay the penalty of eternal destruction, away from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of His power, when He comes to be glorified in His saints on that day, and to be marveled at among all who have believed for our testimony to you was believed.

Paul encourages the Thessalonian believers that the wicked that were prosecuting them will face

God’s retributive wrath. It is important to note that his wrath here is not corrective but

retributive. He also makes it clear that those who do not obey the gospel of Jesus (that includes

all people) will pay a penalty of eternal destruction. It is easy to conclude that the expression

“destruction” considered by itself could mean annihilation. In this setting, destruction is does not

stand by itself since it is qualify by the adjective eternal. Robert A. Peterson stated that this

eternal destruction indicates that it will not end. 93 Furthermore, if annihilation was imply here, it 93 Edward W. Fudge and Robert A. Peterson, Two Views of Hell, 150.

Davis 49

would just read “destruction”, but this is not the case. We see that God’s enemies (those who do

not obey the gospel) are said to be separated from the presence of the Lord and of his power.

However, in order for them to pay the penalty of eternal destruction away from the Lord, they

must be alive and therefore they cannot be extinct. Another interesting point is the phrase “away

from the presence of the Lord” does not mean the omnipresence of God which supporters of

annihilation claim the text implies. The context clearly speaks of God’s presence on that day (v.

10) of his final judgment and not his universal presence. Apart from those of Paul, other NT

authors warn of the danger of eternal punishment. Peter begins to warn false teachers of

Judgement and hell (2 Peter 2: 1, 4), punishment (v. 9), and concludes that retributive suffering

that awaits the unsaved (v.13). Jude picks up similar motif of intertestamental language and

warns of the “punishment of eternal fire” (Jude 7, 23). 2 Peter and Jude speak strongly on wrath

and the day of God’s judgment. They both paint horrifying pictures of hell and affirm the same

punishment that awaits the unsaved. But as we will see, none of those descriptions of hell can

match what the book of revelation entails.

Revelation 14: 9-11

Then another angel, a third one, followed them, saying with a loud voice, "If anyone worships the beast and his image, and receives a mark on his forehead or on his hand, he also will drink of the wine of the wrath of God, which is mixed in full strength in the cup of His anger; and he will be tormented with fire and brimstone in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb.” And the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever; they have no rest day and night, those who worship the beast and his image, and whoever receives the mark of his name."

Before exploring this text, we should bear in mind two things: 1. The book of Revelation

belongs to apocalyptic class of literature and 2. The revelation it contains is not of the apostle

John, but it is the Revelation of Jesus Christ given to John. Speaking here of the final judgment

(that Jesus and the apostles warned about) this is the first passage in Revelation that gives a

Davis 50

terrifying image of God’s wrath. The inherent sinful nature of the human mind makes it

impossible to fathom the idea of being tormented with fire and burning sulfur ….forever and

ever. Let’s be clear that this terrifying place described here is not a warning to the devils and his

angels. Robert H. Mounce states “this fierce warning is directed both to the pagan population (cf.

v. 6) and to those within the Christian community tempted to deny their faith in view of coming

persecution.”94 Unlike in his previous book (the Gospel of John), in Revelation he is not about

God-loves–you-and-has-a-wonderful-plan-for-your-life, but he is warning of God’s wrath,

burning sulfur and fire. This imagery of fire and sulfur is taken from the story of Sodom and

Gomorrah (Gen. 19:28). It was an event that literally took place involving fire and sulfur.

However, Mounce cautions us that although these imageries of fire and sulfur in Revelation are

apocalyptic symbols, they should not lead us to take it lightly. They are intended to startle the

readers into the realization of eternal consequences.95 John, who wrote more about God’s love

than any of the gospel’s writers, is not trying to resolve the tension between God’s love and

punishment. For the Universalists who claim in the end love wins, and everyone is saved, we see

that this is not the case. John presents the literal view of hell that people will be tormented with

fire (and not destroyed), forever and ever. The smoke of their torment never ceases, but goes up

forever and ever. Mounce agrees that “the punishment of the damned is not a temporary

measure. The smoke of their torment rises forever and ever.”96 Francis and Preston added that

John drives home the point with the phrase “they have no rest, day or night.” This phrase

strongly supports the idea of unending conscious torment and not any of the other views. Other

passages like Rev. 20:10, 12-15; 21:8 all support the idea that hell is a literal place of eternal

94 Robert H. Mounce, The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Book of Revelation (Revised ed. Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1998), 272.

95 Ibid., 273. 96 Ibid., 274.

Davis 51

conscious torment. The last chapter of the book of (22:14) contrasts two destinies: the

blessedness of the faithful and the fate of the unbelievers. By this point (vv.14-15), the redeemed

are already in fellowship with the father in the new city while at the same time, outside the city

are evil doers experiencing eternal torment in the lake of fire. Jesus ends his revelation to John

impressing upon his readers that there will be those (the one who have denied him) tormented

forever and ever outside of the city, the dwelling of God.

Conclusion

Dealing with passages on hell, the afterlife and the final destinies of humanity is such a

heart-wrenching process. The concept of hell, as we now know to be a real place underwent

many years of development. It started out Sheol, the underworld- the abode of the dead in the

OT. This was a place where the departed spirits of the dead congregated in shades. Later, during

the intertestamental period, the idea of compartments and punishment in Sheol developed. The

righteous are said to be in a chamber or paradise while the wicked are in torment and still awaits

their final judgment. The term Sheol, was translated as Hades (the Greek equivalent), and then as

Hell by the KJV translators. The Bible teaches the literal view hell. We should not treat the

concept of hell simply as a view, a doctrine, or an academic exercise. Hell is about a destiny.

This destiny that is described in the Scriptures is not a correction faculty, nor is it a temporary

holding where an individual undergoes a period of purification. Hell is real and it is a fixed

destiny where unbelievers will be tormented without end. This may sound harsh, and even

offensive, to some modern hearers, but it is part of the gospel (good news). We saw how Jesus

him himself deliberately spent a great deal of teaching on hell as a literal place of everlasting

punishment. He affirmed what was already depicted in the Jewish apocalyptic literatures. He

endorsed the literal view of hell that was believed by many of the Jews. His descriptions of hell

Davis 52

as a place of fire, suffering, pain, eternal punishment, everlasting destruction, and lamentation,

are all very terrifying and strong expressions. It is our duty to accept and teach what Jesus taught

rather than trying to figure out his justice to see if it is morally right. The NT is filled with the

eternal consequences of willingly rejecting the love of God. The Apostle Paul warns of God’s

fierce wrath. He warns the sinners in Acts, and Romans of the Day of Judgment when God will

severely punish the wicked. Other NT authors warn of the peril of hell fire. The books of Peter

and Jude gave even stronger warning of everlasting torment. And by God’s chronological design,

the last chapter of Revelation impresses upon our ears that there will be those (the unbelievers)

that will spend the rest of eternity with no rest, tormented day and night forever and ever. During

my entire time of writing this paper I had to re-examine my own life and rise up to the need of

evangelism.

Davis 53

Bibliography

Freedman, David Noel., ed. The Anchor Bible Dictionary 3 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Gesenius, H.F.W., Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979.

Longman, Temper III., and David E. Garland, eds. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary vol. 6. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008.

McKenzie, John L. Second Isaiah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New York: Garden City, 1968.

Motyer, Alec J. The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction & Commentary. Illinois: Downers Grove, 1993.

Oswalt, John N. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Isaiah Chapters 40-66. Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1986.

VanGemeren, Willem A., ed. New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997.

Watts, John D.W. Word Biblical Commentary: Isaiah 34-66. Edited by David A. Hubbard, Glen W. Baker, John D. W. Watts and Ralph P. Martin. Texas: Waco 1987.

Fudge, Edward W. The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment, 3d ed.; Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011.

Nichols, Terrence. Death And Afterlife: A Theological Introduction, Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2010.

Wright, N.T. Surprise By Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church, New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2008.

Peterson, Robert A. Hell on Trial: The Case for Eternal Punishment, New Jersey: Phillipsburg, 1995.

Crockett William, ed., Four Views on Hell, Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1996.

Davis 54

Bernstein Alan E. The Formation of Hell: Death and Retribution in the Ancient and Early Christian Worlds, New York: Cornell University Press, 1993.

Carmichael, Calum M. "Laws of Leviticus 19." Harvard Theological Review 87.3 (1994): 239-256.

Leon Morris. Apocalyptic, Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1972.

Almond, Philip C. Heaven and Hell in Enlightenment England. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Bauckham, Richard. “Hades, Hell.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 3. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

McNaspy, Clement J. “Sheol in the Old Testament,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 6.3 (1944): 326-333.

Lewis, Clive Staples. The Great Divorce: A Dream. Great Britain: C. S. Lewis Pte. Ltd, 1946.

"Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha." The New Encyclopedia of Judaism. Eds. Shmuel Himelstein, Geoffrey Wigoder, and Fred Skolnik. New York: New York University Press, 2002. Credo Reference.

Bauckham, Richard. The Jewish World around the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. 2010.

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Anchor Bible: The Gospel According to Luke I-IX. Vol. 28. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1981.

Grounds, Vernon C. "The Final State of the Wicked." Journal Of The Evangelical Theological Society 24.3 (1981): 211-220.

Hilhorst, A. "Tours of Hell: An Apocalyptic Form in Jewish and Christian Literature." Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Period 16.1 (1985): 135-137.

Holmes, Michael W. The Apostolic Fathers (Greek Texts and English Translations). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. 2007.

"Hell." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.

Hans Schwarz. "Hell." Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology. Eds. Ian A. McFarland, David A. S. Fergusson, and Karen et. al. Kilby. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Davis 55

Johnson Philip S. Shades of Sheol: Death and After Life in the Old Testament. Illinois: InterVarsity Press. 2002.

LeMarquand, Grant. "The Hell You Say": Salvation And The Final Judgment." Anglican Theological Review 95.1 (2013): 99-113.

Mounce, Robert H. The New International Commentarty on the New Testament: The Book of Revelation. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998.

Nolland, John. Word Biblical Commentary: Luke 1-9:20, Vol. 35A. Dallas Texas: Word Book Publisher, 1989.

Oestigaard, Terje. "The Materiality of Hell: The Christian Hell in a World Religion Context." Material Religion 5.3 (2009): 312-331.

Peterson, Robert A. and Christopher W. Morgan. What is Hell? Basics of the Faith Series. New Jersey: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing Co, 2010.

Rasmussen, Tarald. "Hell Disarmed? The Function of Hell in Reformation Spirituality." Numen 56.2-3 (2009): 366-384.

Stein, Robert H. An Introduction to the Parables of Jesus. Pennsylvania: Westminster Press, 1981.

Stein, Robert H. Mark: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.

Turner, David L. Matthew: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.

Wright, N.T. Evil and the Justice of God. Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2006.

Carmichael, Calum M. "Laws Of Leviticus 19." Harvard Theological Review 87.3 (1994): 239-256.

Pusey, E. B. What is of Faith as to everlasting punishment? Oxford: Devonport Society of the Holy Trinity, 1880.