From Spaceships to Orbiting Stations

8/8/2019 From Spaceships to Orbiting Stations

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1 Report No. 12. Government Accessio n No. I 3. Recipien t's Cata log No.NASA TT F-812

7. Author(s)

A . Yu . Dmitriyev, V. P. Denisov, A . A. Yermilov,B. I . Zhelyabin, A. V. Kirsanov, I. L. Leonidov,V. A. Polyakov, A. A . Tirnonin and A. M . Tumanov

9. Performing Orgo nizotion Name ond Address

S c i t r a nSanta Barbara, CA

4 Title and Subti t le

FROM SPACESHIPS TO OREXTING STATIONS

Second EditionI 8. Performing Orgonixation Report No.

5. R e ~ o r t oto -December 1973

6. Performing Organization Code

13. Type of Report and Perio d Covered

, Trans la t ion

10. Work Unit No.

17. Key Wards (Selected by Author(s)) 18. Distribution Statement

11 . Contract or Grant No.TJASW-203 5

U n c l a s s i f i e domesticy$4.5cForeign $7 . O(n c l a s s i f i e d

Natio nax Aer ona utic s and Space AdministratiB-n12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

Washington, D. C. 20546IS. Supplementary Notes

Tr a n s l a t i o n of " O t kosmicheskikh korabley

-k orbi ta l 'nymn s ta nt s yam,

2nd Ed iti on, Revised ana Expanded, Ed ite d by G. S. Narimanov, Moscow,"Mashinostroyeniye" Press, 1971, pp. 1-113

Abstract This book discusses the Soviet manned space program. The mainsta ge s of development-of Sov iet cosmonautics a r e considered, as w e l l . a st h e programs f o r th e manned s pa ce cr af t "Vostok", "Voskhod"and "Soyuz",and th e o r b i t a l r e sea rch s t a t io n "Sa lyu t" . The cons t ruc t ion and equip -ment o f t he spacec ra f t , and th e i r u se on th e ea r t h and i n f l i g h t a r edesc r ibed .th e "Soyuztt spa cec raf t , as w e l l as i t s operat ion and the exper iments

performed when th e crew changed from one sp ac ec ra ft t o anot her i n openspace. The development of methods f o r assem bling a s t a t i on and pe r formings c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s , a nd a l s o t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n " Sa ly ut ", on whichthe Sov ie t cosmonauts l i v ed f o r s e ve ra l days a r e desc r ibed . The book a l s od i scusse s the fu tu r e p rospec ts f o r cosmonau ti cs .

A d e s c r i p t i o n i s g iv en of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l s pa ce s t a t i o n of

For sale by h e National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151


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ANNOTA T 1ON

T h i s book d i sc us se s t h e S ov ie t manned space p rogram.

T he main s t ages of deve lopment o f Sov ie t cosmonau t i c s a re con-

s i d e r e d , as w e l l as t h e programs f o r th e manned s pa ce c r a f t Vo s t o k " ,"Voskhod" and "Soyuz" , and t h e o r b i t a l r e s e ar c h s t a t i o n l f Sa ly ut ' f .The c on s t ru c t io n and equipment o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t , a n d t h e i r use on

t h e e a r t h and i n f l i g h t a r e d e s c ri b ed .

A d e s c r i p t i o n i s g i v e n of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l s p a c e s t a t i o n oft h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t , as w e l l as i t s o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e exper imen t sperformed when t h e crew changed from one spa ce cr af t to a n o t h e r i n open

spa ce. The development of methods f o r asse mbl ing a s t a t i o n a n dp er fo rm in g s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s , and a l s o t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n

" S a l y u t " , on w hi ch t h e S o v i e t c os mo na ut s l i v e d f o r s e v e r a l d a y sa re d e s c r i b e d .

The book also d i s c u s s e s t h e f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s f o r c o sm o na u ti cs .

Tw e n t y n i n e i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

iii


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Anno t a t i nForeword

P i

1. The Main St ag es of So vi et Cosmonautics

2 . Programs of t h e "Vostok" and "Voskhod" Manned S pa c e c ra f t

P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Human F l i g h t i n t o S p ac e

The "Vostok" Program

The "Vos tok, " The World 's F i r s t Spa ce c ra f t

The "Voskhod" Program

T h e F i r s t Man i n Open Space

3 . The Program of t h e Manned "Soyuz" S pa c e c ra f t

The Tasks of the ProgramD e si gn C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e "Soyuz" S p a c e c r a f t

The Main Systems of th e "Soyuz" Sp ac ec ra f t

F a b r i c a t i o n a nd Ground Te s t i n g of t h e S p a c e c r a f t

F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e S p a c e cr a f t

Ground Te st in g of Systems

F l i g h t T e s t s o f t h e S p a c e c r a f t S y s t e m sTr a i n i n g t h e C osm ona uts f o r S pa ce F l i g h t s

4. The Main S ta ges o f F l ig h t o f t h e "Soyuz" S pac ec ra f tO r b i t I n j e c t i o nO r b i t a l F l i g h t

Gyroscop ic Or ie n t a t io n ( "Warp ing" ) o f t heS p a c e c r a f t t o w a r d t h e S u n


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C e l e s t i a l O r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e S p a c ec r a ft

O r b i t a l C o r r e c t i o n

Reen try and Descent i n th e Atmosphere

5. The Wor ld ' s F i r s t Exper imen ta l Space S t a t io n

The Exper imental O r b i t a l S t a t i o n o f t h e l lS oy uz llComp 1 x

Docking o f Two Sp a ce cr a ft

Space Walk of the Cosmonauts

S c i e n t i f i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d E x p e r i m e n t s

6. When There Are T we e Spa ce cr af t i n O r b i tManeuver ing of Spacecraf t

S c i e n t i f i c a n d Te c h n i c a l E x p er i m en t s an d O b s e r v a ti o n s

Welding of Metals i n O r b i t

7. "Soyuz-9" Working i n O r b i tM e d i c a l a n d B i o l o g i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n s D u r i n gPro longed Space F l igh t

Maneuvering and Navigation Measurements

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of Importance t o the National Economy

8. The F i r s t O r b i t a l S t a t i o n of Long D ur a t i o n I s i n Spa ce" S a l y u t " I s i n O r b i t

C a l l S i g n s a r e " G r a n i t "

Into Space Toward t h e S t a t i o n

A Tour of t h e "Salyut ' '

Watch i n Space

9 . The Pr in c i p a l Methods of Developing O r b i t a l S t a t i o n sAutomat ic o r Manned St a t io n s ?

D e s i g n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f F u k u r e S p a c e S t a t i o n s

The Problem o f S e r v i c i n g Sp ac e S t a t i o n s

S pa ce S t a t i o n s i n t h e S e r v i c e o f Man

The Bridge t o t h e F u t u r e i s Being Erected Today

48

495 1

55

55566367

727 27 57 7

78

7 88388

898990

929396

1 0 1

1 0 1

1 0 5111

1 1 41 1 8

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FOREWORD

Cosmonautics, embodying t h e most advanced achieve ment s of world

s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y, i s d e v e l o p i n g a t an impetuous pace .

F o u r t e e n y e a r s a g o , on 4 October 1957, t h e f i r s t S o v i e t a r t i f i c i a ls a t e l l i t e announced t o t h e w o r l d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new e r a - t h e e r ao f s pa ce f l i g h t . S in ce t h en hundreds of d i f f e r e n t a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s

have been launched, which d a i l y move i n sp ac e. Tens of manned spa ce-

c r a f t h av e m ea su re d o f f many m i l l i o n s o f k i l o m e t e r s i n t h e r e a c h e s o fspace . Man has b rave ly "walked" i n open space , s e t foo t on t he su r-

f a c e o f t h e moon, and i s conf iden t ly overcoming t h e b i o l o g i c a l b a r r i e ro f p r o l o n g e d s p a c e f l i g h t s .

A l i t t l e more t h a n t e n y e a r s s e p a r a t e u s f r o m t h e l a u n c h o f t h ef i r s t manned "Vostok" s pa c ec ra f t , which completed one o r b i t around t h e

ea r t h . Sp ac ec ra f t a r e now capab le o f spend ing many d a y s i n f l i g h t ,

whi l e t h e i r c r e w s c a r r y o u t a l a r g e volume of s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

and o b s e r v a t i o n s , o f e norm ous p r a c t i c a l i m po rt a nc e f o r t h e n a t i o n a leconomy.

A utom atic i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s i n t u r n a r e p e n e t r a t i n g d e ep ly

i n t o t h e s e c r e t r e a c h e s of t h e s o l a r s ys t em . They w ere t h e f i r s t t o

i n v e s t i g a t e t h e moon, p ho to gr a ph t h e s u r f a c e o f Mars, p e n e t r a t e t h e

r e d hot a tmosphere of Venus and t ransmit d a t a t o t h e e a r t h on i t s com-p o s i t i o n . A ut om at ic s t a t i o n s h av e b ro ug ht b ac k s am pl es o f l u n a r s o i l

to t h e e a r t h .

*Numbers i n t h e m ar gi n i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e i g nt e x t .

yii


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1. THE M A I N STAGES OF SOVIET COSMONAUTICS /5

The 1960% h av e b e en c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e m e n t si n many f i e l d s o f human a c t i v i t y . The s c i e n t i f i c t h o u gh t an d work of

man have l e f t f a r b e h i n d c o n c e p t s t h a t o n l y r e c e n t l y s e e m e d i m p o s s i b l e .These ach ievements have been mos t v iv id ly expre ssed i n t h e i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n and conquest o f spac e . The s i x t h decade o f our cen tu ry became

a t i m e o f t h e g en u i n e t r i u m p h o f s p a c e r o c k e t t e c h n o l o g y. S pa c e r e -s e a r c h a c c o m p l i s h e d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w i t h t h e a i d o f a u t o m a t i c e q u i p -

ment and manned spacecraft not only opened a q u a l i t a t i v e l y new s t a g ei n t h e d ev el op me nt o f s p a ce s c i e n c e , b u t a l s o marked the beg inn ing o f

a new epoch i n t he development of s c i en c e i n g e n e r a l .

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1957-1961, h e Sov i e t Union l aunched au tomat ics t a t i o n s f o r s tu dy of t h e e a r t h and c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l s pa c e, t h e moon

a n d d i s t a n t s p a c e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e e x pe r im e n ts , t h e b a s i c s ys te ms

o f space rock e t complexes were developed and th e most va lua b le s c i e n t i -

f i c d a t a were o b t a i ne d . Many s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l c o l l e c t i v e s wereformed i n th e S ov i e t Union, which a r e c a p a b l e o f s o l v i n g t h e most d i f -f i c u l t p r o b l e m s of cosmonau t i c s , and a p o w e r f u l i n d u s t r i a l b a s e wasc r e a t e d .

At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1960's S o vi e t s p e c i a l i s t s s o l ve d t h e most

complex problem - h e y c r e a t e d t h e f i r s t manned sp ac ec ra f t . The e r ao f manned s pa c e f l i g h t s b e ga n. I n t h e c o ur s e o f t h e s e f l i g h t s , t h e

e f f e c t s o f G -f or ce s a nd w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , r a d i a t i o n and p r ol o ng e d r e -

s t r i c t i o n i n a c a b i n o f l i m i t e d volume were g r a d u a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d ,s t e p - b y - s t e p .

p le x space f l i g h t s and emergence o f man in t o open space , were s tu d i ed .

S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n was d e vo t ed t o d e t e r m i ni n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o r m a l

/A

Problems o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h com-


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human activity and to conducting scientific and technical investiga-tions and experiments during these flights.

The rapid pace was enhanced by automatic means for investigatingouter space. The equipment of artificial satellites became more com-

plex and technically more perfect, and specialized scientificsatellites were developed. Automatic interplanetary probes began

to transmit rich information on the properties of circumsolar space.

The following main stages may be traced i n the development ofcosmonautics:

-- launch of artificial satellites (providing acceleration toorbital velocity -- about 8 kilometers per second);

-- launching of interplanetary probes (acceleratlon to escapevelocity -- about 11.2 kilometers per second);

spacecraft;-- injection into geocentric orbits, flight and landing of manned

-- launching of automatic space vehicles on flights t o the moonand planets, landing on the moon and creation of artificial lunarsatellites;

for vehicles returning to earth at escape velocity;

-- development of reentry in controlled and ballistic variants

-- emergence of man into open space and work outside the space-craft ;

space vehicles and spacecraft in both automatic and manned versions;

-- flight of man t o the moon;-- group flights o f several manned spacecraft, forming a single

-- creation of automatic interplanetary probes which are re-

-- development of processes for search, rendezvous and docking of

system, and creation of orbital stations;

turned to earth with the results of scientific investigations of the

moon.

All these stages have been successfully covered by world

cosmonautics. Our science and space industry have permitted the SovietUnion to be first in successfully solving most of the tasks of

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cosmonautics.

At present, o u r achievements in space are an important indicator

of the scientific , technical and economic development of the country.

On 'the other hand, the program for conquest of space is predeterminedby the requirements of science, the national economy and society as a

whole. In accordance with this , several series of space vehicles

have been developed in the Soviet Union.

The most nLmerous of them is the series of "Kosmos" satellites,

which are carrying out an extensive program of scientific research.Several tens of satellites of this type are launched annually, and

their total number exceeds 400. The "Kosmos" satellites are conduct-

ing important scientific investigations of circumterrestrial space andradiation from the sun and sta rs, and are studying the earth's

magnetosphere, the composition of cosmic radiation and radiation belts,the "breathing" of the ionosphere and distribution of meteor particles

in circumterrestrial space. Interesting medical and biological ex-periments are being carried out on these sate llites, which extend theboundaries of penetration of life into limitless space. Forming

complete systems, satellites of the "Kosmos" series aid man in thesolution of practical problems, contribute to the progress of science,

and have actually passed into the ranks of permanently operatingsystems.

Some vehicles of the "Kosmos" series are being used to check the

correctness of engineering solutions, development of the design

elements of various spacecraft and methods of using them. Methods for

automatic docking in orbit were tested with the aid of the "Kosmos"

satellites, the "Meteor" and "Molniya" equipment was tested, and the

possibilities of systems for heat regulation and provision of cosmonautactivity and many other complex assemblies of manned spacecraft were

investigated.

Automatic satellites solve problems of great practical importance.The Soviet specialized scientific satellites of the "Proton," "Elektron,"


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and "Polyot." series are known worldwide.

The continuously operating system of "Molniya" communication

satellites provide 24-hour two-way telephone and telegraph communica-tion over the entire territory of the Soviet Union. These satellites

relay programs of the Central Television Studio to the extensive net-

work of ground receiving stations of the "Orbita" system, due to which

the programs of Moscow television have become accessible to most

regions of Siberia and the Far North, Far East and Central Asia.

Another continuously operating system -- that of meteorologicalsatellites of the "Meteor" series -- provides 24-hour observation ofthe weather phenomena of our planet. Many thousands of photographs ofthe earth's surface, transmitted by these satellites , are processeddaily by the automatic ground complex and transmitted to the Hydro-

meteorological Center of the USSR. Daily weather summaries, as wellas reliable long-term forecasting are made on the basis of these data.

Investigation of outer space acquires an ever more internationalcharacter with each year. Artificial satellites of the "Interkosmos"

series are launched periodically in the Soviet Union in accordancewith the program for cooperation of the Socialist countries in thefield of investigation and use of outer space f o r peaceful purposes.Scientific equipment, developed and prepared by specialists of a

number of Socialist countries, is installed on board these satellites.

Assembly and testing of this equipment immediately prior to launch, as

well as control of the flight of "Interkosmos" satellites, is

accomplished by operational groups from among representat ives of anumber of countries. Simultaneously with the measurements carried out

on board the sate llites, observatories of the Peoples Republic ofBulgaria, the Hungarian Peoples Republic , the German Democratic

Republic, the Republi-c of Cuba, the Mongolian Peoples Republic, the

Polish Peoples Republic, the Socialist Republic of Rumania, the SovietUnion and the Czechoslovakian Socialist Republic carry out radio

astronomical, ionospheric and optical observations according to a

coordinated program.

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Along w i t h f l i g h t s i n c i r c um t e r r es t r i a l s pa ce , t h e s t u d y o f t h e

moon, p l a n e t s a nd t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e m o c c u p i e s a n .

i m po r ta n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e Sovie t space p rogram. A l e ad in g r o l e i n

t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s p l a y e d by a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s . They a recons id e rab l y more inexpen s ive t ha n manned ve h i c l es , and a r e capab le o ft r a n s m i t t i n g or b r i n g i n g b a c k to e a r t h t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e s c i e n t i f i ci n f o r m a t i o n , o f t e n f ro m t h o s e r e g i o n s w hi ch a r e c o m p l e t e l y i n a c c e s s i b l eor d i f f i c u l t f o r man to r e a c h . T h i s , of course , does no t exc lude t h ep a r t i c i p a t i o n of man i n c e r t a i n s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of d i s t a n t

space , t h e moon and planets of t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

The enormous ach ievements o f sc ience , t echno logy and eng inee r ing

i n t h e1 9 6 0 ' s

l e d tot h e

c r e a t i o n o f i d e a l means o f e l ec t ron ics and

r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g , a u t o m a t io n , o p t i c s a nd co mp ut er t e c h n o lo g y. The

d imens ions and we igh t o f s c i e n t i f i c equipment have been reduced con-

s i d e r a b l y, a n d t h e s p e e d of computers and t h e c a p a c i ty o f e l e c t r o n i c

memory systems have been increased. T h i s has been r e f l e c t e d i n t h ec r e a t i o n o f u ni qu e a u t om a t ic v e h i c l e s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o u t e r s pa ce

a n d p l a n e t s o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

A ut om at ic c o n t r o l ma ch in es h av e enorm ous p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e

Universe . With t h e i r a i d , s c i e n t i s t s o bt ai ne d t h e f i r s t p i c t u r e s o ft h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s on t h e

moon a nd Venus , a nd e xt r e m e l y r i c h s c i e n t i f i c d a t a which w i l l undoubt-e d l y b e o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e i n l e a r n i n g a bout t h e o r i g in of c e l e s t i a l

b o d i e s a n d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e Universe .

I m po rt a nt s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p ro bl em s were s o l v e d b y t h e"Zond-5," "Zond-6," and "Zond-7'' a ut om at ic pr ob es , which o r b i t e d t h e

moon and returned to e a r t h . During t h e s e f l i g h t s two v a r i a n t s were

c he ck ed f o r l a n d i n g s p a c e v e h i c l e s a nd r e t u r n i n g to e a r t h a t t h ep a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y . The "Zond-5" probe was t h e f i r s t t o s ol ve

t h i s prob lem upon re tu rn f rom a f l i g h t a lo ng th e e a r t h -- moon --e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y . The d e s c e n t c a p s u l e o f t h e "Zond-5" probe en te re d

t he a tmosphere , throug h a c o m p a r a t i v e l y n a r r o w c o r r i d o r, a n d - p a s s i n g

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t h r o u g h a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y - r e a c h e d t h e Ind ian Ocean bas ini n t h e a s s i g n e d r e g i o n , h a v i n g b r o u gh t b ac k to s c i e n t i s t s p ho to gr ap hs

of t h e e a r t h t a k e n f r o m s p ac e a nd t h e r e s u l t s o f s c i e n t i f i c i n v es t ig a -

t i o n s .

An even more complex s c i e n t i f i c and t e c hn ic a l p roblem -- c o n t r o l l e d19e s c e n t o f t h e c a p s u l e wh ic h ha d o r b i t e d t h e moon -- was f i r s t s o l v e d

d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t o f t h e "Zond-6'' prob e. The re e n tr y ca ps ul e of th e

p r o b e , u s i n g a l i f t - d r a g r a t i o , f le w more t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 k i l o m e t e r sa f t e r f i r s t e n t e r i n g t h e d en se l a y e r s of t h e e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e a n df i n a l l y f i r e d i t s r e t r o r o c k e t s upon t h e s e c on d e n t r y, l a n d i n g i n t h e

c a l c u l a t e d r e g i o n of t h e S o v i e t U nion. C o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t p e r m i t s

s e l e c t i o n o f t h e l a n d in g r e g i on s , as w e l l as r e du c t ion o f G- forces andh e a t i n g o f t h e c a p s u l e d u r i n g i t s m o ti on i n t h e atmosphere .

-

The "Zond-7" aut oma t ic probe brought back t o e a r t h unique

photographs of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e a n d o u r p l a n e t .

The most vivid example of t h e t r u l y i n ex h au s t i b le p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of a ut o m at i c a s s i s t a n t s to man i s t h e f l i g h t of t h e S o v i et a ut om a ti c

p r o b e " L ~ n a - 1 6 . ~ During t h e c ou rs e o f t h e f l i g h t , t h e v e h i cl e wasi n j e c t e d i n t o a s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t , a number of maneuvers was madei n t h i s o r b i t a n d - u s i n g a i rb o r n e r a d i o a i d s f o r me as ur in g f l i g h ts p e ed a nd a l t i t u d e , c om pu ti ng s y st e m s a nd t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s y st e m - adea s o f t l a n d i n g o n t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e S ea ofF e r t i l i t y . D r i l l i n g o f t h e l u n a r s o i l , which was t h en r e l i a b l y s e a l e d

i n t h e r e t u r n module, was c a r r i e d ou t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e

h i s t o r y o f cos mon aut ic s. On command from e a r t h a t t h e p r e c i s e l yd e s i g n a t e d t i m e , "Luna-16" b l as te d o f f f rom t h e l u n a r su r f a c e, r e t u r n -

e d t o e a r t h a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y and la nd ed on t h e t e r r i t o r yo f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n n e a r t h e l a u n c h s i t e . T hu s, a n a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e

f i r s t b ro ug ht b ack to e a r t h a s am pl e o f r o c k fr om a n o t h e r c e l e s t i a lbody.

The a u t o m a t i c pr o be " Lu na -l 7" d e l i v e r e d t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n

v e h i c l e "Lunokhod-1'' t o t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e moon. For t en months

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t h e S o vi e t l u n a r e x c ur s io n v e h i c l e t r a v e l e d t h r ou gh l u n a r c r a t e r s ,

t r a n s m i t t i n g to e a r t h h i gh - qu a li t y t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s of t h e l u n a rl a nd s c ap e a nd d a t a f rom v a r i o u s s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

Automat ic in te rp la ne ta ry p robes "Venera-5" and Vene ra -6" were

l a un c he d i n J a n u a r y, 1 9 6 9 , i n a c co rd a nc e w i t h t he program. Thesev e h i c l e s , e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s c i e n t i f i c a nd m e as ur in g

a p p a r a t u s , made i t p o s s i b l e to c on du ct new s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

a l o n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h a n d to o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l d a t a a b ou t t h e

atmosphere of Venus. The "Venera-5" and Venera-6" pro bes re a ch ed

t h e p l an e t i n t h e middle of May 1 9 6 9 , having f lown a d i s t a n c e o fabout 250 m il l i on k i l om et e r s . The au tom at ic probe "Venera-7, If

a f t e r r e ac h in g t h e s u r f a ce of t he "morn ing s t a r " on December 15, 1 9 7 0s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d ou t i t s f l i g h t p r o g r a m .

F u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f man i n t o s p a c e de pe nd s to a g r e a t e x t e n ton so lv ing t h e problem o f l i f e s up po rt d u ri n g p ro lo ng ed s pa ce f l i g h t s .

Wi t h t h i s a i m , a ground-based exp er im en ta l complex of l i f e - s u p p o r t

t e c h n o l o g y, c h e m i s t r y a n d m e d i c i n e, was e r e c t e d i n o u r c o u n t ry. Anexper iment w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h r e e t e s t s u b j e c t s was begun i n

t h i s complex i n November, 1 9 6 7 , and was s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p l e t e d w i t h i none ye ar . The exper iment demo nstra ted t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r o l o n g e d

r e s t r i c t i o n of man i n a p r e s s u r i z e d c a b in of l i m i t e d volume and t h eu s e of a r e g e n e r a t i v e l i f e - s u p p o r t s y s t e m , a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t

of c e r t a i n f a c t o r s o f pr ol on ge d sp ac e f l i g h t on t h e human body and

human e ff i c i ency.

s y s t e m s , based on use of t h e most r ecen t ach ievements of b i o l o g y,

The S o v i e t s p a c e p ro gr am p r o v i d e s f o r c a r e f u l s t a g e - b y - s t a ge

development of new systems under ground condi t ions and for c o n d u c t i n g

a l a r ge number o f exper imen t a l in ve s t ig a t i on s . New manned sp ac ec ra f ta n d t h e i r s y s t e m s , a f t e r be ing deve loped on t h e ground, a r e r e p e a t e d l yt e s t e d i n unmanned v a r i a n t s d u r i n g sp a c e f l i g h t s , and o nl y a f t e r t h i sa re f l i g h t s made w i t h cosmonauts on board.

On J a nu a r y 1 4 , 1 9 6 9 cosmonauts V . A . S h a t a l o v, B. V. Volynov,

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Ye. V. Khrunov and A . S. Yeliseyev completed manual docking of t h e

"Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" sp ac ec ra f t . An exp er i me nta l spac e s t a t i o n

was c r e at e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , a nd t r a n s f e r f ro m one s p a c e c r a f t t oa n o t h e r was accomplished.

The g ro up f l i g h t o f t h e "Soyuz-6, "Soyuz-7, If and "Soyuz-8"

s p a c e c r a f t , t h e u n pr e ce de n te d d u r a t i o n o f t h e f l i g h t o f t h e "Soyuz-9"

s p a c e c r a f t , as w e l l as t h e c om plex o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n b o ar d t h e" S a ly u t" s t a t i o n were t h e n e x t s t a g e s o n t h e way t o c r e a t i n g l o ng - te r m

o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s .

S u cc e s se s i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f i m po rt an t s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l,

p ro bl em s n o t o n l y op en up i m p o r t a n t p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e f u r t h e r c o n q u e s t

a nd s t u d y o f s p a c e , b u t a l s o p os e a number of c om pl et el y new pro ble ms ,r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e a nd f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n o f s p a c e t e c hn o lo g y. Thespace env i ronment i s f r a u g h t w i t h many s t i l l h idden dangers , which

cannot b e d e t e c t e d d u r i n g o n e or s e v e r a l f l i g h t s .

F l i g h t s o f s p ac e v e h i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t d e s ig n -- b o t h S o v i e t a n df o r e i g n -- c o n t r i b u t e t o d i s co v e ry of t h e s e dangers and t h e r e l a t e d

problems which a r i s e , a nd t o c om pl ex i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d c on q ue s t o fo u t e r s p a ce .

2 . PROGRAMS OF THE "VOSTOK" AND "VOSKHOD" MANNED

SPACECRAFT

P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Human F l i g h t i n t o Sp a ce

B i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d u r i ng t h e f l i g h t o f h i g h - a l t i t u d e

r o c k e t s were b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e S o v i e t Union e ve n b e f o r e t h e

l a u n c h o f t h e f i r s t a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e , b e g i n ni n g i n 1 9 4 9 . S e v e r a l

t e n s o f e x p e r im e n t s w er e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h f l i g h t s o f a ni m al s onr o c k e ts up t o a l t i t u d e s o f 45 0 k i l o m e t e r s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n se s t a b l i s h e d t h a t b ot h d u ri n g f l i g h t a nd f o r a l on g p e r i od a f t e rr e t u r n t o e a r t h , no se r io us changes o f any k ind were found i n t h eorganism of t h e a n i m a l s . These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s l a i d t h e b a s i s f o r as y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s p a ce en vi ro nm en t a nd f l i g h t

f a c t o r s on l i v i n g o rg a n i s m s .

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However, o n ly b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on s a t e l l i t e s may p r o v i d e

a c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e of t h e l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s a n dc o s m i c r a d i a t i o n o n t h e organism. T he f i r s t b i o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i n

s p a c e was t h e dog L a y k a , which completed t h e f l i g h t o n b o a r d t h es e c o n d S o v i e t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e .

T h e n e x t s t e p i n p r e p a ri n g man f o r f l i g h t i n t o s p ac e w a s c r e a t i o n

of th e "Vos tok" l aunc h roc ke t and t e s t s and development of t h e space-c r a f t a n d i t s s y s t e m s .

F i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l s a t e l l i t e - s p a c e c r a f t w i t h exper imen ta l dogs on

b oa rd we re i n j e c t e d i n t o c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l o r b i t i n 1960 and, 1 96 1.

The main purpose of t h e s e l a u n c h e s was t o d ev el op t h e on-board s y s t e m sof t h e s p a c e c ra f t , t o s tu dy t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of s p a c e a l o n g t h e

r o u t e of the impending f l i g h t o f man a nd t o c a r r y o u t a n e x t e n s i v e

complex of m e d i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o p r ep a ra t io n

f o r t h i s f l i g h t . T he f l i g h t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s a t e l l i t e - s p a c e c r a f t

s i m u l a t e d t o t h e maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e t h e c o n d i t i o n s a nd p ro gr am of

t h e impending f l i g h t of man i n t o space . They were accomplished

a c c o r d i n g t o s i m i l a r programs, w i t h t h e same f l i g h t d u r a t i o n . Acosmonaut mannequin and a do g were i n t h e c a ps ul e .

T h e exper iments showed t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t f u l l y m e t t h er e q u i r e m e n t s f o r maximum s a f e t y f o r human f l i g h t i n t o s p a ce a nd

p r o v i d e d f o r h i s normal a c t i v i t y and c o nd i ti o ns f o r f u l f i l l i n g t h e

program of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s was t h es t a g e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e f l i g h t of man in t o space .

But lon g be fo r e t h i s , e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o n t h e e f f e c t s of

i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s of s pa ce f l i g h t on t h e human or gan ism were b ei ng

c a r r i e d o ut i n t h e S o v i e t Union w i t h t h e a i d of var ious ground-based

f a c i l i t i e s . However, l a b o r a t o r y e x pe r im e nt s i n t h e r m a l vacuum

chambers and cen t r i fuges d i d n o t u s u a l l y p.ermit a complex ana lys i s oft h e i r e f f e c t s o n l i v i n g o rg an is ms , and t h e s t a t e of w e i g h tl e s s n e ss i nf l y i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s c ou ld n o t b e long enough.

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Development of various on-board systems was proceeding

simultaneously with medical and biological investigations. Systematic

and comprehensive verification and sequential development of individual

systems and the spacecraft as a whole under both ground and flightconditions permitted the first flight of man into space.

THE "VOSTOK" PROGRAMThe first flight of man into space took place on April 12, 1961.

The world's first cosmonaut was Soviet citizen Yuriy Alekseyevich

Gagarin. The orbi tal flight of the "Vostok" manned spacecraft con-

tinued for 108 minutes, and the cosmonaut was in a state of weightless-

ness for 55 minutes. The flight showed that man could normallytolerate the conQitions of space flight and return to earth. It was

also demonstrated that man completely retains his efficiency during

space flight.

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THE "VOSTOK," THE WORLD'S FIRST SPACECRAFT.

The manned flight program on board the "Vostok" spacecraft,

carried out during the period 1961-1963, consisted of six sequentiallaunches. The flights of space heroes Yu. A. Gagarin, G.S. Titov,

A.G. Nikolayev, P.R. Popovich, V.F. Bykovskiy and V.V. Tereshkovamade an important contribution in the development of cosmonautics toknowledge of the secrets of space. Their names have been entered inhistory.

/

Each subsequent flight, based on the results and experience of

preceding flights, was the next step i n the conquest of space and

made a contribution to the development of science and technology and

led to an assault on new frontiers , But at the same time each flightconfronted scientists and engineers with the necessity of solving new

tasks and problems. What problems did the "Vostok" program solve?

Completion of the first flight of man into space, spacecraft flights

of many daysq duration in preparation for creation of earth orbital

stations and for future interplanetary flights.

The flights of different length by cosmonauts in the "Vostok"spacecraft revealed the possibility of active viability of man duringspace flight, operations were carried out on piloting the spacecraft,and various scientific and technical investigations and experiments

were carried out. The cosmonauts retained good efficiency duringflight, conducted astronomical, geophysical, meteorological and other

investigations and experiments, observed the state of the 'cloud and

ice situation on the earth and carried out movie and still photography.

The "Vostok" program was the foundation on which development ofSoviet and world cosmonautics was based. The principal problems of

spacecraft design for space fl ights were 'resolved during implementation

of this program, and the basic e lements of the flight plan wereclarified.

The "Vostok" spacecraft consisted of a reentry capsule and an

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ins t rument compartment . T h i s l a y o u t o f s p a c e c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n was,as e x p e r i e n c e showed, r a t i o n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o w e ig ht , t e c h n o l o g i c a l l ye f f i c i e n t a nd c on ve ni en t for arrangement of t h e on-board equipment.

The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e w i t h the cosmonaut cabin was made i n t h e form of

a s p h e r e 2 . 3 meters i n d i a m e t e r and weighing 2 . 4 t o n s . The cosmonautc a b i n c o n t a i n e d . th ree p o r t ho l e s , p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e e f f e c t s of h i g h

t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g t h e d e s c e n t phase by h e a t - r e s i s t a n t g l a s s , f o r

c on du ct in g s c i e n t i f i c o b se r va t io n s d u r i ng s pa ce f l i g h t . A s p e c i a l

l i f e - s u p p o r t s y s t e m , m a i n t a i n i n g n or ma l p r e s s u r e , s p e c i f i c c h em i ca l

composi t ion o f t h e a i r , t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h i n t h e r ange o f 15-25OC andr e l a t i v e h um i di ty f ro m 3 0 t o T O % , was i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s pa c e cr a f t .The water a n d f o o d s u p p l y a n d r e g e n e r a t i v e s u b s t a n c e s were c a l c u l a t e df o r a f l i g h t l a s t i n g up to 1 0 d a y s .

Th e cosmonaut cabin was p r o v i d e d w i t h a de qu at e f a c i l i t i e s and

s a f e t y f o r human f l i g h t .

Although a l l s y s t e m s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t p a s s e d a complete ande x t e n s i v e c y c l e of checks and f l igh t -des ign t e s t s , a s p e c i a l p r e s s u r es u i t was u se d f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n s u ra n c e a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e u ne xp ec te de v e n t s d u r i n g f l i g h t .

Des ign and c rea t ion of t h e cosmonaut 's sea t was a very complext a s k . The s e a t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e s a f e t y o f t h e c os mo nau t d u r i n g f l i g h t

a n d d u r i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f G - f or c e s. Va r i o u s a u t o m a t ic d e v i c e s , t h e

s pa ce s u i t v e n t i l a t i o n s y s t e m , c a t a p u l t a nd p y r o te c h n i c d e v i c e s ,p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m s , em erge ncy s u p p l i e s , i n c l u d i n g s u p p l i e s of food ,

w a t er , r e s c u e and s i g n a l l i n g a i d s , which t h e cosmonaut cou ld use a f t e r

l a n d i n g , were i n s t a l l e d i n t h e body of t h e s e a t .

T h e s p a c e c r a f t c o n t a i n e d d e v i c e s w h i c h e n s u r e d t h e f l i g h t and

l a n d i n g of t h e c r a f t , f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e cosmonau t and fu l f i l lmen t of

t h e a s s i g n e d f l i g h t progra m by h i m . The most important o f them was

equipment for moni to r ing t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m s andi n s t r u m e n t s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , r a d i o e qu ip me nt for communication

between the cosmonaut and the e a r t h , a n a u t om a t ic s ys t em f o r r e c o r d i n g


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d a t a on o p e r a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a r a d i o t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m , equipmentf o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e cosmonaut, equipment of t h e

a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l s y s t e m , a r a d i o s y s t e m f o r m e as ur in g o r b i t a l p ar a -m e t e r s , a l a n d i n g s y s t e m , e l e c t r i c power s u p p l i e s , t h e "Vzor" o p t i c a ld e v ic e f o r manual a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l , t e l e v i s i o n e quipm ent a nd r e t r o -

r o c k e t s . Th e c a b i n c o n t a i n e d a p i l o t c o n s o l e w i t h a n i n s t r u m e n t p a n e land a s t i c k w i t h a c o n t r ol u n i t f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t . Thecosmonaut was a b l e to de te rmine t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t a b o v et h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h w i t h t h e a i d of a m i n i a t u r e g l o b e o f t h ee a r t h l o c a t e d o n t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l .

T h e e qu ip me nt o f t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l s ys t em i n c l u d e d c o n t r o l

i n s t r u m e n t s , a c t u a t i n g members and a s o l a r s e n s o r . A t t i t u d e c o n t r o lof t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n sp a ce d u r i n g f l i g h t a nd de s c en t c ou ld b e

accompl i shed bo th a u tom at i ca l ly and manua l ly.

The s t a t e and wel l -being o f t h e cosmonaut, t h e o p e r a t i o n o f on-board sys tems and t h e e nvironm ent i n t h e p i l o t ' s c a bi n were monitored

con t inuous ly th roughou t t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t w i t h t h e a i d of many te n s

o f s e n s o r s an d t h e t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m . The t e l e v i s i o n e q u i p m e n ti n s t a l l e d i n t h e c a b i n p e r m i t t e d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e c os m on a ut 's

a c t i v i t y .

The r e t r o r o c k e t and p a r a c h ut e s y s t e m s i n s t a l l e d o n t h e space-

c r a f t were used dur ing t h e l a s t l e g o f t h e f l i g h t f o r d e sc en t andl a n d i n g . The r e t r o r o c k e t s w ere us ed d u r i n g r e e n t r y o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Descen t and l and ing were prov ided b y t h e p a r a c h ut e s ys t em f o rl a n d i n g t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and by t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d i n g s y st e m o f

t h e cosmonaut.

What measures were t a k e n to e n s u r e t h e c o s m o n a u t ' s s a f e t y ?

A s p e c i a l p r e s s u r e s u i t p r o t e c t e d t h e c osmonaut a g a i n s t a n

u ne xp e ct e d d r o p i n c a b i n p r e s s u r e .

An e j e c t i o n s e a t w i t h a j e t b o o s t e r g ua ra n te e d t h e s a f e t y of t h e

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c osm ona ut i n c a s e o f f a i l u r e s d u r i n g l a u n c h . One o f tw o l a n d i n g s y st e m s

- i t h e r d e s c e n t i rn si de t h e c ab in o r by t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r a c h ut esystem of the cosmonaut - o u l d b e u s e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s t a g e of

f l i g h t .

TH E "VOSKHOD" PROGRAM

Su ce ss fu l implementat ion of t h e l lVostokl l program opened t h e way

f o r man t o f l y i n t o s p ac e . A f u r t h e r p a t h b ecame c l e a r , - a l o n g whic h

i t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e ve l o p a nd p e r f e c t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y, and newproblems became apparent .

M u l t i p l a c e s p a c e c r a f t were r e q u i r e d f o r p e r fo rm i ng a more ex tens icomplex of t e c h n i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , e x pe ri m en ts

and f o r emergence o f man from t h e spa ce c r a f t i n t o open spaere. Th i s

t a s k r e s u l t e d fr om t h e l o g i c a l d ev el op me nt of c o s m o n a u t ic s . P r o lo n ge d

f u t u r e s pa ce f l i g h t s , s a t u r a t e d w i th a very d ive r se and complexp ro gr am o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , c a n no t b e c a r r i e d o u t by o ne p e r s o n . Ther

f o r , i t i s e x p e d i en t t o h ave a cosmonau t c rew on board the spacec ra f t ,w i t h p r e c i se d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e i r d u t i e s . The crew may c o ns i s t of

a n e n g i n e e r , who c a r r i e s o u t p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n , and i f n e c e s s a r y,

p r e v e n t i v e m ai nt en an ce o f i n d i v i d u a l s y s te m s ; a s c i e n t i s t , who c o nd u c ts

s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and e xp er im e nt s; and a phys ic ian who i s a

s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e f i e l d o f s p a c e m e d i ci n e a nd b i o l o g y. The crew maya l s o i n cl u de r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of o t h e r s p e c i a l t i e s . The c r e w o f t h e

s p a c e c r a f t s h o u l d be headed by t h e most exp er ie nc ed cosmonaut, respon-

s i b l e f o r t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t p rogram as a whole . H i s f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d ep er f or m an c e o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n s a nd c o o r d i n a t i o n o f a l l

crew members.

The p ro bl e ms of c r e a t i n g m u l t i p l a c e s p a c e c r a f t a nd e me rg en ce o f

man i n t o open sp ac e were s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o ut d u r i n g im p l em e n ta t io n

of t h e So vie t s pace p rogram f o r t h e l lVoskhod ll "

The crews of t h e "Voskhod" ( V. M . Komarov, K . P. F e c k t i s t o v a n d

B . B . Yegorov) and l a t e r of t h e "Voskhod-2' s p a c e c r a f t ( A . A . Leonov andP . I . Belyayev) performed very i mp or ta nt work on complex ref ine me nt of

m u l t i pl a c e s p a c e c r a f t and c o nd uc te d e x t e n s i v e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

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The program of scientific and

technical investigations , carried

out by ea ch crew member of the

"Voskhod" spacecraft throughout

the fligh t, was very heavy. The

spacecraft commander, V.M. Komaro

monitored operation of the on-boardsystems and observed the s cientific

ins tru men ts, main tained m'anual att i-

tude cont rol of the spacecraft ,

carried on radio communications with

Cabin of three-man "Voskhod" the ground and performed a numb er

of scientific investigatio ns. Thepace craft.

scientific speciali st, cosmonaut K . P. Feokt istov , investigated the

behavior of liquids in a state of weightlessness, conducted astronomical

observations, and t o o k stil l and movie pictures of the horizon and

of the aureole of the earth's a tmosphere. He also monitored the

operation of the on-board equipment and maintained orientation and

control of the spacecraft. The work program of cosmonaut-ph ysician

B.B. Yegorov naturally consi sted o f medical and biological experiments.

He studied the complex effect of the f actors of space flight on thecosmonauts, investigated their efficiency, and monitored t he operation

of the life-support system.

The "Voskhod" program also s olved such important technical

problems as creation of sufficiently comfortable conditions in the

spacecraft cabin, with provi sion of complete pressurization, which

permitted the cosmonauts to work without the ir space suits during the

flight. The possibilities of man exercising manual control of the

spacecraft during flight and during descent were determined.

The "Voskhod" spacecraft was three-man. The spacecraft weighed

5.32 tons, and consisted of a pressuri zed ca bin and instrument

compartment. The retrorockets and landing system were redundant.

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The s p a c e c r a f t c o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d b o t h a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d m a n u a l l y.

The s p a c e c r a f t c o n t a in e d two o r i e n t a t i o n s y s te m s - s o l a r a nd i o n i c .The s p a c e c r a f t c o u l d b e l a n d e d b o t h m a n ua l ly a nd a u t o m a t i c a l l y.

The F i r s t Man i n Open Space

The m ain p u rp o s e o f t h e f l i g h t of t h e Vos kh od -2 " s p a c e c r a f t wasfo r man t o walk i n s pa ce . T h i s e xp er im en t i n c l u d e d p r a c t i c a l t e s t sof t h e main s c i e n t i f i c a nd t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s w hic h c o ul d e ns u r e

numerous prolonged and complex w a l k s o f c os mo na ut s i n op en s p a c e i n

t h e f u t u r e f o r c on du ct in g p la nn ed i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h e r e . T h i s was t h en e x t q u a l i t a t i v e jump i n c o nq u e st o f s p a c e .

What p r ob l em s we re s o l v e d by S o v i e t d e s i g n e r s i n p e r f o rm i n g

t h i s exper imen t? What i s t h e c o m p l e x i t y of p ro vi di ng l i f e s up po r tf o r man i n o p en s p a c e ?

On 1 8 March 1 9 6 5 , t h e V 0 s k h o d - 2 ~ ~ p a c e c r a f t , p i l o t e d by p i l o t -cosmonauts Pave1 Ivanovich Belyayev and Aleksey Arkhipovich Leonov,

went i n t o o r b i t . The l a u n c h was p r e ce d e d by c a r e f u l gr ou nd p r e p a r a -t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t un de r t h e d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n o f S e rg ey

Pav lov ich Koro lev. The cosmonauts underwent a l a r g e number of

t o t h e maximum e xt e n t p os s ib l e . However, t h e r e s t i l l remained ques-t i o n s o f a p u r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e - hat w i l l t h e cosmonautf e e l and how w i l l he behave when he f i n d s h imse l f f ace - to - fa ce w i t h

s p a c e ?

t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s u nd e r c o n d i t i o n s whic h s i m u l a te d r e a l c o n d i t i o n s

P r ep a r at i on f o r t h e walk b eg an im m ed ia t el y a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n o f

t h e s p a c e c r a f t f ro m t h e l a un c h r o c k e t . The spacecraf t commander,

P . I . Belyayev, gave t h e c o m m a n d f r o m t h e c o n s o l e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e

space-walk sys tems t o open t h e a i r l o c k c ha mb er. The c l e v e r l y d e s i g n e dair lock chamber expanded f rom t h e e x t e r n a l s i d e o f t h e c re w c om pa rt -

m en t, a nd i n c r e a s e d s e v e r a l t i m e s i n v ol um e. A p o w e r f u l p r e s s u r i z a -

t i o n s ys te m p ro vi de d e q ua l p r e s s u r e i n t h e a i r l o c k apd s p a c e c r a f t

c a b i n . G e t t i n g up f ro m h i s s e a t , A . A. Leonov opened t h e main ha tcha n d e n t e r e d t h e a i r l o c k c h a m b e r.

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The cosmonauts performed the main operations in preparation for

the walk while the spacecraft was outside the zone of radio communi-

cation with the Soviet Union. Reliable operation of the automatic

systems and the confident performance of the cosmonauts ensured suc-

cessful completion of these functions.

The main hatch connecting the airlock to the cabin was closed.

Both cosmonauts, dressed in their space suits, again check the

airlock system. The pressure in the airlock chamber gradually begins

to decrease, becoming equal to that of the vacuum of space. However,

the oxygen pressure in Leonov's spacesuit is maintained at 0.4 atmos-

phere. This ensures normal activity of the human organism, and at

the same time the spacesuit under such pressure does not hinder the

cosmonaut's functions too much. And this is very important, since a

cosmonaut in a state of weightlessness in open space expends energy

not only for movement and orientation, but i n order to maintain him-

self near his point of support as well. And a great deal of energy

is expended. For example, the force required by the cosmonaut to

close his hand in the glove o f the pressurized spacesuit reaches,

2 5 kilograms.

The spacecraft is over Africa. The pressure in the airlock has

finally been equalized and the outer hatch opens. The cosmos "bursts"into the airlock chamber in a stream of blinding sunlight which

literally weighs on the cosmonaut. Powerful solar radiation, a

considerable fraction of which is hard ultraviolet radiation, is

lethal to unprotected biological organisms. The heat fluxes of solar

radiation heat objects to almost 150 degrees, while at the same time

the temperature on the unilluminated side drops to -140O C. Therefore,

special measures were taken in designing the spacesuit to maintain a

normal temperature for the human organism. The autonomous life

support system also creates the necessary gas composition and humidity.

The mirror surface of the Black Sea floats by under the space-

craft. From an altitude of almost 4 5 0 kilometers, the cosmonauts can

easily see the outline of its shoreline. In turn, television permits

ground observation of the operations of Leonov as he emerges from the

spacecraft.

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Pushing h i m s e l f away from t h e air lock, Leonov moves a s h o r td i s t a n c e f r o m i t , and then makes t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t i ndependen t walki n o pe n s p a c e . H e i s now con nec ted t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t o n l y b y t h et h i n t h r e a d o f t h e l i f e l i n e , w h i c h p r o v i d e s r a d i o c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

The a c t i o n s of t h e c os mo nau t a r e c o n f i d e n t - t h e f e a r s o f a psycho-

l o g i c a l b a r r i e r were no t conf i rmed .

T h e m u l t i l a y e r f l e x i b l e c o v e r i n g of t h e s p a c e s u i t of a s t r o n gs y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l r e l i a b l y p r o t e c t s t h e c o s m o n a u t a g a i n s t a l lu n f a v or a b l e f a c t o r s . P r e s s u r e a t a n a l t i t u d e o f s e v e r a l hu nd re d k i l o -m e t e r s i s e s s e n t i a l l y e qu al t o zero. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , d e p r e s -s u r i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g c ou ld l e a d t o a l m o s t i n s t a n t a n e -

o u s b o i l i n g o f t h e cosmonau t 's b lood and h i s d e a t h . The cosmonaut

wears a p r e s s u r e h e l m e t w i t h s p e c i a l g l a s s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d w i t h

a l i g h t f i l t e r t o p r o t e c t h i s eyes a g a i n s t t h e b l i n d i n g e f f e c t s o fs u n l i g h t . A r t i c u l a t e d c o nn e c ti o n o f t h e e lements o f t h e s p a c e s u i t

p r o v i d e s a d e q u a t e f r e e d o m of movement o f t he cosmonau t .

Man and s p a c e c r a f t a r e moving toge the r a t an enormous speed w ir e s p e c t t o t h e E a r t h , cov er i ng many k i l om et e r s eve ry second . Dur ingt h e p e r i o d , l a s t i n g for a l i t t l e more t h an 1 0 minutes dur ing whichLeonov was o u t s i d e t h e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e B l a c k Seat o S a k h a l i n I s l a n d was c o ve r e d. However, t h e r e l a t i v e motions of man

a n d s p a c e c r a f t were sensed more b y t h e cosmonaut. The s p a c e c r a f t ,we igh ing a lmos t 70 t i m e s more than t h e cosmonaut , " responded" sensi -

t i v e l y t o t h e m an e uv e ri ng an d o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s o f Leonov. H e even ht o b e e s p e c i a l l y c a r e f u l n o t t o t a p t o o s t r o n g l y o n t h e p o r t h o l e s of

t h e s p a c e c r a f t . M or eo ve r, t h e s p a c e c r a f t h e g a n t o r o t a t e s l o w l y d u e

t o the movements of t h e cosmonaut. Mounting and subse quent d is ass em blyo f t h e m o v i e . c a m e r a a l s o r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c s k i l l s . A l l t h i s was newa n d c e r t a i n d e t a i l s c o u l d n o t b e f o r e s e e n o n t h e g r ou nd .

The program for t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s p a c e walk was completed.According t o h i s mission, Leonov was supposed t o r e t u r n t o t h e space-c r a f t w h i l e o n t h e i l l u m i n a t e d s i d e o f t h e E a r t h . And t h i s d i d n o t

t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t s u r p r i s e s . The m ov ie c am er a w i t h which t h e s p a c e


27/136

walk had been f i l m e d d i d n o t a t a l l "wish" t o r e t u r n t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t .However, t h e c os mona ut r e t u r n e d t o t h e a i r l o c k c ha mber , t h e h a t c h wasc l o s e d , a n d t h e c a b i n was a g a i n p r e s s u r i z e d . I n t h e cabin, CommanderP . I . Belyayev was t h e f i r s t t o c o ng r a t u la t e A . A. Leonov, who hadspen t more than 23 m i n ut e s i n op en s p a c e , o n h i s remarkable v i c t o r y .

The remarkable S o v i e t p i l o t - c o s m o n a u t P . I . Belyayev p layed ani m p or t an t r o l e i n s u c c e s s f u l c o mp le ti on o f t h i s exper imen t . Dur ing

t h e f l i g h t , he c o n t r o l l e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t s y s t e m s a n d e q u i p m e n t i n t e n d e d

f o r t h e s pa ce walk, moni to red t h e s t a t e of A . A. Leonov and maintainedcont inuous communicat ion w i t h h i m , r e a d y a t any moment t o go t o h i sa i d . H e a l s o c o n t r o l le d t h e r e e n t r y o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t , l a n d in g of

which occurred on 19 March during t h e 1 8 th o r b i t i n t h e r e g i o n o fP e r m ' . Belyayev was t h e f i r s t t o e x e r c i s e manual a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l of

a s p a c e c r a f t im me di at el y p r i o r t o f i r i n g of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s . Thuse nde d o ne of t h e b r i g h t e s t p a ge s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S o v i e t c o s m o n a u t i c s .

Summing up t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s f l i g h t , t h e o u t s ta n di n g d e s i g ne r

of space ha rdware , Se rgey Pav lo v ich Koro lev, s a i d : "The c rew wasa s si gn ed t h e most d i f f i c u l t , q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t t a s k compared

t o p r e c e d i n g f l i g h t s . F u r t h e r d e ve lo pm e nt o f c o s mo n au t ic s d ep en de d

on i t s s u c c e s sf u l s o l u t i o n t o t h e same d e g r e e as t h e s u c c e s s o f t h ef i r s t spa ce f l i g h t . Pave1 Belyayev and Aleksey Leonov coped w i t h i t ,and i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o o ve re st im at e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s e x p l o i t :t h e i r f l i g h t d em on str at ed t h a t man c a n s u r v i v e i n o pe n s p a c e , s t e p

o u t o f t h e s p a c e c ra f t w it ho ut f e e l i n g r e s t r i c t e d b y i t s wal l s , andhe may work anywhere necessary."

"Without t h i s c a p a c i t y, i t would b e i m p o s s ib l e t o t h i n k a bo utp a v i n g new r o u t e s i n s p a c e . "

The r e s u l t s o f t h e f i r s t s p a c e walk by man a r e e s p e c i a l l y a p p a r e n tt o da y i n t h e e r a of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The s c h e m a t i c s f o rc o n s t r u c t i n g t h e " Vo st ok " a n d l a t e r t h e "Voskhod" sp ac ec ra f t were th eb a s i s f o r d e s i g n and f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n o f new t y p e s and c l a s s e s o f

s p a c e c r a f t .

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3. THE PROGRAM OF THE MANNED "SOYUZ" SPACECRAFT

The Tasks of t h e Program

A c c o m p l i s h i n g s y s t e m a t i c a n d p u r p o s e f u l c o n q u e s t of s p a c e , S o v i e

s c i e n t i s t s an d d e s i g n e r s h a ve be gu n work o n t h e implementa t ion o f anew sp ac e program. Whereas t h e "Vostok" and "Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f tc a r r i e d o u t a s p e c i f i c r an ge o f s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l , and m ai nl ye x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h t a s k s , t h e new manned spacecraft had a m u l t i -p u r p o se d e s i g n a t i o n . They s h o u l d h a ve more e x t e n s i v e t e c h n i c a l ca pa -

b i l i t i e s and so lv e an en t i r e complex o f new prob lems , de s i gna te d by

t h e s p ac e f l i g h t p rogra m. It was i n t e n d e d f ro m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n gt h a t s u c h s p a c e c r a f t c o m p l e t e a c om pl ex of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f c i r cu m -t e r r e s t r i a l s pa c e and o p e r a t i o n s on as se mb ly o f o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s .

An E a r t h o r b i t a l s t a t i o n i s t h e m i s s i o n o f t o d a y an d t h e s u c c e s sof i t s spac e f l i g h t depends on th e me thods and means used t o c r e a t ei t . Use of t h e same s p a c e c r af t f o r d i f f e r e n t p u rp os es f a c i l i t a t e s andr e d u c e s t h e c o s t of c r e a t i n g new s p a ce s ys te m s i n o r b i t .

Use o f t h e d e ve l o pe d " b a s e l i n e " s p a c e c r a f t as t h e b a s i s f o rassembly of a n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n , o r g a n iz a t i o n o f i t s supp ly, andi n v e s t i g a t i o n of space i s t h e m a i n p r o b l e m f a c i n g t h e new "Soyuz"

space program.

The p ro gr am a l s o e n v i s i o n s p r o l o n g e d s t u d y o f n e a r s p a c e .There fo re , th e manned "Soyuz" sp ac ec ra f t a r e d e si gn ed t o s o l v e t h ef o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s :

- x t e n s i v e ma ne uv er in g i n gr ou p f l i g h t s i n E a r t h o r b i t a n ddock ing w i t h o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t ;

- omple t ion of p ro lo ng e d s pa c e f l i g h t s t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t so f s pa c e f a c t o r s on t h e human organism;

- m p l em e n ta t io n o f a n e x t e n s i v e pr og ra m o f s c i e n t i f i ci n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n n e ar s pa ce ;

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Model of "Soyuz" spacecraft.

1 - active" docking unit s; 2 - rbital compartment; 3 - eentrycapsule; 4 - nstrument-equipment compartment.

- nvestigation s of the Earth for practical purposes (weatherforecasting, determination of water resources and the state of agri-

cultural lands, observation of forest fires and the ice situa tion,

solution of a number of problems of geod esy, geol ogy, etc.);

- evelopment of ne w navigatio n and spacecraft control systems.

The designers developed a special type of spacecraft, consistingof elements of both the transport spacecraft and the orbital stati on,

to solve these problems.

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Construction of the "Soyuz" spacecraft denotes a new stage in

development of manned vehicles. The presence of two manned compart-

ments - he cosmonauts' cabin (the reentry capsule) and the orbitalcompartment, reliable onboard systems and various types of engines

for extensive maneuvering, and diverse scientific equipment permit

multiple investigation, experiments, and observations in space.

Design Characteristics of the "Soyuz" Spacecraft

The "Soyuz" spacecraft consists of the following main compart-

ments: the cosmonaut's cabin, the orbital compartment and the

instrument-equipment compartment. The docking unit - n assemblyintended for rigid mechanical coupling of the spacecraft and their

electrical circuits - s installed in the front part of the space-craft in the orbital compartment. Solar panels with a useful areaof about 14 square meters are attached to the instrument-equipment

compartment in the rear part of the spacecraft.

Antennas, attitude control sensors, television cameras and

sensors of the scientific apparatus are located on the outer surfaceof the spacecraft.

During injection into orbit, the spacecraft is protected from

the effects of aerodynamic and thermal loads by a nose shroud. The

solar panels and antennas are in the folded position at this time.

The nose shroud is jettisoned after the spacecraft passes through the

dense layers of the atmosphere.

We shall begin o u r description of the main compartments and

assemblies of the "Soyuz" spacecraft with the cosmonauts' cabin.

The cosmonauts' cabin - he reentry capsule - s the commandpost of the spacecraft, as it were. The crew is in this compartment

during injection into orbit, and while performing a number of opera-

tions during the flight. The crew returns to Earth in the cabin.

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The body o f th e cab in i s p r e s s u r i z e d . A s p e c i a l h e a t s h i e l d i s

a p p l i e d t o i t s o u t e r s u r f a c e t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e i n t e n s i v e a e ro -

dynamic hea t d u r i n g r e e n t r y . The t e m pe r a tu r e i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t c a b i ndoes not exceed 25 - 30' C a t t h e moment of la nd in g due t o t h e h e a ts h i e l d on t h e o u t e r h u l l of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a n d t h e i n t e r n a l h e a ti n s u l a t i o n l a y e r .

The cosmonauts' s e a t s a r e a r r a n g e d i n s i d e t h e c a b i n . The p o s t u r eof t h e cosmonauts i n t h e s e a t s a n d t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e

G -f or ce s d u r i n g r e e n t r y, as w e l l as t h e f o r m - f i t t e d s e a t , p e r m i t e a s yt o l e r a n c e o f e ve n t h e g r e a t e s t G - f o r c e s , i f t h e y o cc u r i n i n d i v i d u a l

s i t u a t i o n s .

Va r i o u s e qu ip me nt a nd a p p a r a t u s f o r s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l , communi-c a t i o n a nd l i f e s u p po r t s y st em s a r e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e cosmonauts 'c a b i n . The main and rese rve pa rachu te sys tems a r e l oc a te d i n s p e c i a lc o n t a i n e r s . The spacecraf t commander i s l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t e r s e a t .The s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l c o n s o l e, on w hich a r e mounted the ins t rumentsf o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f s y s t e m s a n d a s s em b l i e s , n a v i g a t i o nequipment, a t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n and s w i t c he s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e onboa rds y s t e m s a r e i n s t a l l e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f h i m . L a t e r a l a u x i l i a r yc o n s o l e s , f o r ex am pl e, t h e c o n s o l e f o r m e d ic a l m on i to r in g o f t h e s t a t e

o f t h e c os mo na ut s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n o pe n s p a c e , a re a r ranged a long-s i d e t h e c e n t e r c o n s o l e. An o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e - n a v i g a t i o nd e v i c e - s i n s t a l l e d i n a s p e c i a l p o r t h o l e .

There a re two s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l l e v e r s a lo n g t h e s i d e s of t h ecommander 's seat: t h e r i g h t o n e i s f o r a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l of t h e s pac e-

c r a f t a ro un d t h e c e n t e r of mass, and t h e l e f t one i s f o r c h an gi ng t h espeed of t h e s p a c e c r a f t d u r i n g m a n e u v e r i n g . Th e c a b i n c o n t a i n s two

p o r t ho l e s f o r v i s u a l o b s e rv a ti o n, and f o r t a k i n g s t i l l and movie

p i c t u r e s .

The s p a c e c r a f t e qu ip me nt p r o v i d e s f o r i n de p e nd e nt p i l o t i n g o f

t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e g ro un d c o n t r o l com ple x.

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Assembly o f e qu ipment i nr e e n t r y c a p s u l e .

Assembly o f equ ipment i no r b i t a l c om pa rt me nt .

Wi th t h e a i d o f h e a t r e g u l a t i n g a nd r e g e n e r a t i v e s ys te m s, t h e

s p a c e c r a f t c a b i n i s p r o v i d e d w i t h n or ma l c o n d i t i o n s f o r f u n c t i o n i n g o f

t h e c os mo na ut ( p r e s s u r e , gas c o m p o s i t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e a nd h u m i d i t y ) .D ur in g f l i g h t , t h e crew may wear n or ma l c l o t h i n g wi t ho u t s p a c e s u i t s .C o n t a i n e r s w i t h f o od a nd w a t e r s u p p l i e s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e c a bi n .

The o u t e r e n c l o s u r e o f t h e c o sm o na ut s ' c a b i n ( t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e )

has a s p e c i a l s h ap e r e s e mb l in g a h e a d l i g h t - segmented body. T h i ss h a p e o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u le w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l o c a t i o n o f th e

c e n t e r of g r a v i t y p ro v i de s a c e r t a i n a e r o d y n a m i c l i f t d u r i n g f l i g h ti n t h e a tm os ph er e. The h u l l o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e c o n t a i n s j e t

e n g i n es f o r c o n t r o l l i n g b an ki ng t u r n s d u r in g r e e n t r y and s o l i d f u e l

r o c k e t en g in e s f o r s o f t l a n d in g .

The e x t e n t and d i r e c t i o n o f l i f t i n g f o r c e , by w hic h i s a c h i e v e d

c o n t r o l of t h e d e s c e nt t r a j e c t o r y , i s c h a ng e d by t u r n i n g t h e r e e n t r yc a p s u le i n a b a n k i n g a n g l e . A r e e n t r y t r a j e c t o r y u s i n g l i f t i n g f o r c e ,i s much lo n g e r i n d u r a t i o n , a nd, a c c o r d i n g l y , r e e n t r y a l o n g i t o c c u r sa t l o w e r G - f o r c e s t h a n t h a t a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y .

The c o s m o n a u t s ' c a b i n i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o r b i t a l c o m p a r t m e n t- h e s e c o nd l i v i n g co mp ar tm en t o f t h e " S o y u z l ' s p a c e c r a f t - y meano f a p r e s s u r i z e d h a t c h .

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The orbital compartment is designed for scientific observat ions

and investigations, for emergence into space, and also for the cosmo-

nauts to rest. It is almost spherical in shape and has rather large

dimensions. The compartment is equipped with places for the cosmo-

nauts to work, rest and sleep.

/

Control and communication equipment, a portable television camera,

movie and photographic apparatus and scientific instruments are located

at the work sites. The cosmonauts record the results of their obser-

vations in a logbook or on a dictaphone.

Besides the special communication equipment, the orbital compart-

ment contains an all-wave radio receiver for listening to programs of

ground-based radio stations. There are special cupboards for stowingthe life support equipment, food suppl ies, scientific apparatus,

medicines and hygiene articles.

The orbital compartment may be used as an airlock chamber for

space walks. For this it is equipped with a special locking systemwhich ensures exhaustion of gases and pressurization of the compart-

ment. Exit is accomplished through a hatch which is opened either

automatically or manually.

The instrument-equipment compartment, designed for accommodation

of the main onboard equipment and the spacecraft engines operating

during orbital flight, is adjacent to the cosmonauts' cabin. The

apparatus and equipment are located i n a pressurized instrument com-

partment, inside which conditions are maintained which are necessary

for normal functioning of them. The heat regulating and power supply

systems, radio communication and radio telemetry equipment, and

instruments for the attitude control systems using computers are con-

centrated in this compartment.

The instrument-equipment compartment contains .? liquid je t engine

which is used for maneuvering in orbit and also for reentry of the

spacecraft. It has two engines with 400 kilograms thrust each. The

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capacity of the engines is such that the "Soyuz" spacecraft can

complete maneuvers to an altitude of 1300 kilometers.

There is an engine system with less thrust for attitude control,

and for translation of the spacecraft during maneuvering.

The Main Systems of the "Soyuz" Spacecraft

One of the main systems of the "Soyuz" spacecraft is the attitude

and motion control system. It provides attitude control of the space-craft in space, its stabilization through operation of the engines,

and control of the spacecraft during approach, mooring and docking

of spacecraft both automatically and manually.

The attitude and motion control system includes:

attitude sensors and the cosmonaut's opt ical sighting device;

gyroscopes and electronic computer control circuits;

radio aids for search and homing;

a system of auxiliary control members - ow-thrust engines.

The power supply for the onboard equipment and apparatus is

provided b.y a centralized electric power system. The spacecraftbuffer batteries are charged by the solar batteries. In order that

the solar batteries be continuously illuminated, they are oriented

toward the sun and maintained in this position by turning the space-

craft with respect to this direction at a speed of several degrees

per second.

The radio aids of the "Soyuz" spacecraft provide reception of

commands from the ground, two-way radio telephone and telegraph com-

munications, calculation of orbital parameters, transmission to Earth

of televis ion images of the internal and external situation of the

spacecraft. During the flights of the "Soyuz" spacecraft, there

were several television reports from the craft directly to the ground

televis ion network.

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Qverall assembly of "Soyuz" spacecraft.

The multichanne l radio telemetric system provides transmissi on

of a large volume of data. When the spacecraft was flying beyond th evisibility of ground receiving sta tions, the telemetry data were

stored in the onboard memory dev ices and transmitted to Earth during

the routine radi o communication schedules.

The "SOYUZ~~ pacecraft are equipped with a docking system. Thissystem was checked twice during the flights of the "Kosmos" satel-lites and during the flight of the 11Soyuz-4 1f nd "S0 yuz -5~ ~ pacecraft ,

and displayed high operati onal reliability.

The nor mal hygiene-physiological conditi ons for the spacecraft

crew are provided by the life support system. The atmospher ic rege n-erative system maintains a gaseous composition in the compartments,similar to that on the ground.

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T r a n s po r t a t i o n o f s p a c e c r a f t f o r f i n a l t e s t s .

The h e a t r e g u l a t i n g s y st em m a i n t a i n s n o rm al t e m p e r a t u r e a n d

h u mi d it y i n t h e compar tment s , t h e l e v e l o f which may b e r e g u l a t e d a s

t h e c os mo na ut s w i s h, The f l i g h t s o f t h e " S oy uz " s p a c e c r a f t demon-s t r a t e d r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n o f a l l o nb oa rd s y st em s , p r o v i d i n g e f f i c i e n tp e rf or m an c e of c om plex s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r im e n t s i n s p a c e .

Th e c o m fo r ta b le c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e l i v i n g c om p ar tm e nt s o f t h e s p a c e -

c r a f t and t h e ease o f c o n t r o l , work an d r e s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r ef l i g h t c o n t r i b u t e t o r e t e n t i o n o f h ig h e f f i c i e n c y of t h e cosmonau t s

a n d s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e a s s i g n e d p r o g r a m .

These a r e t h e m ain f e a t u r e s o f t h e f TS oy uz " s p a c e c r a f t .

Compared t o t h e Vo s t o k " a n d " Vo sk ho d" m anned s p a c e c r a f t , t h e

f o l l o w i n g i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s were m ore c o m p l e t e l y r e s o l v e dhe re :

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t h e cosmonauts were provided w i t h more l i v i n g s p a c e f o r work a ndr e s t - w o l i v i n g c o m p a r t m e n t s : t h e o r b i t a l c om pa rt me nt a n d t h e c o s-monauts ' cabin;

r e l i a b l e d o c k i n g a n d a s s e m b l y were accomplished ( w i t h t h e a i d of

a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m s and manua l ly ) ;e x t e n s i v e ma ne uv er s w er e c a r r i e d o u t i n o r b i t a nd d u r i n g c o n t r o l l e d

r e e n t r y ;

p ro lo ng ed s p a ce f l i g h t s w ere c a r r i e d o u t .

F a b r i c a t i o n a nd Ground Te s t i n g o f t h e S p a c e c r a f t

F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e S p a c e c r a f t

While t h e "Voskhod" s pa ce c ra f t were s t i l l f l y i n g i n s pa ce , d e s ig n

a nd f a b r i c a t i o n o f t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t - h e b a s i s of o r b i t a l s pa ces t a t i o n s a nd m u l t i p u r p o s e manned s p a c e c r a f t - ere underway i n

d e s i g n o f f i c e s , l a b o r a t o r i e s a nd p l a n t s .

F a b r i c a t i o n o f a s p a c e c r a f t i s a long and complex process . Notonly must i t s s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n ts , c om pa rt me nt s and a s s e m b l i e s be

f a b r i c a t e d , b u t i t s s y s t e m s a n d d i f f e r e n t e q u i p m e n t m u s t b e developed

a n d t e s t e d .

We a r e i n t h e w orkshop f o r a ss em bl y o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e . T he re

a r e s e v e r a l p r od u ct i on l i n e s h e r e . I n o r d e r to expand the area of op-e r a t i o n s a nd f o r e a s e i n a ss em bl y, t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e , i s " d i v i d e d " i n -t o t w o p a r t s : a l ow e r p a r t - t h e b ot to m - n d a n u pp er p a r t o r " b e l l " .

The suppor t ing f rame i s a s s em b l ed i n t h e b o tt o m . The i n s t r u m e n t si n s t a l l e d i n t h e l ow er p a r t o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a r e a t t a c he d t o t h e

s u p p o r t i n g frame a nd t o t h e body o f t h e b o tt om ; t h e s u p p o r t i n g frameo f t h e c o sm o na u ts ' s e a t s i s a t t a c h e d a b o v e t h e i n s t r u m e n t s . A s s e m b l yp r oc e e ds a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e c i s e l y p l a nn e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e d i ag ra m -

e a c h o p e r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t i n t u r n .

The b racke t s f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e i n st r um e n ts a r e a l s o be i ng


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assembled i n t h e body of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e b e l l , t h e i n s t r u m e n t s

t he ms el ve s a r e t h e n i n s t a l l e d . The e l e c t r i c c a bl e i s l a i d out and t h e

cosmonauts ' console i s assembled.

T h e r e m a i n i n g u n i t s a n d a s s e m b l i e s a r e assembled s imul taneous ly.And now everything i s r e a d y. The p r i m a r y u n i t s , a s s e m b l i e s s y s t e m s

and en t i r e compar tment s f i r s t l e a v e t h e assembly shop f o r t e s t s . Ando n l y a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e e n t e s t e d ( f o r s t r e n g t h , v i b r a t i o n , h i g h p r e -

s s u r e , v acuum, e t c . ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s may t h e y

b e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Thermal models of t h e s p ac e c ra f t a r e t e s t e d i n a high-vacuump r e s s u r e ch am be r. The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e m e c h a n i c al s y st e m s f o r

d e p l o y i n g t h e a n t e n n a s a n d s o l a r b a t t e r i e s i s chec ked and t h e corn-

pa r tmen t s and assembl ies a r e t e s t e d f o r a i r - t i g h t n e s s .

The heat s h i e l d of t h e h u l l o f t h e cosmonau t s ' cab in i s t e s t e d

i n a s p e c i a l " s pa c e oven" u n d er t h e e f f e c t s o f u l t r a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s,which may o c c u r d u r i n g r e e n t r y.

The c o m p a r t m e n t s o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t a r e s u b j e ct e d t o t e s t s on a l lt h e t e s t b en ch es p o s s i b l e i n t h e s t r e n g t h l a b o r a t o r i e s .r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e compartments and of t h e s p a c e c r a f t as a whole i st e s t e d . The s p a c e c r a f t a n d a l l i t s m e m b e r s s h o u l d t o l e r a t e v i b r a t i o n s

which occur dur ing t h e m ain s t a g e s o f t h e f l i g h t .

The v i b r a t i o n

The r e l i a b i l i t y and e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e a r ec he c ke d on t h e dyna mic s t r e n g t h t e s t b e n c h es : a f t e r a l l , t h e space-c r a f t may b e s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h G -f or ce s d u r i n g f l i g h t .

The s t r u c t u r e an d e qu ip me nt o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a r e t e s t e di n i mp ac t s t r e n g t h l a b o r a t o r i e s . P o s s i b l e l a nd i ng c o n d it i o ns - nrocks, ground, snow, ice, swamp and water - r e s i m u l a t e d .

Ground Te st in g of Systems

Nose cone se pa ra t i on . Thus , t h e s p a c e c r a f t has b e e n f a b r i c a t e d

a t t h e f a c t o r y a nd has b ee n t e s t e d . O p e r a t io n o f i t s s y s t e m s underc o n d i t i o n s s imi l a r t o f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s must now b e t e s t e d .

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The s p a c e c r a f t i s m o u n t e d o n t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t u n d e r a s p e c i a lnose cone w i t h emergency escape rocke t s . The nose cone i s used

t o p r o t e c t t h e s p a c e c r a f t f ro m t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e h i g h dynamic p r e s -

s u r e o f t h e a t m os p h er e a nd h i g h t h e r m a l l o a d s w hi ch o c c u r d u r i n g i n j e c -

t i o n i n t o o r b i t . The la un c h r o c k e t a nd s p a c e c r a f t p as s e s th ro ug h t h e

atmosphere a t h igh speed , which heats t h e body o f t h e r o c k e t t o h i g ht e m p e r a t u r e s . The nose cone i s s u pp os e d t o o pe n a nd s e p a r a t e f ro m

t h e r o c k e t a f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e z o n e of maximum t h e r m a l anddynamic loads. It i s no longer needed. The s u c c e s s o f t h e r e s t o ft h e f l i g h t depends on how th e nose cone was j e t t i s o n e d .

The c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e t h e r o e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e p r o c e s s o f

j e t t i s o n i n g t h e nose cone i s v e r i f i e d by s p e c i a l e x p e r i m e n t s . A

m odel o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h f o l d e d a n te n na s , s o l a r b a t t e r y p a n e l s

and operat ing nose cone and i t s systems i s mounted on th e t e s tbench . The cone i s r e p e a t e d l y s h o t o f f . The e n t i r e p r o -c e s s i s photographed by high-speed movie cameras and te le m e tr ics e n s o r s r ec o r d t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p a r a m et e rs o f t h e s y s t e m s . A s a r e s u l tof t h e e xp er im en ts t h e a c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y of t h e cone e lements with

r e s p e c t t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t a n d t h e r o c k e t s t a g e , a s w e l l a s t h e s p e e do f s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e l e a v e s , a r e c a l c u l a t e d . O p er at io n o f t h e t h r u s t e r

e x p l o s i v e s y s t e m s i s e v a l u a t e d a n d i f n e c e s s a r y t h e s i z e of t h e powder

c h a rg e s a n d f o r c e o f t h e t h r u s t e r s p r i n g s a r e a l t e r e d .

R e e nt r y c a p s u l e s e p a r a t i o n . The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e may s e p a r a t ef ro m t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n two c a s e s : d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e mergency

e s c a p e s ys t em , a n d d u r i n g r e e n t r y. The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a n d t h e ad-

j o i n i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t c om pa rtm ent w i t h i t s s e p a r a t i o n

systems a r e mounted on t h e t e s t bench. A more s u i t a b l e s p e e d o fs e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c o m p a r t m e n t s i s s e l e c t e d d u e t o a c ha nge i n t h ef i r i n g r a t e o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e . Emergency s i t u a t i o n s wh ic h m ay

occur a t t h e moment of s e pa ra t i on of t h e compartments a re r ep roduced .I n a l l c a s e s , t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e s h o u l d s e p a r a t e a t the proper moment.

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Joining o f the nose shroud and "S oyuz" spacecraft to launch rocket.

Deployment of the antennas and solar batteries. The spacecraft

cannot be injected into orbit in the form in which it flies in spac e,

since the effective air f l o w during the activ e leg has enormous

dynamic pressure and creates considerable thermal lo

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